RETROVATION: USING HISTORICAL
KNOWLEDGE IN INNOVATION
Roos Walstock
S2869233
R.L.Walstock@student.rug.nl
Faculty of Economics and Business
MSc. BA (Strategic Innovation Management)
June 2020
Supervisor: Dr. Eelko Huizingh
Co-Assessor: Pere Arque-Castells (PhD)
Abstract
Historical knowledge is underexplored as an external source of knowledge, even with the growing popularity of ‘open innovation’. This thesis connects and compares prior literature on this topic, showing the potential value of using historical knowledge for innovation (‘retrovation’). Furthermore, this study proposes a framework containing the different steps of the retrovation process: trigger, search, case selection, extraction and knowledge use. This framework builds on the analysis of three cases of retrovation (minimalist running shoes, Roman concrete, Origami), existing literature and additional interviews with historians. This study has several theoretical implications for innovation and knowledge management, for example showing the benefits of looking at the process of using historical knowledge in innovation separately from the use of ‘normal’ knowledge in innovation. This study also contains practical implications for companies looking to retrovate, such as the possible value of hiring historians.
Acknowledgements
Table of Content
1. Introduction………......3
2. Literature Review………....4
2.1. Interest in External Knowledge………...4
2.2. The Process of Search………...………...5
2.3. Temporal Exploration………....7
2.4. Specific Literature Streams………...………..8
3. Methods………...………....11
3.1. Theory Elaboration…………...12
3.2. Methodology of Literature Study………....12
3.3. Methodology of Case Studies………....13
4. Cases ………...17
4.1. List of Cases of Retrovation..……….………....17
4.2. Barefoot/Minimalist Running Shoes ……….………....18
4.3. Origami (and Kirigami) ………....21
4.4. Roman Concrete……….…………...24 5. Results………..26 5.1. Trigger………...………...……….....28 5.2. Search…………....29 5.3.Case Selection………..……….…..……….32 5.4. Knowledge Extraction……….………….32 5.4. Knowledge Use………..……..33 6. Discussion………...34
6.1. Implications for Theory………...…....………….34
6.2. Implications for Practice………..36
6.3. Limitations and Further Research…………..37
Appendices.………...………....38
A1. References ………..………...…………...38
1. Introduction
Over the last few decades, the ‘do-it-yourself’ mentality of firms has made way for a more central role of external knowledge sources in the innovation process (Gassman, 2006). In the current innovation management and ‘open innovation’ literature, attention is paid to customers, suppliers, competitors, universities and technical standards as sources of knowledge inflows (Chesbrough et al., 2008; Gassmann, 2006; Huizingh, 2011; Laursen & Salter, 2006). From these sources, companies draw current knowledge that is held at this moment by external individuals or entities. Underexplored in the current literature is the use of ‘old’, past or historical knowledge as a source of valuable input in the innovation process (Katila, 2002; Nerkar, 2003; Petruzelli, 2011).
An example of the potential of this type of knowledge sourcing is the ‘barefoot’ or ‘minimalist’ running shoe, a case of retrovation that is discussed in this thesis: this type of running shoes quickly grew into a market of more than $400 million in the United States alone (Business Insider, 2014).
Several current publications on the limited use of ‘old’ knowledge in innovation exist which discuss ‘old’ knowledge use in open innovation (with a limited temporal scope, knowledge generally <20 years old) (Katila & Ahuja, 2002; Katila, 2002; Nerkar, 2003; Petruzzelli, 2012), innovation through tradition (DeMassis et al., 2000; Presenza et al., 2019; Petruzzelli & Savino, 2015), paleo-inspired innovations such as Roman concrete (Bertrand et al, 2018), retro-innovation in organic farming and certain ‘retro-industries’ (Castellano et al., 2013; León-Bravo et al., 2019; Stuiver 2006) and the concept of retrovation (Suominen & Sivula, 2016). These very similar publications are scattered and disconnected. Several definitions are provided for essentially the same concept, hardly any of the papers cite each other. Furthermore, a detailed account of the process of retrovation is lacking. What may lead companies to search in the past or how they can undertake such a search is not discussed in prior literature. In a practical sense, it remains unclear how successful retrovations have been and can be created by companies. To fill this gap in the current literature, this study answers the following research question: ‘How can companies utilize potentially useful historical knowledge
This research question is divided into three more specific subquestions, to ensure that information is gathered on several relevant stages of the search process for historical knowledge by companies (and researchers):
A. Why do companies search in the past for knowledge to create an innovation? B. How can companies find (potentially) useful historical knowledge?
C. In which ways can companies use historical knowledge to innovate?
Based on the insights from the current literature, three cases of existing retrovations (minimalist running shoes, Origami and Roman concrete) and interviews, a framework comprising the different steps of the retrovation process is proposed: trigger, search, identification, extraction and application. Examples from the cases are used to illustrate and explain the characteristics of each of the steps. The framework provided in this study can be used as a starting point for further research, for example on the potential impact of retrovation on innovation performance and what factors may moderate this relationship, as well as serve as a source of inspiration and guidance for companies looking to learn from the past.
2. Literature Review
The following section provides an overview of prior literature relevant to this study. First, literature on the current interest in sourcing external knowledge (open innovation) is discussed. This is followed by an overview of several concepts from the field of knowledge management, concerning the process of ‘search’. Next, the concept of temporal exploration - expanding the time horizon that is included in the process of search - is discussed. Lastly, an overview is provided of the currently existing streams of literature (innovation through tradition, retro-innovation, retrovation, paleo-inspiration) that specifically describe the use of historical, traditional or old knowledge as an innovation strategy.
2.1. Interest in External Knowledge
utilization(Chesbrough, 2003). However, this ‘do-it-yourself’ mentality seems to have made way for a different type of innovation (Gassmann, 2006). Firms have been opening up to the input of external sources of knowledge, such as customers, suppliers, research institutions and even competitors (Chesbrough et al., 2008; Gassmann, 2006; Huizingh, 2011; Laursen & Salter, 2006). These activities are usually grouped under the heading of ‘open innovation’ (Huizingh, 2011)
Through such openness, opportunities arise for firms to combine previously disconnected ‘silos of knowledge and capabilities’ (Dahlander & Gann, 2010). This relates to the innovation-as-recombination-view, in which innovation is ‘the result of combining or recombining existing elements of knowledge into new syntheses’ (Ahuja & Lampert, 2001; Kogut & Zander, 1992). With increasing knowledge in- and outflows, how firms interact with and recombine the knowledge they source, is becoming ever more important (Chesbrough et al., 2008).
2.2. The Process of Search
2.2.1. Where to search. To locate valuable external knowledge, firms engage in knowledge search. How well a firm performs in creating new products can be traced back to its search (or ‘problem-solving) behavior (Katila, 2002). These search paths can be ‘distant’ and ‘local’, which indicates how related the studied knowledge is to the preexisting knowledge base of the firm(Katila & Ahuja, 2002; Laursen & Salter, 2006). How thoroughly the firm studies the located knowledge is captured in the concept of ‘search depth’ (Laursen & Salter, 2006). Firms who search more widely and deeply (‘open search strategies’) perform better in terms of innovativeness (Laursen & Salter, 2006, also: Chiang & Hung, 2010; Laursen, 2012).
Possible search channels include market actors (customers, suppliers, competitors, consultants), institutional sources (universities, governments, private research institutes) or specialized sources (technical standards, patents, regulations) (Laursen & Salter, 2006; also Chiang & Hung, 2010; Hippel, 2005).
routines. Sophisticated search paths involve deductive reasoning, in which specific applications of more general scientific knowledge are generated(Lopez-Vega et al., 2016). Lastly, scientific search paths are concerned with discovering new theories and models (Lopez-Vega et al., 2016). In each of these ‘search paths’, the mechanisms of boundary spanning (using ‘problem-solvers’ from distant, unexpected fields to solve the problem) and problem framing (decomposing and reformulating the problem as a specific need) are used (Lopez-Vega et al., 2016).
The notion of problem framing is similar to what other research calls ‘problem formulation’ (Baer et al., 2013; Hippel et al., 2015; Schwenk & Thomas, 1983). Problem formulation can be defined as “translating an initial problem, symptom or web of symptoms into a set of questions or alternative formulations of the problem that are sufficiently well-defined in terms of the causes of the symptoms to enable the subsequent search for or generation of solutions” (Baer et al., 2013).
The first step of the search process is thus ‘formulating the mess’ (Schwenk & Thomas, 1983). This step is about recognizing the signals of the problem: what do they mean, what are they symptoms of?(Schwenk & Thomas, 1983). Formulating the problem determines what the problem is that is to be solved, thus also determining what solutions are deemed suitable (Baer et al., 2013). In the process of search, ‘the formulation of a problem is often more essential than its solution, which may be merely a matter of mathematical or experimental skill’ (Getzels, 1979). Luckily, many tools and tactics exist to aid in the formulation, such as cause-and-effect diagrams (Ishikawa diagrams), abstractions of the problem, searching for analogies or using creativity stimulants (e.g. brainstorming, Delphi-rounds, scenario constructions) (Hippel et al., 2015; Schwenk & Thomas, 1983).
Based on analysis of several aerospace engineering cases, Majchrzak et al. (2004) propose a model of locating knowledge for (re)use in the innovation process, which is quite relevant for this research, as it is also concerned with finding and using knowledge from unexpected sources. The framework consists of the following steps: reconceptualizing the problem for innovation, searching and evaluating (consisting of the substeps ‘scanning’, ‘briefly evaluating’ and ‘analyzing in depth’) and fully developing an idea. In this model, problem formulation is thus also the starting point.
who walks across a trade show out of curiosity, sees a new type of software, and realizes that this software can be adjusted for application towards a new end, solving a problem he did not know he had (Hippel et al., 2015). The identification of the problem and its solution here are not discovered separately, but appears as a ‘need-solution pair’ (Hippel et al., 2015). This type of search requires a different strategy, in which the problem is not treated as a ‘fixed’ starting point, but as a changeable part of the need-solution pair that will be identified (Hippel et al., 2015). Need-solution pair discovery also relates to the concept of ‘serendipity’. Discoveries are often serendipitous and/or unintentional, involving at least some luck (Kneeland et al., 2020).
To summarize, search is a complex process with many different facets. Companies have to decide where to search (both in terms of channels and local vs. distant search), as well as determining the strategy through which they search (e.g. searching for analogies, need-solution pair identification, focussing on problem formulation).
2.3. Temporal Exploration
The notion of ‘temporal exploration’ further expands the knowledge available to use in (open) innovation. Temporal exploration refers to the creation of new knowledge by recombining older knowledge that is obtained by expansion of the explored time spread (Nerkar, 2003). Arguments against the predominant focus on new knowledge can be made based on the higher levels of uniqueness of old knowledge, its higher levels of reliability and its lower risks of retaliation (Katila, 2002). Recombining knowledge with a greater time spread may thus lead to knowledge creation of higher quality (Nerkar, 2003). However, both Katila (2002) and Nerkar (2003) still focus on relatively recent knowledge (<35 years) from conventional sources, which does not fully match the topic of this study.
2.4. Specific Literature Streams
The previous sections discuss the use of external knowledge (open innovation), how to find potentially useful knowledge (knowledge search) and the examination of a wider time horizon in search (temporal exploration). These three topics all provide relevant insights on the process of knowledge search and external knowledge use in general, which provide the foundation for a closer study of a specific type of knowledge search and use, that of historical knowledge. Several literature streams exist which center specifically around the concept of ‘innovation using knowledge from the past’: innovation through tradition, retro-innovation/retrovation, and paleo-inspiration. To the best knowledge of the author, these are the only four literature streams concerning this specific topic. Discussing and comparing these different streams helps to form a comprehensive image of the currently available theory on historical knowledge use and its gaps. Discussing these streams also illustrates the scattered nature of the current literature, and the need to merge these streams and take a higher-level perspective on the topic.
Furthermore, reviewing existing literature is a useful preparation for the case studies to be conducted in this research, helping in the process of ‘theoretical sensitization’ (Strauss & Corbin, 1994): a researcher looking at innovations using historical knowledge ‘needs to have sensitivity in order to recognize the functioning logic of existing retrovations’ (Suominen & Sivula, 2016).
2.4.1. Innovation Through Tradition. The concept of ‘innovation through tradition’ (ITT) can be defined as an innovation strategy in which firms use temporally distant knowledge from their own knowledge repository (traditions) as inputs in the innovation process (Massis et al., 2016). Family businesses, which generally possess a long history and a large knowledge repertoire (also containing historical knowledge), can be expected to be especially well equipped to identify temporally distant valuable knowledge (Presenza et al., 2019). This builds on the notion of innovation as a search and recombination process (Massis et al., 2016).
Although the notion of ITT provides an interesting countercase to the ‘new is always better’ assumption often underlying the search process of firms, the focus on firms’ own traditional knowledge is not entirely in line with the focus of this thesis, in which historical knowledge in general is explored as a potential external knowledge source.
2.4.2. Retro-innovation. According to one publication, some industries can be characterized as ‘retro-industries’: Retro-industries are those industries that introduce certain elements from the past into current products, processes, etc. (Castellano et al., 2013). For example in the car industry, manufacturers have recently introduced new (‘retro’) versions of former bestsellers such as the Fiat 500 and the Volkswagen Beetle.
The retro-innovation concept can be adopted in five different ways (Castellano et al., 2013): sticking to past technologies and processes (e.g. traditionally produced products), combining the old and the new (e.g. retro design but high-tech manufacturing), repro-retro (reviving past things for the purpose of nostalgia), recycling (giving past things new purpose) and antiques (reusing old objects). Other studies on retro-innovation adhere to a slightly different categorization, distinguishing the mimicking of a past product or experience, ‘nostalgic’ products (old format) that meet a new need, and innovations (new format) that meet an old need (León-Bravo et al., 2019).
The term retro-innovation is also proposed in the context of reviving forgotten agricultural practices (Stuiver, 2006). Here, it is hypothesized that the retro-side of innovation will gain increasing importance, retro-innovations being those ‘innovations […] based upon the active rediscovery of marginalized and often forgotten knowledge and result in effective linkages between old and new knowledge’ (Stuiver, 2006). Stuiver (2006) argues for the potential innovative value of ‘hidden knowledge’ in the development of more sustainable agricultural practices. How this ‘hidden knowledge’ is disclosed or explored is not discussed.
Suominen and Sivula (2016) also distinguish different types of retrovations: the application of still existing practices in different fields and fields where they have become extinct, an object or practice from the past which is transformed or combined with new technology to fulfill a new function, and lastly the realization of a new technology or product based on a conceptual idea from the past.
2.4.4 Paleo-inspired systems. The last concept centered around the idea of innovation using historical knowledge uses the term ‘paleo-inspiration’ or ‘paleo-inspired innovation’ (Bertrand et al., 2018) . The term paleo-inspiration is defined as ‘the process of mimicking properties of specific interest (such as mechanical, optical and structural) observed in ancient and historical systems’ (Bertrand et al., 2018). Since they have already proven themselves by withstanding the test of time, ancient archeological and paleontological remains can be seen as sources of chemical specificities that can inspire the development of improved synthetic systems today (Bertrand et al., 2018).
In contradiction with the previously discussed literature, which remains more conceptual, the paleo-inspiration-literature explicitly centers around studying physical remains and ‘harvesting properties’ from said remains using modern scientific techniques.
2.4.5. Comparison and integration.Overall, the existing literature on paleo-inspiration, retro-innovation, retrovation and ITT shows that using forgotten, marginalized or historical knowledge to innovate is a notion that holds potential. It can be concluded that the current literature is scattered, unconnected and incomplete. The different literature streams rather seem like subcategories of the same stream, discussing variations of the same concept. To improve the overall quality and decrease the level of fragmentation of the current literature, it would be beneficial to merge these subcategories into one comprehensive stream of literature, which focuses on the use of historical, forgotten and marginalized knowledge (in all its forms) as input in the innovation process.
In the definition of retro-innovation by Stuiver, it is explicitly stated that the rediscovery can also pertain not to forgotten but to marginalized knowledge, which is an interesting extension. The definition of Greidanus, on the other hand, includes the application of the ‘retrovation’ for the purpose of meeting current problems or market needs, which seems to also be a relevant aspect. The definition of ‘retrovation’ proposed by this study is thus a combination of both these definitions: retrovation is ‘a specific form of innovation that utilizes largely forgotten or marginalized historical practices and products to address current problems and market opportunities’. The term ‘past’ from Greidanus’ definition is here replaced with ‘historical’, to indicate that the knowledge here referred to is not found some days or a few years in the past, but is truly old and/or forgotten. The term ‘retrovation’ is adopted, since in the author’s opinion it most clearly conveys the backward-looking nature of the process without being limited to tradition or archaeological remains as a primary source, or putting too much focus on the ‘nostalgic’ aspect suggested in the full term of ‘retro-innovation’.
Regarding the categorizations used in the various streams of literature, there seem to be some similarities and some differences. Suominen and Sivula focus on the innovative use of knowledge that is forgotten, either overall or in a certain industry. The literature on retro-innovation, on the other hand, employs a much wider scope, also including ‘nostalgic’ products, antiques and recycled products. These notions of retro-innovation (nostalgia products, antiques, recycled products) do not fit the definition of retrovation as employed in this thesis.
Hardly addressed in the current literature is why firms would look to the past in specific cases, how firms (can) search for potentially useful historical knowledge and how historical knowledge is used in innovations. This thesis aims to answer these questions. The method through which is done is discussed in the following section.
3. Methods
3.1. Theory Elaboration
Qualitative studies can be divided into theory generation, theory testing and theory elaboration. Theory generation is concerned with generating hypotheses and propositions; theory testing is concerned with testing such hypotheses (Fisher & Aguinis, 2017). Theory elaboration is a specific type of theory generation in which new explanations are added to existing concepts, elaborating upon and modifying existing theory to exhibit a better fit with the studied data (Fisher & Aguinis, 2017; Strauss & Corbin, 1994; Vaughan, 1992).
Three questions have to be answered to determine whether theory elaboration is the suitable approach to follow (Fisher & Aguinis, 2017): 1. Is there existing theory that may explain the focal phenomenon? 2. Is the explanation provided by the existing theory controversial, ambiguous or inadequate? 3. Is there potential to collect additional data to integrate with existing theory to develop, enhance, or extend existing theory?
Answers can be provided to all three questions posed above. As was illustrated in the literature section, the many isolated streams of parallel research on retrovation do not provide a full, coherent account of the phenomenon of retrovation. This study examines real-life cases to generate new insights on the reasons to search in the past, the way in which historical knowledge is found and the way in which it is used in innovations. In doing so, current theoretical concepts are altered and extended, overall enriching the literature on retrovation.
3.2. Methodology of Literature Study
The literature discussed in the previous section was gathered using Worldcat and Google Scholar. The author used many search terms such as ‘innovation’, ‘innovation from past’, ‘historical innovation’, ‘innovation from old knowledge’, ‘innovation retro’, ‘innovation searching past’, and many other slight variations. The author also used ‘snowballing’, searching follow-up literature after encountering new search terms in publications (for example ‘innovation through tradition’) and using the cited references to further explore a certain topic.
3.3. Methodology of Case Studies
3.3.1. Background: Case Study.The aim of looking into either a single case or multiple cases is to understand the dynamics at play within such a single case, which can then be translated into descriptions, theory testing or theory building (Eisenhardt, 1989). Case studies are well suited to address ‘how’ and ‘why’ questions in areas that have thus far remained underexplored, while also providing a clear focus point for the research (Andrade, 2014; Eisenhardt & Graebner, 2007). This method seems to match the research question of this study, allowing the study of a conceptual phenomenon within clearly delineated cases.
Concerning case study research there are many different methods and guides available, of which the work of Yin, Stake and Merriam are considered most influenital (Yazan, 2015). These approaches differ in how they define a case, which methods they suggest and what part of the case study process they emphasize (Yazan, 2015). The approaches can be considered not rival but complementary. (Yazan, 2015). Thus, this study will integrate different parts and pointers of various authors and handbooks, among which the work of Yin (2002) on case study research, the handbook of Miles and Huberman (2014) and the seminal work on theory elaboration by Vaughan (1992).
In general, case studies consist of six main steps: 1. Defining the research question(s) 2. Selection of cases and determine method of data gathering and analysis 3. Preparation for data collection 4. Collection of data 5. Evaluation & analysis of data 6. Writing report and conclusions (Dooley, 2002). (Though the actual course of a case study is usually less orderly and more iterative than presented in these steps). The first step, finding a research question, is already explained in the prior sections of this thesis. Next, we will discuss the method of selection, data collection and analysis of this research.
3.3.2. Case Selection. The use of multiple cases is good to ensure replication and to eliminate alternative explanations, ‘like a series of related laboratory experiments’ (Eisenhardt & Graebner, 2007). Simply said: looking into more cases generates more (diverse) data. This leads to a better, more complete understanding of a phenomenon.
The process of choosing these cases was as follows: first, based on the literature review, the concept of retrovation was defined. A preliminary search for cases was conducted using Google, Google scholar and LexisNexis. The author used many search terms that are very open and related to topic (e.g. ‘innovation’, ‘innovation from past example’, ‘historical innovation example’, ‘innovation from old knowledge’, ‘innovation goes back in time’, ‘using old knowledge new way’ and many other variations on this theme). A preliminary list was identified containing cases that seemed to match the proposed definition of a retrovation.
Based on this first round of search and the literature review, the three sub questions of this research were formulated, each addressing a different aspect in the process of retrovation. (This formulation of these sub questions during the search for cases illustrates the iterative nature of qualitative research.) The next step was to examine each case in more detail, using the aforementioned search channels, to determine whether it was truly a case of retrovation and whether sufficient data would be available about the case. A second list containing suitable cases was drafted. This list can be found in table 2, in section 4.1. From this list, three cases were chosen (this number of chosen cases was chosen for practical reasons) that were expected to provide diverse data relevant to the research question and each of the subquestions. Factors considered were the likely reason for the ‘searcher’ of the case to look into the past, the complexity of the case (e.g. how knowledge was identified and/or extracted) and the distinctiveness of the type of knowledge use (e.g. once the ‘barefoot running’ case was selected, the ‘Paleo Diet’ case was excluded since the type of knowledge use is similar). The selected cases thus meet the requirements of case selection by Vaughan (1992), allowing us to examine the concept of retrovation in diverse contexts, forms and degrees.
The author contacted five scholars, two companies and one book author, who wrote about or were involved with one of the examined cases. Two scholars were willing to provide answers to questions sent by email (about the cases of Origami and minimalist running shoes), one researcher was willing to engage in a personal interview (see table 1). The companies and the author did not respond.
During the case studies, it became clear that limited information was available on the exact process through which companies could and did search into the past. To address this gap in the data in an alternative way, an additional literature study was performed and interviews were conducted. The fields of interest in this additional research were archeology, history and (historical) anthropology. The reasoning behind this is that these fields are an interesting source of methodologies and search strategies for firms looking to retrovate, since they by definition deal with locating and interpreting historical (or indigenous/traditional) knowledge.
Using Google Scholar, Smartcat and the RUG faculty literature pages (LibGuides) of the departments of Archaeology and History, several handbooks, collections and other useful works were identified which provided insights into the basic methods and practices of these fields.
The author also contacted two historians and one archaeologist working at the RUG. From this sample, only one historian was willing to participate in an interview. The other historian and the Egyptologist who were interviewed were contacted through the direct and indirect network of the author. These interviews discussed the possible value of methodologies and skills from the interviewee’s field to companies looking to retrovate. Table 1 contains an overview of all interviews conducted for this research.
3.3.4. Data analysis. By analyzing the data in a process of constant comparative analysis - constant and numerous iterations between data and theory as it enfolds - it is ensured that the generated theory has a maximum fit with the empirical data (Strauss & Corbin, 1994). This notion of theory ‘discovered from data’, not ‘created by a great man’ is the main premise underlying Grounded Theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). Identifying the central patterns and the ‘logical chain of evidence’ in your data is crucial for the creation or elaboration of high-quality theory (Miles & Huberman, 2014).
2014). Triangulation can for example be by data source, method, researcher, data type or theory. However, triangulation should not be applied in research as a rigid rule or tactic, but more as a “way of life” in which a researcher continuously double-checks findings (Miles & Huberman, 2014).
In this study, triangulation is applied on three different levels. Within each case study, each provided notion is substantiated by various sources. Triangulation of more general notions and conclusions is also pursued by studying more than one case, which allows us to compare the outcomes of the different cases. Lastly, findings from the case studies are compared with previous literature.
researcher to new possibilities (Vaughan, 1992). Examples of such tactics are comparing pairs of cases and listing the differences/similarities, clustering, making metaphors, factoring, graphing and charting (Miles & Huberman, 2014).
Though cross-case analysis is very useful, it is also important to ensure a certain level of internal integrity within the cases, letting each case fully present its own ‘plot’ (Vaughan, 1992). This is ensured by first examining each case individually, before comparing the different cases. For all cases, the three sub questions are answered. This results in three separate case descriptions. Findings from these three case descriptions and the list of cases as provided in table 1 are compared and contrasted to generate insights. To do so, the author used heuristic devices as proposed by Miles and Huberman, such as tables, listing differences and similarities and categorizing findings. During several iterations between cases, literature and findings, a framework started to emerge. This framework is discussed in the results section.
4. Cases
This section describes three cases in detail: minimalist running shoes [1-16], the use of Origami (and Kirigami) in science [17-32], and the current interest in mimicking Roman concrete [33-45]. First, a short description is provided of the nine cases of retrovation that were identified in this study (table 2). Then, for the three focal cases that were selected from this list (as discussed in 3.3.2.) a general description is provided. For each case, it is also discussed what the trigger was to search in the past, how historical knowledge was found and how it was used (matching the three research questions).
To ensure readability, numbered in-text citations ([x]) are used in the case descriptions instead of standard APA-style referencing. The references corresponding to each number can be found in Appendix 2.
4.1. List of Cases of Retrovation
4.2. Barefoot/Minimalist Running Shoes
4.2.1. General Case Description. Against the dominant trend of ever more cushioned running shoes, a trend has emerged of running barefoot or in minimalist shoes [1-5]. Barefoot runners believe that humans evolved to run unshod and are only hindered or even injured by today’s running shoes, or simply like the feeling of running barefoot (or minimally shod) [4-8]. Several types of ‘minimalist’ running shoes exist, ranging from ‘gloves’ for your feet (Vibram Fivefingers) to more cushioned but very flexible shoes (Nike Free).
4.2.2. Reasons to Search in the Past. One of the main reasons for barefoot and minimalist running is the ideal of going back to basic [5]. The reason to run barefoot or minimally shod is partly emotional, driven by the desire to experience 'exhilarating freedom’ or feel ‘connected’ [5, 9]. There seems to be a widely shared desire among runners to ‘experience’ more and better feel the ground beneath their feet [5, 7, 8, 9]. Wearing cushioned shoes causes the runner to experience less of the terrain underneath their feet, diminishing the haptic feedback received and one’s responses to uneven terrain [9].
This argument of a more ‘natural’ experience is closely related to the evolutionary argument according to which barefoot is how we are ‘supposed’ to run or how we were ‘designed’ to run [1, 7, 9]. Interest in ‘cavemen’ or ‘paleo’ diets and fitness seems to arise from this argument as well [7]. In certain subcultures, this adherence to ‘doing what we were born to do’ assumes near religious forms [7, 10].
According to other sources, the interest in barefoot running started ‘bottom-up’, in the endurance running subculture [5]. Supposedly, the book ‘Once a Runner’ by John L. Parker Jr which was published in 1978, sparked interest in long distance and barefoot running [5]. This interest subsequently was noticed by shoe manufacturers and twisted into ‘minimalist shoes’ [5]. Similarly, the Nike Free was the result of a process that started when product developers at Nike heard that one of the track coaches whom they supplied with shoes occasionally made his team train barefoot [2]. Nike was thus triggered by hearing about the barefoot concept from one of its customers.
running truly decreases injuries, and if so, whether this is due to being barefoot or due to something else (for example, a change in the way one runs when barefoot) is not yet clear [6, 10, 11]. Clear is that the high injury rate among runners (estimates range between 30 and 70%) seems to fuel at least part of the current interest in barefoot running [1].
Another trigger for the barefoot and minimalist running trend stems from an appealing example of running barefoot, described by Christopher McDougall in his bestselling book ‘Born to Run’ [13]. McDougall describes the famous Tarahumara tribe in Mexico, who are known to be legendary athletes, able to run hundreds of miles a day [13]. (Nearly) all of them seem to be extremely fit and injury free, fueling the idea that running barefoot, or on minimalist shoes such as worn by the Tarahumara, allows superior performance [13]. Other athletes that may have inspired runners to lose their shoes include marathoners that are known to have raced barefoot, such Abebe Bikila (who won the marathon in 1960 while unshod) [3].
4.2.3. Finding Historical Knowledge. It seems in this case, several companies (and runners) re-discovered barefoot and minimalist running simultaneously and independently from one another. Vibram developed its ‘FiveFingers’ based on the idea of Robert Fliri, who said that he got the idea from walking barefoot in the mountains and feeling ‘powerful’ [8] . Vibram applied for a patent for its FiveFingers in 2006 and brought the shoes to market sometime later [9]. The Nike Free were introduced even earlier, being first to market in 2005 [2]. Nike developed the shoes after studying the natural gait of barefoot runners in laboratory experiments [14]. The Nike Free was then developed to allow this movement to remain relatively intact [14].
4.2.4. Using Historical Knowledge.Though often marketed as such, the term ‘barefoot shoe’ is an oxymoron [1, 11]. The term ‘minimalist shoe’ seems more fitting. The actual act of barefoot running seems to appeal to only a ‘crazy few’, deemed as too extreme by the masses [16]. However, people may be ready to embrace ‘less is more’ [2]. The minimalist shoe can in this sense be seen as a compromise, for those who want to run shod, but also want the supposed benefits of running barefoot [5]. The minimalist running shoe is the application of an old principle (adhering to barefoot) in a modern way (the comfort, aesthetics and other advantages of running shoes).
It seems that there are several types of ‘barefoot shoes’, all of which offer the user a distinct, barefoot-inspired advantage. Some shoes aim for maximum haptic feedback and minimal cushioning (such as the Vibram FiveFingers), others provide maximum flexibility with a bit of cushioning (such as the Nike Free) [4].
4.3. Origami (and Kirigami)
4.3.1. General Case Description. ‘Origami’ (ori = fold, gami = paper) refers to the Japanese form of art in which structures are created by folding and sculpting a sheet of paper [17, 18]. After 400 years of being a simple artform, Origami has gained attention from mathematicians and engineers [17-21]. Scientists initially took up Origami as a hobby, but with this increase in popularity, people started to look at Origami differently [17, 18, 19, 22]. The introduction of science has allowed the art to become far more complex [18]. 50 years ago, the most complex origami pattern had approximately 30 steps, today this can be hundreds [17]. With this complexity came the potential to apply Origami principles outside of the art form [20]. Among the first engineering applications of Origami in science were foldable solar panels and the (simple) folding of the automobile airbag in 1982 [23, 24, 25]. The applications of Origami have become much more complex over the last few decades [see 26, 27, 28 for examples].
fields were drawn to the ‘fun’ of Origami, but also to the challenge it poses: to make something out of nothing, without cutting or tearing the paper [17, 22].
While Origami patterns had remained virtually unchanged for centuries, the last few decades saw a marked increase in the complexity of Origami patterns [17]. As the art of paper folding started to become more complex, ‘it also became more practical’ [20]. Interest in the practical applications of Origami started to rise, mostly due to advances in computer science, number theory and computational geometry which furthered the field [18, 21]. Origami is now no longer to be considered merely an artform; it has become a branch of science on its own, with different subfields such as Origami mathematics [18, 21].
The first known application of Origami in a practical (engineering) manner was presented by a Japanese scientist, Korya Miura [24, 25]. Miura came up with the ‘Miura Ori’ (Miura fold), which was used in Aeronautical Science as a way for folding and unfolding solar panels [24, 25]. It seems worth noting that the first to realize the potential of Origami in engineering was a Japanese scientist who was quite familiar with the historical knowledge of interest, since it was indigenous to his own culture.
4.3.3. Finding Historical Knowledge. It is not completely clear what was the initial trigger for Kyoro Miura to turn to Origami as a source of inspiration. Evident is that the knowledge that was used was never ‘forgotten’, and can perhaps not truly be considered ‘historical’ knowledge. The term ‘traditional’ or ‘ancient’ here seems more appropriate, acknowledging the long history of the tradition as well as its continued appreciation.
Interesting to note about the use of Origami in science is the strong connection that has been forged between the world of science and that of art: the University of Pennsylvania even hired an Origami artist to aid in their research [29, 30]. This is in line with the notion that the best way to learn about Origami is by doing it yourself [29]. It takes practice to develop the cognitive skill and mindset necessary to visualize the complex 2D to 3D transformations that take place in Origami [29].
4.3.4. Using Historical Knowledge. Over the last decades, science has seen an immense ‘cross-fertilization’ between the fields of Origami, math and computer science [18]. Origami has influenced science, just as science has influenced Origami [18]. Today there are for example computer programs to aid in the design of Origami patterns, such as the program ‘Tree-maker’ [18]. Vice versa, mathematical Origami principles are applied to improve computer programming as well, for example to simulate the folding and unfolding of an automobile airbag [18, 22, 32].
The applications of Origami can be roughly divided into three subcategories [29]: deployability, the physical properties of meta-materials and manufacturing possibilities.
The first category refers to the interest in Origami as a way of making something deployable, such as the Miura solar panels. The key appeal here lies in the ability to make something go from very small to very big, and vice versa. Those faced with a need of deployability often end up with Origami solutions: “[He] was faced with the question: how do I make something deployable, out of relatively rigid materials? [...] You know, there is no way that you cannot find out about origami then” [29].
Another early example of such deployability is the use of ‘techniques similar to those used in Origami’ to fold an automobile airbag, as specified in the 1982 patent [23]. However, the use of Origami in this case is dubious; though the patent specifically refers to the artform, the used pattern of folds seems to be rather rudimentary, not specifically Origami-folding. It is not clear whether the inventor (who bears a Japanese first name) actually used Origami techniques or whether the phrase was used more as a ‘matter of speak’ [23]. It is also not specified where the author got the idea to fold the airbag in such a manner.
The second category of applications is the use of Origami to create meta-materials: materials with properties they ‘should’ not have in a chemical sense, but that arise from their structure [29]. For example, starting with a ‘boring’ piece of paper, this material can be given interesting properties by using Origami techniques to make it more stiff, or use Kirigami (cutting the paper at certain points) to make it more flexible [26, 29]. In this area, there is also a large group of scientists interested in the pure mathematics underlying these unusual properties: they aim to map the mathematical rules at play in the folding [19].
properties is to treat the flat material (2D) before creating the structure (3D). An example of an application of this technique is a bone scaffold (implant) that is folded out of a flat sheet of material that has been treated to have antimicrobial (infection-preventing) properties [29]. Origami is used in this case as a method of manufacturing (creating 3D).
To summarize, origami can be - and has been - applied in many ways. The ‘old’ concept that is used in this case of retrovation is expanded, altered through the addition of modern science.
4.4. Roman Concrete
4.4.1. General Case Description. Today we can still see many remains from the Roman era around us. Even Roman structures that are partly situated in or near (salt) water are still remarkably well preserved and strong [33-37]. Scientists are looking into the formula of the concrete that was used by the Romans to derive lessons from it that may help strengthen modern concrete [33, 34, 36-40]. The ‘recipe’ for Roman concrete was written down by Vetruvius in the first century AD, allowing us to know more or less how it was made [33, 35, 37]. However, scientists only recently found out where Roman concrete exactly gets its strength from [36]. Some modern forms exist of making ‘Roman’ concrete, which use fly ash or other types of pozzolans [33, 36, 39, 41].
4.4.2. Reasons to Search in the Past. The visible remains of Roman structures, such as the Pantheon and the Colosseum, are one of the main causes for the interest in Roman concrete; clear examples of the strength, durability and reliability of the material still surround us after 2000 years [33-38]. This strength and durability is in stark contrast with the modern Portland concrete, which is especially unsuited for use in maritime environments [33, 34, 36, 42]. The lifespan of modern buildings using this type of concrete is approximately 100 years [38].
A last reason that may have influenced the interest of certain parties in the reinvention of Roman concrete, is the use of fly ash in Roman-concrete-inspired cements [33]. Fly ash is a by-product of coal burning. Certain countries, such as Saudi Arabia, have ‘mountains of fly ash’ and go as far as funding research that examines whether this waste product can be put to good use in mimicking the properties of Roman Concrete [33].
4.4.3. Finding Historical Knowledge. The location of search in this case seems to come quite natural: the remains of the Colosseum and the Pantheon, as well as those of many remaining maritime structures, are well-known among researchers and laymen alike [33, 34, 37, 39, 42]. Moreover, knowledge of the ‘secret’ ingredient of Roman concrete (Pozzolane) was never truly forgotten, though the exact recipe was [37, 38]. It was also not clear why the use of volcanic ash and tuffs in concrete made it so strong, which in turn made it difficult to copy these properties[33, 38, 36].
With the advances in modern science, interest in the strength of Roman concrete rose again [34, 37, 42]. Using techniques such as electron microscopy, X-ray powder diffraction analyses, electron microprobe analysis and trace element analysis, scientists analyzed the chemical processes taking place in Roman concrete through which rare and extremely strong minerals and binders were formed [36]. Research showed the formation of ‘Al-tobermorite’ in Roman concrete, an extremely strong mineral, that usually only forms under very high temperatures in a lab-setting [36, 37]. Other studies compare the occurrence of fractures in Portland and Roman concrete [35]. Recent advances in modern science play a crucial role, allowing us to understand and mimic the desired properties of these ancient systems. This is not to say that old sources do not matter: publications on Roman concrete also cite ancient works from Vetruvius and Horace [36, 37].
4.4.4. Using Historical Knowledge. The idea of mimicking Roman concrete has been in existence for some time: both companies and scientists have been experimenting with using fly ash or other ‘Pozzolans’ (volcanic ashes) [33, 36, 39, 41]. Pozzolans (originally named after the ash from Pozzuoli, as used by the Romans) are certain materials that are siliceous or aluminous [36]. According to some authors, ‘pozzolanic-volcanic glass cement has even become a common, cost-reducing component of high performance concrete construction in northern California’ [37].
Another material inspired by Roman concrete is the so-called ‘roller-compacted-concrete’ (RCC), which was used for example in building the Upper Stillwater Dam in Utah [39]. In RCC, ‘normal’ Portland cement is partially substituted with fly ash, to achieve certain properties that are specifically desirable when building dams, such as reduced risk of cracking [44]. The use of concrete with Roman-concrete-inspired properties was also advocated by scientists for the construction of the (cancelled) Tidal Lagoon Swansea Bay, due to its extraordinary resilience in aggressive, salt-water environments [42, 45].
As discussed in the previous section, chemical analysis has recently shown what exactly lends Roman concrete its strength [34, 36]. Now that the exact properties of Roman concrete are becoming clearer, companies can start to look at modern ways to replicate the process through which the desirable properties of these ‘alkali-activated binders’ come about and can be best applied in modern concretes [36, 41].
5. Results
This section describes the findings of this study. The main contribution of this research is the framework (depicted in figure 1) which provides, based on empirical data, a structured portrayal of the process of retrovation including its steps and drivers.
incorporate some elements of the framework: they address how a retrovation begins, how the process takes place and what the outcome is. The resultant framework is a more detailed extension of this general order, consisting of the following steps: trigger, search, case selection, extraction, knowledge use. As can be seen in figure 1, this study assumes that this process can also be nonlinear, going back one or several phases before proceeding.
5.1. Trigger
The triggers to retrovate can be divided into two categories, ‘problem’ and ‘opportunity’, matching the definition of a retrovation.
In some cases, companies look for historical knowledge as a result of a problem that is
created by modern technology (Minimalist Running Shoes). A recurring problem created by modern technology is the environmental damage done by modern technology, leading to a search for more environmentally friendly solutions (Maya Blue, Portland Cement, Organic Farming). In other cases the problem is not a result of the utilized modern process or product, but rather is created by the external environment,for example the challenges faced by maritime structures in saltwater environments or the specific environmental circumstances faced by a farmer (Roman Concrete, Organic Farming). These challenges are the result of an unchanging condition or given that has to be dealt with, rather than arising from the particular characteristics of a modern solution.
Other triggers take the form of an opportunity. Such opportunities may arise from the
remains with appealing characteristics (Roman Concrete, Maya blue, Damascus steel). Another opportunity is when an old technique or concept is valuable or appealing because using or referring to the historical knowledge invokes a certain desirable emotion in individuals such as nostalgia, connectedness or power (Organic farming, Minimalist Running Shoes, Paleo Diet). The last opportunity is the (unexpected or unattempted) discovery (serendipity) of a
need-solution pair (Origami, Weaving).
Lastly, there are the scientific advances of the last few decades, which is an enabling
5.2. Search
Relatively little was found in the cases about the actual act of historical (re)search. It remains unclear whether such historical search did not occur in the studied cases, or whether no documentation is available on this process. Search methods from the fields of history, archaeology and anthropology are hypothesized to be of use in the process of retrovation, since they deal with the primary topic of this study: retrieving historical knowledge. To gain further insights in the applicability of these methods and practices, the author performed additional research concerning this topic. The following section presents findings from the interviews that were conducted by the author with two historians, an egyptologist and an engineer currently researching Origami, as well as some insights from additional literature . First, the1 search
methods are discussed, next the paths are discussed through which search can occur, and lastly the enabling factors of search.
Based on current literature and interviews with historians, this study hypothesizes three possible search strategies: problem-driven search, generalization of trigger, and need-solution
pair search. The first search strategy is to conduct a problem-driven search, in which the formulated problem (trigger) is leading. This formulated problem provides the searchers with something specific to look for: “Start out as small as possible. Start out as specific as possible and see if you can find anything. Historical research is often, unfortunately, truly working on a square inch” (Interview historian 1). The ‘specific’ here refers to the concrete question (formulated problem) the searcher has - the trigger.
A second search method is generalization of the trigger, a specific type of problem formulation in which a problem is not made more specific (such as with problem-driven search)
but more general. “In much of science and engineering, the most productive way to deal with a problem is to turn it into one that somebody else has either already solved or proven impossible. Or, put another way, the key to productivity is letting dead guys do your work for you” (Lang, 2004). If faced with a very specific problem, one strategy is to generalize it. Someone else may have already solved a similar problem on a more ‘general’ level (Email response Origami researcher/artist ). The ultimate generalization is to formulate a problem in purely mathematical2 terms, which allows the use of the widest pool of knowledge available (Email response Origami researcher/artist).
The third method of search, need-solution pair discovery,entails that search is done in a ‘freer’ way than with a specifically formulated problem in mind (Hippel et al., 2015). One does not look specifically for an answer to a question, but rather searches the need landscape and the solution landscape simultaneously (Hippel et al., 2015). This can be done by for example allowing many different problem solvers to engage with the need and solution landscape to increase the chances of identifying a viable pair (crowdsourcing). In the case of a serendipitous
need-solution pair discovery, the phases of trigger, search and case selection may occur at the same time, since the solution and the problem are discovered simultaneously.
When studying history, different types of sources can be examined: natural evidence, alterations of natural objects, communicative artefacts (such as writings and drawings) and processive evidence (inferring an earlier stage of a process from the current form of a process) (Stanford, 1986). Sometimes, the study of an artefact is complemented (triangulated) with the study of accompanying written sources (Interview Egyptologist). Archeological remains are often found by accident - or were never forgotten or lost (e.g. the pyramids) (Renfrew et al., 1991). In other cases, archeological sites are discovered after careful study of written sources, which provide clues on where a site may be found (Renfrew et al., 1991).
Written historical sources can be categorized as primary (created at the time that is studied), secondary (discusses primary sources) and tertiary (index of primary and secondary sources, mostly used to find other sources). Though primary sources are sometimes considered the ‘holy grail’ of the historian, the importance of secondary sources should not be overlooked, especially for those who are not experts on the topic or field of study (Stanford, 1986).
Several search paths exist through which historical knowledge can be located. These days, finding historical sources starts on the internet, usingsearch engines and databases. The employed techniques of keyword search, snowballing and associative searching are the same as in other fields of science. Once several sources or concepts of interest have been identified (e.g. websites, academic articles), the search can (if necessary) be complemented with specific or ‘special’ sources from collections such as archives and museums (Kamp et al., 2020).
a sort of inspiration, you should really be open to whatever type of, you should be open to accept in whatever format that information comes. Like, if you see something in a children’s video, it is as valuable, it can be as valuable as in a scientific publication. [...] So do not have any prejudice” (Interview Origami researcher).
As a third search path, it may in some cases be useful to turn to study current tribes, cultures or processes, which provide insights on the culture or processes (either indigenous or foreign to the searcher) from the past (Interview historian 2; Renfrew et al., 1991). This study of
cultural heritage is done in fields such as anthropology and ethnoarcheology (Renfrew et al, 1991). An example of this type of search is a historian who examines anthropological accounts of the burying rituals of presently existing African tribes to shed light on aspects of a case of a burial from 12th century Europe because these are “societies that come closer to this society I am interested in, then the way we deal nowadays with funerals” (Interview Historian 2). The decision to study such unusual sources, and the choice of the specific sources, is mostly a matter of intuition (Interview historian 2).
This associative search process relates to a point that was made in all three interviews that were conducted: searching for historical sources does not follow a precise methodology, it relies on the use of search skills that are formed through experience (Interview historian 1; Interview historian 2; Interview Egyptologist). “In the field of the humanities, [...] working with text and images and ideas in the literary sense and the historical sense [...] These things are never really, you cannot say: I am applying this or this method. That is the problem” (Interview Historian 2). Much of the search process is associative, intuitive, building on the memory of the searcher and the links that are drawn based on his or her memory and prior knowledge (Interview historian 1; Interview Historian 2). Knowing how to conduct this search is ‘part of your craft’ (Interview Egyptologist). “I often used to just surf the Winkler Prins (Encyclopaedia). From a word with an F to a word with an H and so on. And then you sort of start to explore deeper and deeper. And that is what you can do these days with the internet. From behind a computer you can get pretty far. And I assume companies also do that, they, well, why wouldn't they” (Interview historian 1).
supplemented with sources such as museum- or archive-pieces or anthropological sources. Since the search processes (especially the initial stages) for present and historical knowledge are quite alike, one could say that what companies need most in order to search in the past is a certain willingness, awareness or open-mindedness to widen their temporal scope (Interview Historian 1; Interview Historian 2). However, this statement ignores the importance of a historian’s prior knowledgeand search skills, which are importantenabling factors of successful search.
5.3. Case Selection
In some cases it is quite clear where to search, for example because the remains with
appealing characteristics are well known (Roman Concrete). In the case of a need-solution pair
discovery the process of search is very short, perhaps even non-existent. In other cases, it may not be entirely clear which case holds historical knowledge that is useful to the searcher, which would lead to a more intentional and elaborate process of search and selection.
This study assumes that the searcher will only continue with the next step of the retrovation process - knowledge extraction - when a fitting case is identified, which means that the case adequately matches the problem or opportunity that has been formulated. Furthermore, the searcher must also recognize a possible application for the historical
knowledge the case contains, perceiving this possible application as useful enough to attempt
extraction of the knowledge. From the case studies it does not become clear how this process of selection exactly takes place, though it is logically evident that a selection moment must exist between the searchfor cases holding potentially valuable knowledge and the conscious effort to
extract knowledge from a specific case.
5.4. Knowledge Extraction
The second type of research that can be done is the examination of written sources (Roman Concrete). Written sources can disclose information about the case at hand in a rather straightforward manner - if suitable written sources are available.
If the desired knowledge cannot be found in written sources and is not known to individuals, it can be useful to study physical remains, using techniques from archeology and paleontology as well as the field of chemistry. Once the properties of a substance or product are known, these can be ‘reverse engineered’ to recreate the method of producing it (Maya Blue, Roman Concrete, Damascus Steel). To decipher the exact properties and suitable method of production, many modern analysis and imaging techniques exist such as electron microscopy, trace element analysis and NMR (Jackson, 2013).
In the end, each identified case is unique, requiring a unique approach of search and knowledge extraction, depending on the sources that are available, as well as the type or characteristics of the desired knowledge.
5.5. Knowledge Use
The studied cases show that historical knowledge is used in different ways and with different purposes. The types of knowledge use in retrovation found in this study match the three categories of retrovations as defined by Suominen and Sivula (2016): transferring still existing historical practices to a different field, combining historical practices or products with modern technology or realizing a new idea or product based on a historical concept. These categories differ in the way in which they apply historical knowledge, and the degree to which the retrovation mimics the historical concept or process on which it is based.
The first category consists of retrovations in which historical knowledge that still exists (e.g. is known to individuals) is applied in a different field (Origami, Weaving). Notable is that in this study, the cases that fall into this category both concern crafting techniques. The techniques and their underlying principles are transferred to a different field and expanded upon (e.g. Origami mathematics).
The second category of retrovations combines historical knowledge with modern
The third and last category consists of cases in which historical knowledge is only used
as a starting point or as a source of inspiration. A new product or process is developed that incorporates certain aspects of or references to a historical concept or ideal (Minimalist Running Shoes, Paleo Diet, Damascus steel). Such retrovations can use the underlying ideal of a historical concept as a starting point (Minimalist Running Shoes) or build on its aesthetic features (Damascus Steel).
6. Discussion
This section begins by providing an answer to the research question of this study. Then, the implications of this study for existing theory are discussed, showing what the findings of this research add to the field of innovation management and knowledge management. Next, the practical implications of this study for (innovation) managers and other stakeholders is discussed.
This study provides an answer to the question of how companies can find and utilize potentially useful historical knowledge sources for innovation. The framework presented in the prior section describes the different steps of the retrovation process: trigger, search, case selection, extraction and knowledge use. The trigger, in the form of a problem or an opportunity, is leading in a firm’s search for historical knowledge. This process of search continues until a useful case is identified. The potentially useful historical knowledge of this case can be extracted from written, oral or archaeological sources and used in a different field, in combination with modern technology or as a source of inspiration. Together, these steps describe how companies can find and use historical knowledge for innovation. This framework - which in practice is undoubtedly less linear and more messy than described here - draws both on empirical knowledge of how other companies and researchers accomplished this task, as well as on insights from interviews with experts in locating historical knowledge (historians, egyptologist).
6.1. Implications for Theory
research by providing a comprehensive account of retrovation, an ‘umbrella’ under which previously disconnected concepts are united and compared. This study is, to the best knowledge of the author, the first to provide a clear overview of the different reasons for and ways of searching and using historical knowledge. Uniting aspects from different concepts such as paleo-inspiration and retro-innovation within one and the same framework shows that the notion of innovation using historical knowledge is more widespread - and thus more relevant to study - than can be concluded from one of the separate streams of literature. By uniting these various literature streams, the use of historical knowledge in general is shown to be a potentially promising addition to the list of external knowledge sources (containing primarily recent knowledge) currently used in the open innovation process.
Secondly, this study adds to the current knowledge management literature, by providing insights on how companies can search specifically for historical knowledge and what enables this search. This research is the first to connect the fields of history, innovation management and knowledge management by identifying the potential value of prior historical knowledge and search skills in the search for historical knowledge to be used in innovation. This study also shows that certain aspects of the search process for current knowledge that are discussed extensively in the knowledge management literature such as problem formulation ( Baer et al., 2013; Getzels, 1979; Schwenk & Thomas, 1983), are also important in the search for historical knowledge. Added by this research as a way of sourcing historical knowledge is the notion of generalization (Lang, 2004).
