The implementation of the tourism sector through the network approach: the case of the Italian region Sardinia

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UIVERSITY OF GROIGE

Faculty of Economics and Business

Master of Science in International Business & Management

The implementation of the tourism sector through the

network approach: the case of the Italian region Sardinia

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ABSTRACT

This thesis aims to provide useful tools to implement the tourism sector of the island of Sardinia, in Italy. The research is based on the network approach that combines a top-down and a bottom-up approach. Through the top-down approach five different types of tourism demand and lifestyles are analyzed in order to identify the kind of services these tourists prefer to be satisfied. Through the bottom-up approach the tourist offer of Sardinia, addressed specifically to those tourists, is defined. Then, the services provided are analyzed and new solutions are suggested for the implementation of the regional tourist offer.

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TABLE OF CO.TE.TS

LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES 4

1. INTRODUCTION 5

2. LITERATURE REVIEW 7

2.1. Tourism industry and regional economic development 7

2.2. Overview of Sardinia 9

2.3. Tourism development in Sardinia 11

2.4. Tourism Networks 13

3. METHODOLOGY 15

3.1. The network approach to implement the tourism sector 15 3.2. The structural optimization of tourism destination networks 17 3.3. Importance of promotion and marketing for the tourism destination 19 3.4. Top-down approach: identification of lifestyle groups in the tourism sector 22 3.5. Bottom-up approach: Sardinian tourist offer 27 3.5.1. Airports and flights 28 3.5.2. Harbours and ferry connections 35 3.5.3. Services for the luxury tourists 38 3.5.4. Services for the low cost tourists 40 3.5.5. Services for the nature lovers tourists 42 3.5.6. Services for the off the beaten track tourists 44 3.5.7. Services for the mass tourists 47 3.6. Analysis of the tourist services 48

3.7. From theory to practice 55

4. CONCLUSIONS 58

4.1. Limitations of the study and recommendations for future research 59

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LIST OF TABLES A.D FIGURES

List of Tables

Table 1. National flights Cagliari 29 Table 2. International flights Cagliari 30

Table 3. National flights Alghero 31

Table 4. International flights Alghero 32

Table 5. National flights Olbia 32

Table 6. International flights Olbia 33

Table 7. National flights Tortolì 34

Table 8. International flights Tortolì 34 Table 9. Ferry connections Cagliari 36 Table 10. Ferry connections Arbatax 36 Table 11. Ferry connections Golfo Aranci 36

Table 12. Ferry connections Olbia 37

Table 13. Ferry connections Palau 37

Table 14. Ferry connections Porto Torres 37

List of Figures

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1. I.TRODUCTIO.

Tourism industry is nowadays one of the leading industries worldwide. Over the last decades, the business volume of tourism overtook the one of oil export, food product or automobile industries thanks to different factors such as the diminishing transport costs, and the increased movement of people, information, capital and labour force (Cox, 1997; Bell and Ward, 2000; World Tourism Organization, 2010). Furthermore the tourism industry is considered to be among the main sources of economic regional development, in particular in those peripheral rural areas characterized by unemployment, out-migration and an ageing population. Several studies have been carried out to identify how the tourism sector in a specific peripheral region may bring to a substantial economic development (see among others Saarinen, 2003; Kauppila, Saarinen and Leinonen, 2009) and many focused on the regions of the Mediterranean basin, discovering that tourism has an important role in regional industrialization and economic growth of these areas (see Tosun, Timothy and Öztürk, 2003; Gulcan, Kustepeli and Akgungor, 2009). Within the Mediterranean basin, a particular tourist interest has the island of Sardinia, in Italy, the second largest island of the Mediterranean sea. Few researches however have analyzed the tourism industry of the island so far (see Pulina and Biagi, 2006; Hospers, 2003; Onnis et al., 2009). Sardinia has been renowned for its natural resources, varying from wild landscapes to sandy beaches, its climate, with “7 months of summer” from April to October, and its history, that make the island completely different from the other Italian regions in the mainland. Since the fifties the tourism sector in Sardinia started to develop, offering services and facilities that attract every year almost two million tourists (ISTAT, 2010). The tourist offer of the island is currently increasing and has the potential to be implemented.

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How can the tourism sector of the Italian region Sardinia be implemented through the network approach?

This Thesis aims to contribute to the existent tourism network literature by providing a practical case study about the Italian region Sardinia, which has never been analyzed under the tourism network perspective, and by identifying the ways how its tourist offer may be implemented. In particular, this research focuses on the network approach methodology defined by the study of Kamann, Strijker and Sijtsma (1998) which presents a theoretical framework that combines a top-down and a bottom-up approach. This study is addressed in particular to all the actors of Sardinian tourism network, i.e. the local institutions, tourist companies, managers and entrepreneurs actively involved in defining the regional tourist offer. However, the theoretical framework adopted, which starts with the analysis of the demand side and then sets the offer, can be utilized by actors operating in other tourism networks, in order to try to implement the tourist services they provide.

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2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Tourism industry and regional economic development

Tourism is one of the most important economic activities of contemporary society in terms

o_{f income, employment, tax revenues and currency source.}_{Over the decades, tourism experienced}

continued growth all over the world thanks to the diminishing transport costs, the increased movement of people, information, capital and labour force, and the successful diffusion of neo-liberal politics (Cox, 1997; Bell and Ward, 2000). These factors, make nowadays the business volume of tourism overtake the one of oil export, food product or automobile industries (World Tourism Organization, 2010).Furthermore, there is an important relationship between tourism and countries’ economic development. The ability of national economies to benefit from tourism depends on their investments to develop the necessary infrastructures and the services that tourists require such as accommodation, food, transportation facilities, entertainment and safety (Soukiazis and Proença, 2008). Therefore, there are strong links between tourism and other economic sectors, including transport, retailing, wholesaling, manufacturing, agriculture, arts and crafts and other services. At the present time tourism is widely called the world’s largest and fastest growing industry, and there is no indication that its growth is likely to end (Saarinen, 2003). The World Tourism Organization (2010) reports that international trips expanded at an annual rate of 6.5% since the fifties, growing from 25 million to 806 million travellers. The income generated by international tourism grew at an even stronger rate reaching 11.2%, outgrowing the whole world economy. By 2020 international arrivals are expected to surpass 1.5 billion people.

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be developed in a short time-span, and with only moderate levels of investment, it can have a rapid and even instantaneous impact on a regional economy (Soukiazis and Proença, 2008).

The impact of tourism on regional economy consist of direct, indirect and derivative effects brought to bear on incomes, employment, earnings and taxation revenues (see Figure 1). Tourists spend money on services and therefore generate direct income and employment effects, whereupon the companies benefiting from this direct income in turn purchase services and goods from other companies, giving rise to indirect income and employment effects in other parts of the economic structure (Archer, 1982). The structure of the region and its business network can influence differently the resulting transaction chains, which may continue further in the form of personal purchases made by those obtaining employment directly or indirectly from the tourism industry (Saarinen, 2003).

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9 Fig. 1. The economic impacts of tourism on a regional economy.

2.2. Overview of Sardinia

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over the region: more than 50% of the inhabitants are resident in the province of Cagliari and Sassari, the two main cities, while the interior of the region is sparsely populated.

In history, Sardinia has been frequently invaded and exploited, but never really conquered (Floris, 1999; Andrews, 2000). The island saw the domination of the Nuraghic culture in the Bronze Age and the subsequent invasions by Phoenicians and Carthaginians, before Romans settled and brought the Latin language, to which the modern Sardinian language (Sardo) is still very close. From the fall of the Roman Empire onwards, several populations tried to control Sardinia, such as Arabs, Pisans, Genoeses, and Spanish who occupied the island in the first half of 1300 and stayed for more than four centuries. In the eighteenth century the “Kingdom of Sardinia” took shape under the dynasty of Savoy, and as such the region played a significant role in the unification of Italy in1861. Since then, Sardinia’s role as a part of the modern Italian nation state has not always been easy: the rural island was poor and its people and culture maintained a separate identity from the mainland (Hospers, 2003). After the First World War a significant political movement emerged in Sardinia claiming for a more political independence. This party, called the Partito Sardo d’Azione (Sardinian Action Party) demanded more autonomy from the central state and the localization of policies but rejected any request of sovereignty or full national status for Sardinia (Fiori, 1985; Sedda, 2007). However, requests for increased autonomy were obviously frustrated and repressed by the Fascist Regime that took complete control of Italy after 1924 (Sotgiu, 1996). Under the 1948 Constitution the post-war Italian government granted Sardinia some degree of autonomy. Together with other four Italian regions, the island obtained the status of a special statute region within the Italian republic, implying that it received greater power and self-determination than ordinary statute regions. This position has allowed Sardinia to have more competencies and specific responsibilities in areas such as police, health care, transport and regional development (Desideri and Santantonio, 1996; Committee of the Regions, 2001; Cooke, 2002; Onnis et al., 2009).

During the 50s and the 60s Sardinia started to obtain several Italian funds available through the Cassa per il Mezzogiorno (the Southern Development Fund) and the Sardinian Piano di

Rinascita (Renaissance Plan) which aimed to stimulate the regional economic development

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11 Fig. 2. Map of Sardinia (Italian, Sardinian).

2.3. Tourism development in Sardinia

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founded a consortium of millionaires and transformed the beaches and bays along the coast, that was renamed the Costa Smeralda (Emerald Coast), to a high-quality and fashionable holiday landscape for an élite type of tourism (Hospers, 2003).

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Overall, almost two million tourists visit Sardinia every year (ISTAT, 2010), mainly concentrated in hotels, tourist villages and camp sites along the coast lines of the southern and northern provinces, i.e. Cagliari, Sassari and Olbia-Tempio. Nowadays tourism sector makes up for 10% of Sardinia’s GDP (ISTAT, 2008), and leads public institutions and private locals to capitalize on the fact that visitors see Sardinia as a combination of both a sunny holiday destination and an “outdoor museum” (Hospers, 2003). It is comprehensible, therefore, that tourism development in Sardinia can be considered as a valid instrument with which increase the local economy.

2.4. Tourism .etworks

During the last years several industries in developed countries have seen a great use of partnership arrangements in order to develop competitiveness. Many of these partnership arrangements are formalized through the concept of network, whose importance in achieving industrial development has been claimed by several authors. Porter (1990, 2000), Enright (1998), and Porter and Ketels (2003) define industrial clusters with collaborative local networks as a major way to obtain external economies of scale and to help firms to develop products, services and distribution systems that enhance competitive advantage. Gulati, Nohria and Zaheer (2000) highlight the idea that strategic networks increase firms’ performance by providing access to information, resources, markets, and technologies and by allowing firms to achieve strategic objectives, such as sharing risks and organizational functions. Another consistent body of literature concerns networks with a specific tourism focus (see among others Litteljohn, Foley and Lennon, 1996; Morrison, 1998; Tinsley and Lynch, 2001; Stokes, 2006; Prats, Guia and Molina, 2007). In order to see how a tourism network can be implemented, it is fundamental first to find a definition for it. Morrison, Lynch and Johns (2004), following the study of Lynch et al. (2000), identify a tourism network as “a set of formal, co-operative relationships between organizations and individuals to achieve a particular purpose within the tourism sector that may result in qualitative and/or quantitative benefits of a learning and exchange, business activity, and/or community nature relative to building profitable tourism destinations.”

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leadership, an established trust culture, inter-organizational learning, sustainable nature and lifecycle, and developmental structure (Augustyn and Knowles, 2000; Halme, 2001; Morrison, 1994, 1996). Hospitality and tourism industry however operates in a rapidly varying environment that has to deal constantly with the necessity of changing managerial and organizational processes (Tracey and Hinkin, 1996; Olsen, 1999). This need for changes mirrors in the attempt of implementing the industry’s internal structure and its strategic management practices. The focus of a network in general, and of a tourism network more specifically, to a particular problem or situation that needs to be implemented is, to a large extent, defined by the perception of this problem (Fadeeva, 2004). Sahlin-Andersson (1996) emphasizes that network’s problem definition is often done by comparison of the own organizational situation with the one that is desired. When an idea that could bring to the implementation of the network’s practices or organization attracts the attention of the network’s members it is then transformed into actions and structures. The forms of these actions and structures depend on a combination of different factors, such as the type of actors that operate in the network - the so called “idea-bearers” by Czarniawska and Joerges (1996) - the stage of the network’s development, and the complexity of the selected idea (Fadeeva, 2004).

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3. METHODOLOGY

3.1. The network approach to implement the tourism sector

The exact manner in which networks are utilized within the tourism sector, and how they may contribute towards the building of a tourism destination is currently unclear (Tinsley and Lynch, 2008). An understanding is, however, critical to the success of business support and tourism destination policies. In this section I refer to Kamann, Strijker and Sijtsma’s (1998) study, who use the network approach to design policies for regional development focusing on tourism in rural and peripheral areas. In their work, they provide a methodology called “reverse network engineering”, divided into four steps, which is a combination of a top-down and a bottom-up approach. This methodology first defines the products and services that have to be produced within the network, then the activities that can produce those products, and last the type of actors that perform those activities.

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step three is translated into a network for a particular area with specific actors. This step has two aspects: a top-down aspect and a bottom-up aspect.

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with specific activities of actors producing certain products and linked up to outside actors with specified activities and products.

3.2. The structural optimization of tourism destination networks

Taking in consideration the network approach, a particular contribution for the optimization of a tourism destination network is given by Pavlovich (2003). In her work she focuses on how the relationships between organizations within a tourism destination can act as a self-organizing mechanism, building competitive advantage in the network’s structure. Critical components in this process that lead to the structural optimization of the network are three elements: centrality, density, and the type of ties between network’s actors.

Centrality

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Density

The density of a network explores its overall structure and examines the number of ties that link network actors together. Therefore, it is a characteristic of the whole network rather than of the actors that operate in it. Highly dense networks, through tighter communication systems and stronger information exchanges, ensure the circulation of institutional norms within the network, allowing actors to produce shared behavioural expectations and allowing stakeholders to monitor organizational actions more efficiently. A matrix for understanding organizational action within network structures to bridge the centrality/density gap is provided by Rowley (1997). He states that highly central firms in dense networks will display compromising actions because of their need to conform to stakeholder pressure. On the other hand, less central firms in less dense networks will be subordinate to these external pressures and will resist less to stakeholder demands. In networks with less relational density, organizations may have more discretion over their actions as they experience less unified pressure from stakeholders influences. Thus, they assume a commander role. However, the fragmented nature of ties within the network results in less efficient information exchanges and limited access to resources, denying the population the legitimacy that the more prolific ties foster. These aspects provide further explanation of how organizations defend or create their positions within the external contexts.

Strong ties and weak ties

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Structural optimization of the network

The structural optimization of the considered network depends on the internal configuration of its components. Uzzi (1998) argues that an optimal network configuration encapsulates a portfolio of ties, which includes both strong and weak ties. This diversity of relationships offers the network competitive advantage in that its actors will be able to access information beyond what is publicly disclosed and will be then able to assimilate and reassemble this information and embed it into the network structure. An understated portfolio of ties leads to a fragmented and less competitive network as these relationships have limited exchanges and less reciprocal information exchanges which restricts the development of tacit knowledge. This gives the network slower response times and reduces its flexibility and adaptive qualities (Pavlovich, 2003). An overembedded network however, characterized by too many strong ties and fewer weak tie linkages, can result in closed isomorphic processes that decrease diversity within the network (Hannan and Freeman, 1989). Within overembedded networks, everyone knows what everyone else knows (Burt, 1992), which can result in organizational inertia, low levels of flexibility and may reduce the efficiency of the network (Hannan and Freeman, 1989). Therefore, the structural optimization of the network is given by a balanced portfolio of strong and weak ties, which depends on its density and its centrality position. The weak ties assist in bringing new information into the network, while the strong ties support the knowledge creation processes which embed strategic capabilities into the network.

3.3. Importance of promotion and marketing for the tourism destination

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free admission, such as forests, lakes, beaches, villages and cities, as well as recreational facilities to which entry is subsidized in a substantial way, such as museums and theatres. The subjective part considers the perception of these facilities from the consumers’ point of view. The overall perception is of particular importance, not only for recreational decisions but also for future strategic decisions such as the setting up of new businesses. The information about the available facilities in a certain area is provided by local actors that promote them as a policy to stimulate recreation and tourism. Promotion, in general, requires activities on two levels (Oosterhaven and van Der Knijff, 1988). First, the attention is given at the general knowledge about the region as well as its image. Second, it is directed at specific submarkets and different clusters of potential customers. As promotional activities are normally performed by both private and public authorities at different scales, they must be organized and coordinated in order to be effective and coherent. Oosterhaven and Verhek (1985) provide a regional “recreational development strategy” that suggests how to structure the public and private initiatives to stimulate the promotion of tourism of a certain area. Such development strategy should indicate:

1. Which recreation and tourism activities should primarily be stimulated and which are next on the list

2. Which public facilities should be created first and which should follow, depending on consumers’ reactions, new private initiatives, etc.

3. Which type of private initiatives should actively be stimulated and with which instruments 4. What should be the overall promotional approach of the region as a recreational and tourist

area

5. Which specific submarkets (type of consumers, type of recreational activities and regions of residence) should primarily be canvassed.

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and values. The way in which local actors interpret praxis and how they act accordingly, depend both by their interpretation. According to Tönnies (1993) there are two principal sets of norms and values in a tourism destination: either the companies serve the destination interest (Gemeinschaft) or the destination serves the company interest (Gesellschaft). To serve the destination interest means that the company and the entrepreneur work in the area largely for emotional and personal reasons. Personal relationships between actors have therefore priority above commercial ones. The destination serves the company interest expresses a relationship to the area that is based on a more commercial attitude and a more business-like approach to entrepreneurial activity. The set of norms and values of the personal approach is embedded in the commercial approach, and this provokes a dialectic relationship between the two, that has to be encouraged to guarantee the development of the tourism destination as a whole product. A commercial attitude is necessary for the long-term survival of the destination as it ensures the generation of profits that enable new investments. The area undergoes change, which will also mean that both new and old visitors will be attracted to the location and new enterprises will be established. The entrepreneur’s personal ties to the location ensure that mutual values are preserved and continuity is maintained. The dialectic relationship is necessary in the marketing of a destination as marketing occurs at different levels. The marketing of a tourism destination and its products occurs both before the tourists arrive and while they are there. The tourist’s decision to purchase a trip to a certain destination therefore will be largely the result of the marketing strategies adopted by the various actors, through which they either individually or together market the destination, and the activities and facilities it can offer (von Friedrichs Grängsjö, 2003). The general tourist product provided is not composed of single goods or services, but is a composite of different qualities, goods, services, multi-element products, both private and public sector involvement, fragmentary industry, and seasonal variations (Ioannides and Debbage, 1998; Villads and Øgaard, 1999; Winai, 1989; Grängsjö, 1998; Burns and Holden, 1995). Because of the nature of the tourist product it is important to involve as many companies as possible in developing the image of the destination. The degree to which firms participate in marketing strategies affects the degree to which the location is attractive to tourists. Therefore, it is important to distinguish between different types of firms and not to classify them all together under the generic heading of tourist firms.

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(Nalenbuff and Brandenburger, 1996; Bengtsson and Kock, 2000). Co-opetition means that competitors can both have a competitive and a cooperative relationship with one another at the same time, and this is actually seen as the most mutually advantageous relationship for actors in a tourism destination. However, companies operating in a certain tourist area are not always interested in interacting with other local companies. The power and position of the company at the location are characteristics that allow to know whether the company is prepared to work together with others or whether it is “obliged” to participate in the joint production of tourism (von Friedrichs Grängsjö, 2001). Two different types of network are based on firms’ power: “dominating networks” and “equal partner networks” (Dennis, 2000). Dominating networks are dominated by one company that has bilateral links out to other, usually smaller, companies, creating a network. In equal partner networks no single company controls the network, close relations are developed between actors and all parties are involved in mutually prioritized matters. Whatever network organization is analyzed within the tourism destination, certain characteristics must be taken into consideration: first, entrepreneurs in the network should provide the product of the tourism destination not from the producer’s perspective but from the customer’s perspective, asking themselves what kind of product the tourists want. Second, everyone in a certain company should accept the norms and values that the company decides to follow in order to be competitive in the market and at the same time to cooperate with other firms within the network. Third, creating a network organization implies a high degree of mutual dependency and requires that all those participating recognize their inter-dependence, both internal and external to the organization. From the point of view of a network it is not possible to view a company as something distinct from its surroundings (Håkansson and Snehota, 1989). Companies exist only in interplay with others. A company operating in a specific network therefore, develops its knowledge and improves its quality through its relations with other companies.

3.4. Top-down approach: identification of lifestyle groups in the tourism sector

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experience varying degrees of satisfaction with the outcome. The consumer therefore can be expected to engage in a form of post-purchase evaluation (Fuller, Hanlan and Wilde, 2007). The relationship between consumers’ expectations and their perception of product performance will determine their satisfaction level. Creating satisfied tourists is essential for the destination since this will make old customers to come back and will call for new ones, as old satisfied customers will become advocates for the product. Local firms therefore, need to monitor both customers’ expectations and their satisfaction levels (Lovelock, Patterson and Walker, 2001). The purchase of tourist destination is often highly self-expressive, and can depend from several determinants (Crouch, 1996). Most of these determinants are economic factors, even if sometimes noneconomic factors are also important (Barry and O’Hagan, 1972; Sauran, 1978). Among economic determinants, customer’s income is considered as the one that influences the most the demand for tourism, followed by the general price the tourist is required to pay for the destination. In the context of international travel, price includes the foreign currency price of tourist goods and services in the destination, the cost of transportation between countries, and the effect of exchange rate variations on purchasing power (Crouch, 1996). Noneconomic determinants that influence the purchase of tourists include the marketing strategies of local firms for the promotion of the destination, the weather, since tourists can be attracted by a particular climate of a specific location, the travel distance, supply factors such as tourist infrastructures, and dummy variables, such as the manifestation of special events, terrorist attacks, oil crises, etc.

In this section I will analyze through a top-down approach five types of tourist demand: 1) The luxury tourism 2) The low cost tourism 3) The nature lovers tourism 4) The off the beaten track tourism 5) The mass tourism. First I will describe in general terms the lifestyle of these different clusters and then I will analyze which services these tourists prefer in order to be satisfied.

The luxury tourism

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holiday’s period in a total relax and far away from the stress of their job life. To better choose their destination, luxury tourists rely on networks of experts such as international travel agencies that provide them the best services according to what their customers want. These services can include a sanity check with a respected travel expert, especially if the chosen itinerary is complex, or particular tips about the most interesting places to visit in the most remote areas of South America.

The low cost tourism

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relatively low incomes. Sometimes however, low cost tourists are those who simply like travelling without staying in fashionable hotels and luxury resorts, in order to discover the real local life of the destination they are visiting. These persons search generally for alternative accommodations such as hostels, camps, bed and breakfast, farm holidays and unusual practices like house changing with their peers through tourism agencies. They often book at the last minute in order to benefit from the last available offers and do not spend many days in the specific destination. Once arrived, they stay for most of their time outside their lodging, and want to see as many things as possible in the few available days they have, without exceeding the amount of money they planned to spend during their staying.

The nature lovers tourism

Nature lover tourists are in general 30 up to 50 years old persons. They travel most of the time with their partner and friends but rarely with kids. They are interested in whatever is related to nature and wild life and are often well concerned about the environment and the recent community problems, such as the increase of the pollution in big cities and global warming. These tourists are well informed about what they are going to see and choose that specific destination after having carefully checked specific magazines and websites, or after the suggestion of someone that already visited the same location. They do not care about luxury accommodations but prefer a cozy hotel which is already in the area they decided to explore, in order to experience more easily the nature of the location they are visiting, and to avoid to drive their car or to wait for crowded buses or trains. These persons sometimes carry their pets with them, and therefore appreciate if in the destination they travel to there are services provided also for their dogs or cats. Since these persons are not teenagers anymore they prefer quiet outdoor activities such as hiking across country parks, mountain biking, bird-watching, enjoying the view of mountains and marine landscapes, and taking pictures of the local flora and fauna in their own natural environment.

The off the beaten track tourism

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as rock climbing, trekking expeditions, surfing, white water rafting, and wildlife safaris. At the same time they do not mind more relaxing activities such as biking, hiking, horseback riding, or even lazing on quiet beaches. They are also interested in the traditions, habits, and culture of the resident populations and try to taste the local specialties by visiting local agrotourisms or wine cellars. Off the beaten track tourists try to combine this interest for both thrilling adventures and easy going activities in the same holiday. They often have their own camper or rent a 4x4 vehicle or a small boat in order to be free to make a one day trip and not to be forced to follow buses and public boats timetables.

The mass tourism

The mass tourism is the one that involves the majority of tourists all over the world, because it is related to traditional tourist activities: sunbathing at the beach during summer, skiing during winter, visiting big cities and amusement parks, clubbing and enjoying the night life. This type of tourism involves mainly families with children and group of persons in organized trips. In general they reserve their holiday through a travel agency, and want an all inclusive offer in which they do not have to worry about booking their flight, searching for an accommodation or renting a car. These tourists do not have a lot of travel initiative and follow the last tourist trend. If a destination becomes famous for whatever reason or because it is just better advertised then others they decide to go there, because they like meeting their peers in those places. They stay in hotels (not luxury hotels though) or in small apartments for the period they are travelling but do not choose cheap students hostels, not suitable for kids and their lifestyle. These tourists want all facilities they need close to the accommodation they are staying in, such as supermarkets, kids areas, parking zones, bars and clubs, in order not to make long transfers. Mass tourists are not very interested in exploring the traditions or the culture of the destination they are visiting, but prefer relaxing activities and spending all their holiday period in the neighborhood of their accommodation.

3.5. Bottom-up approach: Sardinian tourist offer

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clusters. Last, I will present an analysis of the services provided and I will try to propose new solutions for the implementation of the tourist offer.

3.5.1. Airports and flights

There are four airports in Sardinia: Cagliari, Alghero, Olbia, and Tortolì. Here is a map that shows the airports’ position and a list of national and international flights to and from Sardinian airports1. Some flights are seasonal and vary according to the companies’ plans.

Fig. 3. Map of Sardinian airports.

1

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1) Cagliari

.ational flights

DESTI.ATIO. COMPA.Y

Bergamo Ryan Air, Eurofly

Bologna Air Vallee, Meridiana

Brescia Ryan Air

Cuneo Ryan Air

Florence Meridiana

Forlì Meridiana

Forlì Win Jet

Genoa Air Vallee, Ryan Air

Milan Linate Eurofly, Air One, Meridiana, Alitalia

Milan Malpensa Easy Jet

Naples Meridiana

Olbia Meridiana, Lauda

Palermo Meridiana

Pescara Ryan Air

Pisa Ryan Air

Rome Meridiana, Alitalia, Blu Panorama Airlines, Eurofly, Airone, Finn Air

Rome Ciampino Ryan Air

Turin Meridiana

Treviso Ryan Air

Trieste Ryan Air

Venice Meridiana, Alitalia, My Air

Verona Meridiana

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International flights

DESTI.ATIO. COU.TRY COMPA.Y

Altenrhein Switzerland Lauda

Barcellona Girona Spain Ryan Air Basel Switzerland Easy Jet, Ryan Air

Berlin Germany Easy Jet

Bern Switzerland Sky Work Airlines

Bristol UK Ryan Air

Brussels Belgium Brussels airlines

Charleroi Belgium Ryan Air

Cologne Germany Tuifly

Djerba Tunisia Tunis Air

Dusseldorf Germany AirBerlin

Edinburgh UK Ryan Air

Frankfurt Germany Ryan Air

Geneva Switzerland Easy Jet, Brussels airlines

Graz Austria Lauda

Karlsruhe Germany Ryan Air

London LWG UK British Airways

London UK Bmi

London Luton UK Easy Jet

Lourdes France Eurofly, Airpost

Luxembourg city of Luxembourg Luxair

Madrid Spain Ryan Air

Malta Luqa Malta Air Malta

Manchester UK Ryan Air

Marseille France Ryan Air

Munich Germany Tuifly

Oslo Norway Scandinavian Airlines

Palma de Majorca Spain Spanair

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31 Tab 2. International flights Cagliari. Source: Sardegna Turismo.

2) Alghero

.ational flights

Ancona Ryan Air

Bari Ryan Air

Bergamo Ryan Air, Travel Service

Bologna Air One

Brescia Ryan Air

Genoa Ryan Air

Milan Linate Air One

Milan Malpensa ItAli airlines

Parma Ryan Air

Pisa Ryan Air

Rome Ciampino Ryan Air

Rome Air One

Turin Air One

Treviso Ryan Air

Venice Air Dolomiti

Verona Air Dolomiti, Seagle Air

Tab 3. National flights Alghero. Source: Sardegna Turismo.

Seville Spain Ryan Air

Tel Aviv Israel Eurofly

Tunis Tunisia Tunis Air, Seven Air

Valencia Spain Ryan Air

Vienna Austria Lauda

Weeze Germany Ryan Air

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International flights

Billund Denmark Ryan Air

Bremen Germany Ryan Air

Charleroi Belgium Ryan Air

Copenaghen Denmark Tuifly

Dublin Ireland Ryan Air

Weeze Germany Ryan Air

Eindhoven Netherlands Ryan Air

Frankfurt Germany Ryan Air

Graz Austria Ryan Air

Helsinki Finland Tuifly

Liverpool UK Ryan Air

London Gatwick UK Tuifly

London Stansted UK Ryan Air

Lubeck Germany Ryan Air

Madrid Spain Ryan Air

Memmingen Germany Ryan Air

Oslo Norway Ryan Air

Paris Beauvais France Ryan Air

Stockholm Sweden Ryan Air

Stockholm Sweden Scandinavian airlines

Tab 4. International flights Alghero. Source: Sardegna Turismo.

3) Olbia

.ational Flights

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Bergamo Air Dolomiti, Air Italy

Bologna Meridiana

Bolzano AirAlps, Alitalia

Brescia Air Italy

Cagliari Meridiana

Florence Meridiana

Genoa Air Vallee, Air Italy

Milan Meridiana, Eurofly, Easy Jet

Naples Meridiana, Air Italy

Rimini AirAlps, Alitalia

Rome Meridiana, Iberia, Eurofly, Finnair

Palermo Air Italy

Parma AirAlps, Alitalia

Perugia AirAlps, Alitalia

Turin Meridiana, Blue Panorama Airlines, Air Italy

Trieste Air Dolomiti

Venice Meridiana

Verona Meridiana

Tab 5. National flights Olbia. Source: Sardegna Turismo.

International Flights

Hamburg Germany Tuifly

Amsterdam Netherlands Transavia

Barcelona Spain Iberia

Basel Switzerland Easy Jet

Berlin Germany Easy Jet

Birmingham UK Ryan Air

Bristol UK Easy Jet

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34 Tab 6. International flights Olbia. Source: Sardegna Turismo.

4) Tortolì

.ational Flights

Bolzano Austrian

Milan Malpensa Meridiana, Air Dolomiti

Rome Meridiana

Verona Meridiana

Olbia Meridiana

Tab 7. ,ational flights Tortolì. Source: Sardegna Turismo.

International Flights

Tab 8. International flights Tortolì. Source: Sardegna Turismo.

Frankfurt Germany Tuifly

Hannover Germany Tuifly

Graz Austria Welcome air

Innsbruck Austria Welcome air

Leeds UK Jet2.com

London UK Easy Jet

Lugano Switzerland Darwin airline

Madrid Spain Iberia

Innsbruck Austria AirAlps

Bern Switzerland Skywork airlines

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3.5.2. Harbours and ferry connections

There are six harbours that link Sardinia to the mainland and to foreign destinations: Cagliari, Arbatax, Olbia, Golfo Aranci, Palau, and Porto Torres. Here is a map that shows the harbours’ position and a list of national and international connections to and from Sardinian harbours2. Some connections are seasonal and vary according to the companies’ plans.

Fig. 4. Map of Sardinian harbours.

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1) Cagliari

Ferry connections

Tab 9. Ferry connections Cagliari. Source: Sardegna Turismo.

2) Arbatax

Cagliari Tirrenia

Civitavecchia (Rome) Tirrenia

Genoa Tirrenia

Olbia Tirrenia

Tab 10. Ferry connections Arbatax. Source: Sardegna Turismo.

3) Golfo Aranci

Civitavecchia (Rome) Corsica Ferries - Sardinia Ferries Livorno Corsica Ferries - Sardinia Ferries

Civitavecchia (Rome) Tirrenia

Naples Tirrenia, Dimaio Lines

Palermo Tirrenia

Trapani Tirrenia

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Naples Dimaio Lines

Tab 11. Ferry connections Golfo Aranci. Source: Sardegna Turismo.

4) Olbia

Genoa Tirrenia, Moby Lines

Arbatax Tirrenia

Civitavecchia (Rome) Tirrenia, Moby Lines, Snav

Livorno Moby Lines

Piombino Moby Lines

Tab 12. Ferry connections Olbia. Source: Sardegna Turismo.

5) Palau

Napoli Dimaio Lines

Tab 13. Ferry connections Palau. Source: Sardegna Turismo.

6) Porto Torres

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Propriano – Marseille (France) La Méridionale

Barcelona (Spain) Grimaldi Lines

Ajaccio (Corsica, France) SNCM

Genoa Tirrenia, Moby Lines

Civitavecchia (Rome) Grimaldi Lines

Tab 14. Ferry connections Porto Torres. Source: Sardegna Turismo.

3.5.3. Services for the luxury tourists

Here is a list of luxury services offered in Sardinia. The list includes luxury hotels, touristic harbours, golf, sailing, and diving clubs3.

Hotels

There are 25 “five stars” or “six stars” hotels:

- 6 in the province of Cagliari (South), for a total of 737 rooms and 1632 beds. Most of these hotels work from March until October.

- 1 in the province of Nuoro (East), for a total of 183 rooms and 452 beds. - 1 in the province of Oristano (West), for a total of 62 rooms and 124 beds.

- 15 in the province of Olbia-Tempio (North-East), for a total of 1496 rooms and 3020 beds. Most of these hotels work from April/May until September/October, and just one is open all year long.

- 2 in the province of Sassari (North), for a total of 114 rooms and 274 beds.

Touristic harbours

There are 58 touristic harbours where private boats and yachts can be docked: - 10 in the province of Cagliari.

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- 7 in the province of Carbonia-Iglesias. - 3 in the province of Ogliastra.

- 2 in the province of Nuoro. - 3 in the province of Oristano. - 22 in the province of Olbia-Tempio. - 11 in the province of Sassari.

Golf clubs

There are 14 Golf clubs:

- 5 in the province of Cagliari. - 2 in the province of Oristano. - 5 in the province of Obia-Tempio. - 2 in the province of Sassari.

Sailing clubs

There are 66 Sailing clubs:

- 19 in the province of Cagliari.

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Diving Clubs

There are 88 Diving clubs:

3.5.4. Services for the low cost tourists

Here is a list of low cost services offered in Sardinia. The list includes one star hotels, hostels, and one or two stars camps4.

Hotels

There are 52 “one star” hotels:

- 20 in the province of Cagliari, for a total of 199 rooms and 384 beds. - 3 in the province of Carbonia-Iglesias, for a total of 21 rooms and 32 beds. - 8 in the province of Medio Campidano, for a total of 72 rooms and 111 beds. - 5 in the province of Nuoro, for a total of 38 rooms and 75 beds.

- 5 in the province of Ogliastra, for a total of 46 rooms and 22 beds. - 6 in the province of Olbia-Tempio, for a total of 46 rooms and 90 beds.

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- 2 in the province of Oristano, for a total of 21 rooms and 35 beds. - 3 in the province of Sassari, for a total of 25 rooms and 54 beds.

Hostels

There are 11 hostels:

- 2 in the province of Cagliari, for a total of 40 rooms and 127 beds. - 2 in the province of Ogliastra, for a total of 24 rooms and 66 beds.

- 1 in the province of Nuoro, for a total of 12 rooms and 65 beds, open from April until December.

- 2 in the province of Oristano, for a total of 79 rooms and 175 beds. - 4 in the province of Sassari, for a total of 61 rooms and 237 beds.

Camps

There are 21 “one star” or “two stars” camps or touristic villages:

- 5 in the province of Cagliari, for a maximum capacity of 2307 persons.

- 4 in the province of Carbonia-Iglesias, for a maximum capacity of 820 persons. - 1 in the province of Ogliastra, for a maximum capacity of 320 persons.

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3.5.5. Services for the nature lovers tourists

Here is a list of the services offered in Sardinia for the nature lovers tourists. The list includes agrotourisms, bed and breakfast, trekking clubs, mountain bike points, car rentals5. Most of these services are utilized also by off the beaten track tourists.

Agrotourisms

There are 533 agrotourisms:

- 34 in the province of Carbonia-Iglesias. - 30 in the province of Medio-Campidano. - 14 in the province of Ogliastra.

Bed and breakfast

There are 1401 bed and breakfast: - 342 in the province of Cagliari.

- 118 in the province of Nuoro.

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- 236 in the province of Oristano. - 131 in the province of Olbia-Tempio. - 331 in the province of Sassari.

Trekking clubs

There are 77 trekking clubs:

Mountain bike points

There are 21 mountain bike points: - 6 in the province of Cagliari.

- 4 in the province of Nuoro.

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- 2 in the province of Sassari.

Car rentals

There are 311 car rentals:

3.5.6. Services for the off the beaten track tourists

Here is a list of the services offered in Sardinia for the off the beaten track tourists. The list includes camper services, boat rentals, free climbing clubs, surf and windsurf clubs, horse riding clubs, speleology clubs, canoe and kayak clubs6. Some of these services are utilized also by nature lovers tourists.

Camper services

There are 42 camper areas:

- 1 in the province of Carbonia-Iglesias.

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- 2 in the province of Medio-Campidano. - 5 in the province of Ogliastra.

Boat rentals

There are 121 boat rentals:

Free climbing clubs

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Surf and Windsurf clubs

There are 21 surf and windsurf clubs: - 8 in the province of Cagliari.

- 5 in the province of Carbonia-Iglesias. - 2 in the province of Oristano.

- 5 in the province of Olbia-Tempio. - 1 in the province of Sassari.

Horse riding clubs

There are 56 horse riding clubs: - 9 in the province of Cagliari.

- 3 in the province of Carbonia-Iglesias. - 2 in the province of Medio-Campidano. - 9 in the province of Nuoro.

- 13 in the province of Oristano. - 6 in the province of Olbia-Tempio. - 14 in the province of Sassari.

Speleology clubs

There are 31 speleology clubs: - 8 in the province of Cagliari.

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- 2 in the province of Ogliastra. - 7 in the province of Nuoro. - 1 in the province of Oristano. - 1 in the province of Olbia-Tempio. - 4 in the province of Sassari.

Canoe and kayak clubs

There are 21 canoe and kayak clubs: - 12 in the province of Cagliari.

- 4 in the province of Nuoro. - 1 in the province of Oristano. - 2 in the province of Sassari.

3.5.7. Services for the mass tourists

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3.6. Analysis of the tourist services

Here the data collected will be used to analyze the tourist services and to see how they can be implemented.

ational and international connections

Overall the regional airports and harbours guarantee good connections to the mainland and to foreign destinations. Especially concerning national and international flights, the recent development of low cost companies in the island increased the offer of the routes increasing therefore the arrivals of tourists from all over Europe in the last years. Besides, low cost companies allowed a drop of the fares for national destinations which were set up before only by national monopolistic companies. A remark however is the fact that many flights and ferry connections are seasonal, and work mainly during summer. We will see later that one of the wishes of Sardinian government is to extend the tourist season further than the classical summer months. If the offer of flights and ferry connections lasted all year long, or at least more months than the actual offer, the demand of potential tourists for Sardinian destinations would consequently increase, bringing advantages for airline and ferry companies and for all Sardinian firms involved in the tourist sector.

Luxury offer

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the beaches and bays along the coast to a high-quality and fashionable holiday landscape for an élite type of tourism, renaming that area Costa Smeralda (Emerald Coast). This part of Sardinia therefore is characterized by an important tradition in the offer of luxury services, that implemented during time as the area developed in the sixties, providing a whole network of touristic services. First the consortium constructed the residential areas and the commercial areas, together with boutiques, shops, restaurants, hotels and night clubs. Later, in 1967 a Yacht Club was built, followed in 1974 by the airport of Olbia, that allowed tourists for the first time to land to the north-eastern cost without crossing the whole island as they had to do when the airport of Cagliari was the only one available in the region. One of the last luxury services offered by the area are three air taxi companies, meant especially for those tourists that want to travel whenever they decide to.

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infrastructures needed. From this point of view an important issue has to be discussed: the Sardinian government is well aware that an unplanned strategy of construction may destroy the local landscape, which is the strength point on which Sardinia builds its tourism. In 2004 a regional law, called “Legge salvacoste” (save-coasts law) was defined, that regulates the construction of buildings within a distance of two kilometers from the coast. The main aim of this law is to preserve the local territory and to support a sustainable form of tourism. The solution to increase the luxury offer in the area of the Gulf of Orosei and to protect the beauties of the local surroundings at the same time, could be to convert part of the present three or four stars hotels into five or six stars ones, without modifying significantly their structure. The main focus therefore should be the improvement of the accommodations’ quality and not quantity, with a concern about a sustainable tourism development and the use of renewable sources of energy and of materials that preserve the Sardinian natural patrimony. The maritime services such as touristic harbours, sailing and diving clubs in the considered area are enough to serve the potential future luxury tourists that will arrive. The Gulf of Orosei is not significantly vast thus there is not an urgent need for those services.

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Low cost offer

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ature lovers offer

The services offered for nature lovers tourists in Sardinia can be considered sufficient. In the last years there has been an increase of the number of bed and breakfast and agrotourisms all around the island and consequently more and more tourists are choosing these alternatives locations. These places offer to the visitor the “Real Sardinia”, the traditional food, wine and hospitality of Sardinian people, and can be better appreciated if the tourist explores the interior part of the island. This inner part, called Barbagia, is surrounded by the mountain area of Gennargentu, and characterized by small villages with one of the less population density of Europe (see Figure 6). Here, a nature lovers can enjoy the presence of several hiking and biking paths in the highest mountains in Sardinia, and enjoy the view of the local flora and fauna with several protected species such as the local mouflon, a type of wild sheep and the boar. The area provides well organized services for these kind of tourists, such as several agrotourism and bed and breakfast, trekking activities, or the possibility to rent a bike. What is missing there however, is a consortium of local companies that allow the visitor to plan his/her holiday in different locations, moving from one place to another in order to enjoy more easily the beauty of those wild landscapes.

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Off the beaten track offer

As for the services provided to nature lovers tourists, the offer for the off the beaten track tourists can be considered adequate as well. These organized backpackers can move from one place to another with their camper and climbing on the south one day, surfing on the west coast the next day, and then canoeing in the central-eastern part of the island the next day again. However, the probabilities to meet up other tourists while practicing these activities are high, especially during summertime when most of the island becomes crowded. An area still relatively quiet and that allows an off the beaten track way of tourism is the south-western part of Sardinia, called

Sulcis-Iglesiente, between the provinces of Cagliari and Carbonia-Iglesias (see Figure 7). This zone is still

not exploited and offers a variety of possible activities: the possibility to enjoy amazing beaches such as Cala Domestica, visiting the old abandoned mine of Masua which ends up in a steep mountain just in front of the sea, discovering the traditions of the two small islands nearby, San

Pietro and Sant’Antioco, canoeing and surfing all around the coastline, and horse riding in the

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54 Fig. 7. Map of Sardinia with the Sulcis-Iglesiente in the red area (Italian, Sardinian).

Mass offer

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3.7. From theory to practice

Once future potential services are defined, the next step concerns how these ideas can be put in practice, i.e. where possible funds to realize these projects can be obtained. From this point of view a great contribution is given by the European Union. In 2007, the European Commission approved a Regional Operational Program for Sardinia for the period 2007-2013. The Operational Program falls within the framework for the Regional Competitiveness and Employment Objective and has a total budget of around 1.7 billion Euros. Community funding through the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) amounts to some 681 million Euros, which represents approximately 2.4% of the total EU investments earmarked for Italy under the Cohesion Policy for 2007-2013. Sardinia’s Operational Program will address the lack of suitable infrastructures and services in terms of water, waste, health, broadband, business and tourism. The Program is therefore geared towards enhancing business competitiveness and the region’s attractiveness by spreading innovation, promoting the potential of local identity and traditions and preserving natural resources. Approximately 22.5% of the total funding (more than 382 million Euros) is addressed to the tourism sector of the island, which is one of the priorities of the Operational Program. The strategy under this priority focuses on efficient and sustainable use of environmental resources and development of natural and cultural resources. The aim is to make Sardinia more attractive and to support sustainable tourism (European Commission, 2010).

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Sometimes Sardinian firms do not wait for public initiatives but use private inventiveness to increase their businesses, grouping in consortiums of companies. A tourism consortium is a group of firms that belong to a specific territory, usually a small area within a province, and is created to promote the tourism, the food and the traditions of that specific area and to coordinate and support local initiatives such as historical, cultural, and sportive events. Firms joining a consortium therefore, are able to find a balance between competition and cooperation, creating the “co-opetition” that was described before, which leads them to reach the competitive advantage they need in their network and at the same time to assist other firms operating in it.

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4. CO.CLUSIO.S

In this Thesis I describe how the tourism sector of the Italian region Sardinia can be implemented. In my research I utilize the network approach as illustrated in the study of Kamann, Strijker and Sijtsma (1998) which combines a top-down and a bottom-up approach. First, I analyze five different types of tourism demand – the luxury tourism, the low cost tourism, the nature lovers tourism, the off the beaten track tourism, and the mass tourism – to define the lifestyles of these tourists and the kind of services they prefer in order to be satisfied. Then, I define the Sardinian tourist offer in terms of services addressed specifically to those clusters. Last, I analyze the services provided and I suggest new solutions for the implementation of the regional tourist offer.

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regional economy only through the usage of the social capital of the region and the development of deeper linkages between the tourism industry and local production sectors. Third, regulations have to be defined to preserve Sardinian natural and culture’s heritage in order to avoid that an unplanned strategy of construction may destroy the local landscapes. Last, Sardinia still has to overcome its lack of entrepreneurial mentality, associated with the lack of a proper knowledge of business, management and marketing strategies by local entrepreneurs. Currently, 96% of Sardinian firms are micro-firms (Microimprese, 2006) with an average of three employees, and it seems that many companies still do not realize the importance of the tourism sector for the island. Many touristic initiatives start up thanks to non-local entrepreneurs that seem more able to establish a tourism business in Sardinia. These companies however take part of their revenues outside the island, and thus do not have a significant impact on the regional economy.

This study provides important implications for the actors operating in the touristic sector of Sardinia. First, it stresses the importance to create a regional tourism network that enables the island to offer better tourist services in terms of quality and quantity. Second, it emphasizes that, in order to offer appropriate services, companies have to consider the type of demand of different clusters of tourists and try to suit their lifestyle. Third, it underlines the fact that Sardinia has the potential in terms of natural resources, climate, and facilities to provide a tourist offer all year long and not only for the classical summer period June – September. Then, the research pushes local entrepreneurs to obtain information about the several possibilities available through the European Regional Operational Program for Sardinia for the period 2007-2013 and other funds available through regional initiatives, useful to start up a tourist firm or to improve an existent one.

4.1. Limitations of the study and recommendations for future research

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limitation as well. It just considers secondary data from a single database and literature research. Having interviews on the field with companies’ managers or workers of the tourism sector in Sardinia would have helped in defining better the actual tourist offer and how the services provided can be implemented. A remark related to the collection of the secondary data is the fact that the database provides only certain services offered in Sardinia. The methodology therefore does not portray the services which are not in the database, but which could suit the types of tourists considered. Last, in the analysis of the services offered I focus on specific areas of Sardinia, such as the Gulf of Orosei, the Barbagia, the Sulcis-Iglesiente, and the cities of Cagliari and Alghero, that may implement the tourist offer addressed to certain types of tourists and their lifestyles. However, since Sardinian’s territory is wide, several other areas can provide services that suit the lifestyles of the analyzed types of tourists.

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