Institutional Pressures and Organizational Changes in the Museum Sector: a Grounded Theory approach

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1 Institutional Pressures and Organizational Changes in the Museum Sector: a Grounded

Theory approach

A cross-country study of Institutional Pressure and Organizational Changes in the field of Management of the Arts

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2 Abstract

The purpose of this research is to explore the relationship between museums and institutional pressures as well as the main organizational changes that museums have to underpin in order to evolve.

Through a grounded theory approach, several interviews were conducted with the managers of three ‘superstar organizations’: the Louisiana Museum in Copenhagen, the Museo Egizio di Torino and the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam, museums selected for their organizational evolution through the years.

After having introduced the grounded theory approach and have discussed its applicability to the research case study, the outcomes of the interviews will be proposed, following mainly four topics: the cultural policy system in which each museum is embedded, the relationship between museums and institutional environment, the organizational changes underpinned and the performance measurement in the organization.

The outcomes of the data analysis are discussed following the two main topics of the research. Regarding institutional pressures, three factors appear to moderate the institutional coercive pressure perceived by museums: the measurement of economic performances, size and age of the institutions. Regarding organizational changes, it is shown a correlation between stages crossed during museums life, leading to propose a 4-stage model of Museum Lifecycle.

Also theoretical contributions can be attributed to this research and are the followings: the introduction of the measurement of performances and the confirmation of the validity of size and age as moderating factors in the discussion of institutional pressure in the museum sector and outside the US context, and the proposition of a new model for Museum Lifecycle.

Moreover, from a managerial perspective, this study aims to present which are the steps that a museum should follow to enhance its efficacy and efficiency as well as to reduce the coercive pressure from public institutions.

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1. _Introduction

An exploration into the evolution of management within museums has identified the concurring modification of their scope, their position in society, and their structure. With a focus on museums of the modern era, specifically emerging during the period of the Grand Tour (XVll-XVIII Century), one of the fundamental transformations within management falls with the artistic organization’s structure and orientation.

Looking at the structure of cultural organizations in the second half of the XX century, management was assigned and centered either in charismatic founders (who also had artistic duties in the organization) or by ‘experts in the artistic work at the core of their organizations' missions’ (DiMaggio 1987, p6). For instance, in the 1980s, the New Boston Museum of Fine Arts was managed by the minimum number of personnel needed and supported by a group of trustees. Similarly, in 1958, the director position at the Louisiana Museum was occupied for the first time since its establishment, by Knud W. Jensen, the founder.

Another important transformation in museum management regards the orientation of the cultural organizations. These institutions gradually switched their focus from the product (the collection/artworks) and its preservation to the audience and rethought the cultural experience, adapting it to the needs of the visitors, becoming gradually more visitor-oriented (Weil, 1999). Thus, if before the visitor had a passive role in the exhibition, now he is gaining an active role in shaping the cultural offer. The museum of the 21st century has the aim to create a closer relationship with the visitors and has, therefore, to reflect on ‘nature, motivations, expectations and needs of existing audiences’ (Black 2012, p7). This contemporary approach towards the management of the arts has fueled an alternative discussion and interest between a number of scholars; Rentschler (2002) for instance noticed that the number of publications on marketing applied to the arts has increased; also the concept of marketing itself in the publications applied to museums has profoundly changed, passing from being a simple functional tool to be considered as an important part of the strategy of cultural organizations (Rentschler, 2002).

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6 progressive stages. From 1945 to 1960, focus was centralized on museums’ policy reconstruction, then from 1960 to 1980 the focus switched to participation and interaction with visitors. The latest stage identified, from 1980 to the present day, focuses on city marketing, further confirming the previously mentioned general trend of the scholars’ publication highlighted by Rentschler (2002). Overall, such changes discussed have altered the competencies and responsibilities of museums’ directors. The impact of such developments has as a result, radically changed the overall role of managers. Traditionally, museum directors were primarily professionals and experts who possess a background in the arts and humanities, and held a custodial role (Gilmore et al., 2002). Most individuals held prior positions as artists, critics, art historians, or professors and consequently lacked in acquiring specific business and management skills. With a lack of expertise in how to effectively manage an organization, competencies were acquired through experience. However, once financial, administration and strategic issues became increasingly significant, the need for a more experienced manager possessing an appropriate and relevant skill set became a priority for success.

The emergence of managers adopting a business-oriented approach has brought new insights into the cultural field, which have effectively enhanced and improved museums’ positions and sustainability. In order to foster aspects such as efficiency and effectiveness, critics argue that artistic quality has been compromised due to a lack of attention. Conversely, it has been acknowledged that a more experienced and adapt management is responsible for allowing museums to persist in their artistic and cultural activity. Thus, the link between management and arts organizations has proven to be a controversial topic.

The changes previously identified are key to the recent revolution in cultural organization management strategies and specifically, introduced an innovative way of thinking within museum management. In consideration of this development, the aim of this research is to explore the relationship between economic performances and organizational changes in museums. The structural change referred to in this study is namely the introduction of new departments, as well as the deep reorganization of existing units through the implementation of new practices belonging to the for-profit sector or the total refoundation of the organization. A further objective of this research is to illustrate the relationship linking the institutional environment, the museums strategy, and the decision-making processes, to the measurement of performance and overall, the success of the organization.

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7 environment. The organizations used have been selected based on two criteria; the institutional context in which they are embedded (country-level), and the organization’s relevance both at a country and local level.

The countries chosen are based on their willingness to include three macro areas of the EU, in order to have a representative panel of the tendencies in terms of cultural policy in the EU. Taking this into consideration, the countries involved in this research are Denmark, Italy and the Netherlands. The organizations analyzed have been selected based on three fundamental parameters: dimension, progression and excellence of management, and international reputation. As a result, the museums chosen are the Louisiana Museum in Copenhagen, the Museo Egizio di Torino and the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam. Such museum’s exhibit a high level of excellence and embody a model that can be replicated not only in their respective countries, but also at international level.

To achieve such previously identified objectives, the research question has been configured as follows: “Which is the relationship between organizational changes and institutional pressure in the museum sector of Denmark, Italy and the Netherlands?”.

Moreover, two sub-question are formulated in order to better answer to the mainone:

1. Which are the factors that moderate the institutional pressure between a museum and its environment?

2. Is there a relationship between the organizational changes experienced by museums?

The research will use the grounded theory approach, based on the work of Glaser et al. (1967). The grounded theory method ‘offers a way of constructing sociological reality; using the method fosters developing analytic and conceptual constructions of the data’ (Charmaz 1990, 1162). With this framework, researchers aim to construct a theory from the ‘ground’ (i.e. through data collection) and build research based on direct experiences from the participants (Charmaz, 1990). In regard to this research, such a theoretical construct will be created from case interviewees. A key principle of the grounded theory is that a scarce reference to prior literature is essential for the validity of the theory. Conversely, I believe that for this particular research, an exploration of key concepts is both necessary and beneficial.

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8 arts management by identifying the relationship between factors such as size, dimension of structure, and international reputation. This study is instrumental to the less explored topic of museum management and most notably, is the first to introduce two new parameters, performance measurement and type of ownership, as factors influencing the institutional pressure faced by museums. Furthermore, this study presents an opportunity for future quantitative-based research analyzing the relationship between organizational changes and performance.

This paper will begin by introducing and exploring the theoretical background of the core topics that are integral to this study. Following a review of existing literature, the chosen methodology is outlined and explained. The findings are then addressed, specifically a look at the outcomes regarding the institutional environment, organizational changes and the performance measurement of the three museums chosen for this research. To conclude, a comprehensive analysis of such results is discussed, followed by an analysis of limitations and potential directions for future research.

Moreover, in order to have a better comprehension of one of the key indicators of this research, the introduction is followed by small theoretical introduction on the measurement of performances in the museum sector.

Measurement of Performances in the museum sector

Measuring performance within management of the arts is a key indicator that will be used in this research. Such a parameter is equally unique within this field of study; the measurement of performance has not previously been used as a moderating force with institutional pressure.

Within this study, performance measurement will be defined as the process of ‘measuring the action’s efficiency and effectiveness’ (Neely et al. 1995, p.82); and also, as ‘the transference of the complex reality of performance in organized symbols that can be related and relayed under the same circumstances’ (Lebas, 1995, p.25). The measurement of performance can be considered as ‘critical for effective management of any firms’ (Demirbag et al., 2006). Although there are a considerable number of performance indicators that could be assessed, this research explicitly focuses on the non-profit sector and thus, will follow the work of Al-Matari et al. (2014) in order to establish the most relevant measures to this study. Equally, ‘The Balance Scorecard’ (Kaplan et al., 1992) was fundamental to the debate surrounding performance measurement within the art and cultural sector.

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9 analyzing success, not-for-profit organizations should not be evaluated by ‘market performance and profitability’ (Mautz 1988, p.124). The work of Galzer and Jaenicke (1991) adds weight to this argument, suggesting that in addition to economic indicators, positive externalities such as effect on the local community and the level of satisfaction, should be considered. Further assessments of results by academics such as Mottner and Ford (2004), and Padanyi (2005), conclude that measuring performance must include both economic and non-economic indicators.

The majority of research relating to the management of the arts and cultural sector has proposed innovative models and evaluation techniques, however, how to apply such models to cultural institutions has often been omitted (Chiaravallotti and Piber, 2011; Zorloni, 2012; Badia and Donato, 2013). An additional trend in research, analysed by Chiaravallotti (2014), regards the tendency to focus solely on issues of conflict, notably between administrative and artistic employees, or amongst individuals from differing backgrounds or education levels.

A fundamental issue with measuring performance in the art and cultural sector is derived from a misalignment between the actors involved. A conflict of interests is often evident between managers of artistic activities and managers of financials. The study of Mariani and Zan (2011) expands on this issue by suggesting that such a misalignment is primarily due to the fact that both sets of managers place emphasis on the success of differing performance parameters. Whilst managers of artistic activities base their evaluation on artistic and cultural parameters, accountant managers are more driven by cost and savings. A difference in objectives could prove to be detrimental in creating a universal model applied to cultural organization. On the other hand, such an obstacle effectively leverages the discussion surrounding performance measurement, highlighting the existence of hybrid conditions that are often unclear and therefore, difficult to effectively measure.

The work of Norreklit (2011) underlines an additional difference that is evident; not only is there a discrepancy between both sets of managers (Mariani and Zan, 2011), but also in the nature of the two types of indicators relating to performance measurement. ‘Mainstream management models’ are developed from concepts of effectiveness and efficiency, precision and objective observation and thus, are more assimilable to sciences measurement. Albeit, the field of art and culture encompasses the previously mentioned variables, as well as factors such as subjectivity and emotions, and as a consequence, mainstream management models fail to accommodate such complexity.

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10 both a managerial and commercial mentality. Despite such practices growing in the not-for-profit sector, the response from curators and museum staff has been unfavorable. Many believe that evaluation of performance from a managerial standpoint downgrades and vilifies their work, an approach contrary to museum logic and the traditional mindset.

‘Knowing the price of everything, thought it might be seen as desirable by some within particular communities of practices (i.e. accountants and auditors), is not generally seen in the same light by those in the museum community whose professional identity is more strongly tied to notions of intrinsic, aesthetic, social and cultural value rather than economic value or government dictate (i.e. the institutions that was forcing the inclusion of financial and economic evaluation practices)’ (Hooper et al.. 2005, p.425-426).

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2. _{Grounded theory}

In this chapter I am going to introduce the methodology of this research. Firstly, the grounded theory and its main currents will be presented. The second part will focus instead on the principle and the choices that guided the selection of the cases. Then, the data collection method and data analysis will be introduced. In the end, the last part will deal with the ethics of the research.

The grounded theory ‘offers a way of constructing sociological reality; using the method fosters developing analytic and conceptual constructions of the data’ (Charmaz 1990, p 1162). This theory was developed by Glaser and Strauss as a need for a ‘more defined and systematic procedure for collecting and analyzing qualitative data’ (Goulding 1999, p 6). As a matter of fact, the aim of the researchers was to construct a new methodology that allows deriving a theory directly through data collection (Corbin et al., 1990; Glaser et al., 1967). In other words, they were seeking for a qualitative methodology that allows to build up a theory through the interaction and engagement of the participants (Coleman et al., 2007). That is why grounded theory is particularly used when the studied event has not been previously explored, partially or completely, or to introduce a new perspective on an existing social phenomenon (Goulding, 1999).

As underlined by Corbin et al. (1990), qualitative studies are often evaluated by researchers with a quantitative method orientation and quantitative principles. This often causes wrong and misleading interpretations, which mine the consistency and relevance of the research itself. Thus, canons of evaluation should be revised for qualitative methods, especially regarding ‘significance, theory-observation compatibility, generalizability, consistency, reproducibility, precision, and verification’ (Gortner et al. 1988, p 204).

From the work of Glaser and Strauss (1967), updated and developed by Glaser (1992), the grounded theory evolved into two different directions and approaches. The first, named Straussian theory, derives from the work of Corbin and Strauss (1990) and it is considered by the authors themselves as an evolution of the work of Glaser and Strauss (Corbin et al., 1998). The second one was developed by Charmaz (2000), influenced by the work of Berger and Luckmann (1967) and specifically applied to education, psychology and nursing studies (Mills et al., 2006). The methodology that I will use in this research refers to the Straussian grounded theory.

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12 With the idea of increasing rigor and reliability of the grounded theory, Corbin et al. (1990) introduced 11 procedures ‘to develop a well-integrated set of concepts that provide a thorough theoretical explanation of social phenomena under study’ (Corbin et al. 1990, p.5). However, the authors clarified also that there is a subtle line between the different procedures that is due to the circumstances of the research (Corbin et al., 1990). Nonetheless, an increase in such flexibility can give rise to biases (Corbin et al., 1990). Below, I introduce the 11 principles and their relationship with this research. Table 1 summarizes the fulfilment or not of these procedures.

Procedure 1: Data Collection and Analysis are Interrelated Processes (Corbin et al. 1990). Through this first procedure, it is stated that ‘analysis is necessary from the start because it is used to direct the next interview and observations’ (Corbin et al. 1990, 6). It is important to analyze the first data collected before proceeding, in order to direct the following processes, both data collection and analysis. Moreover, there is not a strong distinction between data collection and data analysis, there has to be a constant interaction between these stages (Bryman, 2015).

Procedure 2: Concepts Are the Basic Units of Analysis (Corbin et al. 1990). This means that, starting from raw data, the researcher extrapolates all the concepts that will ground the analysis. In other words, all the concepts introduced do not come from the data collected, but from its conceptualization; this enables the researchers to avoid biases and preconceptions that can occur from raw data collection.

Procedure 3: Categories Must Be Developed and Related (Corbin et al. 1990). Namely, the concepts that can be related to the same pattern are grouped to form more abstract categories (Charmaz, 1996). In the same way, also categories can be related to form a structured theory.

Procedure 4: Sampling in Grounded Theory Proceeds on Theoretical Grounds (Corbin et al. 1990). To understand this procedure, it is important to introduce the concept of theoretical sampling that ‘means seeking and collecting pertinent data to elaborate and refine categories in your emerging theory’ (Charmaz 2006, 96). Following Corbin et al. (1990), the theoretical choice that should be made after the initial data collecting (i.e. procedure 1) to understand which are the main categories involved (Charmaz, 1996) behind the sample selection, will enhance the consistency of the research and its representativeness.

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13 Procedure 6: Patterns and Variations Must Be Accounted For (Corbin et al. 1990). The researchers underline the importance of connecting concepts and find patterns among them. Finding a scheme contributes to order the data and support the integration of different concepts or sources; this practice of linking patterns coming from different sources enhances the consistency of the findings and, more in general, of the entire work (Eisenhardt, 1989).

Procedure 7: Process Must Be Built Into the Theory (Corbin et al. 1990). In order to analyze a phenomenon in a plenary way, Corbin et al. (1990) and Charmaz (2006) suggest that it is essential to deconstruct the system in smaller stages, understanding the relationship between them. When an entire process is divided into small consequent steps, it is easier to study the relationship among them. Procedure 8: Writing Theoretical Memos Is an Integral Part of Doing Grounded Theory (Corbin et al. 1990). Memos are a useful tool for researchers in order to ‘keep track of all the categories, properties, hypotheses, and generative questions that evolve from the analytical process’ (Corbin et al. 1990, 10). The role of memos is vital in the process of formulation of the theory from the earliest stage until the end. Charmaz (2006) underlines also that memos are an essential element to compare different stages of the research and eventually understand some procedural or substantial lacunas. The same author points out also the risk of not following this practice and the consequent possibility of having a large amount of data without understanding them (Charmaz, 1996).

Procedure 9: Hypotheses About Relationships among Categories Should Be Developed and Verified as Much as Possible during the Research Process (Corbin et al. 1990). The theory formulation during the entire period of the research has to be constantly revised and updated in order to obtain hypotheses that can be considered true from every perspective. Furthermore, Corbin et al. (1990) add that after the development of a hypothesis from the formalization of a connection among concepts, it is essential to compare it with the subject area in order to test it.

Procedure 10: A Grounded Theorist Need Not Work Alone (Corbin et al. 1990). A study conducted in collaboration with other researchers offers many advantages. Working with other colleagues coming from the same area or different fields of study is a great way to avoid biases. Moreover, the possibility to discuss can create the opportunity to lead the study in different directions (Corbin et al., 1990) and disclosure new points of view (Eisenhardt, 1989).

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14 al., 1988) i.e. several interrelated conditions contain or are contained in other micro or macro conditions. Furthermore, Charmaz (1996) pointed out that the environment in which the sample is embedded is profoundly relevant for the research, in the case of rich data.

As anticipated, the following Table 1 showcases the procedures’ fulfilment.

Table 1: Corbin & Strauss 11 Procedures

Procedures Description Fulfilled

Procedure 1 Data collection and analysis have to be in constant interaction Yes

Procedure 2 The conceptualization of data has to ground the analysis Yes

Procedure 3 Concepts have to be grouped into categories Yes

Procedure 4 The sampling selection has to be based on theoretical grounds Yes

Procedure 5 The analysis has to proceed through constant comparisons Yes

Procedure 6 Connections and variations among concepts have to be related to

identifying a pattern Yes

Procedure 7 The theory has to be built through a gradual process Yes

Procedure 8 The use of memos helps in the theory definition Yes

Procedure 9 The process of hypotheses creation should be done and tested during the research process

Yes

Procedure 10 The group work contributes to avoid biases No

Procedure 11 Hypothesis and theory statements have to be constantly revised Yes

All the procedures but the number 10 have been fulfilled. The researcher has indeed operated alone in all the processes of the research due to requirement constraints.

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15 Since the case selection plays a fundamental role in the Straussian approach for avoiding biases, such process has to be carried out following theoretical bases as described in Procedure 4 (Corbin et al., 1990). Case selection is defined by Coleman et al. (2007) as ‘the process of collecting, coding and analyzing data whilst simultaneously generating theory’ (Coleman et al., 2007, p657). The theoretical sampling is also the first moment where the researcher starts to actively develop categories (Coleman et al., 2007), i.e. phenomena that represent ‘ a problem, issue or event that is defined as being significant to the respondents’ (Strauss et al., 1998). Next to these expedients to better avoid an over-dependence from just a single case (Tellis, 1997; Yin, 2003), in this paper a small-N multiple case analysis (Piekkari et al., 2011) has been carried out. Combining a case-oriented approach together with a grounded method is particularly appropriate for unexplored areas as the one analyzed by this research (Eisenhardt, 1989).

In the following paragraphs the choices that drove the researcher in the selection of the countries and the museums will be examined.

Seeking to develop an international comparison, the countries were chosen following the principle of the United Nations Geoscheme. The UNCD (United Nations Statistics Division) divides Europe into 4 sub-regions: Eastern Europe (10 countries), Northern Europe (17), Southern Europe (16) and Western Europe (9). In this sense, the countries picked in this study pertain to different sub-regions: Denmark belongs to Northern Europe, Italy to Southern Europe, and the Netherlands to Western Europe. This choice was driven by the willingness to highlight similar patterns and behaviors in different regions of Europe, proving that even if embedded in a specific regional context their validity could be extended to other areas.

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16 sample. Among the Superstar museums, the Louisiana Museum (Denmark), the Museo Egizio di Torino (Italy), the Rijksmuseum (the Netherlands) have been chosen.

The Louisiana Museum has been specifically chosen due to his organization’s evolution history. The organization faced several phases from its foundation, and the last one occurred is particularly relevant for this research. The organizational change that the organization faced in 2008 consisted of a drastic change in the measurement of performances and of a general professionalization of the entire structure. These improvements led the museum to obtain positive results, strengthening its hegemonic position in the Danish and international context. Furthermore, the decision has been consolidated by the relevance of the phases that the organization experienced during the years, further deepened in the findings, and which constitute a great element of comparison with the other museum involved in the sample.

Also the Museo Egizio di Torino has been selected due to an organizational change that instead occurred in 2004 and that consisted of a ´re-foundation of the museum`, with the introduction of a new mission, a new structure, and a reorganization of the management. Moreover, the museum changed its legal form, passing from being a public to a private institution, more specifically a private foundation that manages a public collection. The Museo Egizio constitutes the best example in its country in terms of economic self-sufficiency, reaching the breakeven point without any public funds. It is also important to mention that the museum is still facing a formalization process and in this sense it is interesting to compare the museum with others which can be considered more institutionalized. Further details about its organizational change will be analyzed in Chapter 3.

The Rijksmuseum as well has been involved in this study due to the change in the structure experienced in 2003. A new department, the Development Department, was added in order to implement the overall museum activity, especially the fundraising one. This organizational change will be further studied in Chapter 3.

The table below summarizes the main characteristic of the museums involved in this research.

Table 2: Overview of museums

Name of the institution Rijksmuseum Museo Egizio di

Torino Louisiana Museum

Country (city) The Netherlands

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Year of foundation 1800 1824 (2005) 1958

Type of collection Medieval, 17th to 20th

century, Asian, etc. Egyptian Contemporary art Ranking for visitors in

the country, 2018 1 8 1

Visitors per year in

million 2018 2.3 0.85 0.75

Expenses 2018

(million) 89 € 12 € 230 DKK (30 €)

% of public funds 33% 0% 15%

Top level of

management Supervisory Board - Three directors Board of Subscrictors - Two directors Board of Trustees - two directors

Number of employees 675 50 300

Collection’s

ownership public public private

Estimated economic impact on the local context (different way of measuring it due to different calculation of the museums)

235 M 187 M Not calculated by the

museum. The calculation done regards the rate VAT / Public funds, which is 1.25 DKK each Krona

Cessions Not allowed Not allowed Not allowed

(technically possible, only in case of another acquisition)

Data collection

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18 (Coleman et al., 2007, p). In this work, the triangulation is done using three typologies of sources: national document on cultural policy, internal reports of the museums and interviews with experienced managers of the institutions involved.

Regarding the first source (i.e. national document on cultural policy), data has mainly be collected from the Cultural Policy Codes of each country, that have public access. Moreover, the EU (specifically with the Council of Europe's Programme of National Cultural Policy Reviews) created a Compendium, a web-platform that facilitates the comparison among EU different countries in terms of cultural policies, policy-making, actors, cultural strategies and architecture-hierarchy of the cultural systems (Compendium, 2019). The second source used to determine and compare several aspects among the involved museums are museum reports. These documents include both, publicly available annual reports and other internal reports provided by the organizations themselves, that however, cannot be disclosed. The usage of these sources allowed the researcher to develop a more critical and objective opinion since the original documents were produced for a different use (Charmaz, 2006) and their content cannot be influenced by the researcher’s subjectivity. Within these documents, the main sections analyzed have been the museum´s general overview, its economic and cultural performances, the HR management, its organizational structure and change and the actors and institutions involved.

As a third source for gathering data, several interviews were conducted with members of the management, financial and development departments of the museums involved. All the managers either took a part in the organizational changes analyzed or entered the organization right after it. From this point onwards, interviewees will be named with the first letter of the respective institution: L for Louisiana Museum, T for Museo Egizio di Torino, R for Rijksmuseum. The table 3 below summarizes the role and main function of the interviewee in the organization.

Table 3: Interviewees role

Participant Role Function

Interviewee L : Louisiana

Museum CFO Manages the economic and financial aspects of all the

project of the Louisiana Museum

Interviewee T: Museo Egizio di

Torino Head of Development Department and European

Funds

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Interviewee R: Rijksmuseum Account Manager,

Rijksmuseum Fonds Deals with development and fundraising strategies, handles relationships with donors

The interviews have been conducted following a semi-structured method (Ritchie & Lewis, 2003) characterized by a high degree of flexibility that allows adapting questions to the interview circumstances and enables exploring emerging patterns. As suggested by Corbin et al. (1990) and Charmaz (1996), the topic list has always been updated after every interview in order to adjust the questions protocol to the new uncovered topic. This is an essential expedient since the data collection and data analysis are interrelated processes from the beginning of the research (Corbin et al., 1990; Eisenhardt, 1989). Since data collecting is a dynamic and adaptive process a difference between the question asked in the first and last interview can be noticed. However, the four main themes remained unaffected.

The initial list of topics treated is provided below in Table 4, and can be grouped in four main areas.

Table 4: Initial topic lists Initial list of topics History of the museum Role of the interviewee Museum financing system

Relationship with public sector & stakeholders Institutional pressures from the environment Organizational change

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20 During the data collection, several new patterns emerged; here in Table 5 it is possible to find a list of the topics that have been added during the research process, following Charmaz (1996, p34): ‘an interviewer will adapt his or her initial interview guide to add areas to explore and to delete questions that have not been fruitful’.

Table 5: List of topic added

List of topics added during the data collection The relationship with the US model

Public and private museum

Museum and foundations that sustain the museum activity International reputation

CEO / Board reputation

The four main topics are: general overview of the museum and the role of the interviewee, institutional pressures perceived, organizational changes experienced, measurement of performances. An introductive part outpaces these four sections, in which the interviewee was informed about the topic and the main structure of the interview, as well as the of academic aim of the research. Before starting with the interview every respondent also signed an informed consent form that guarantees anonymity and confidentiality of the shared information. This has been essential to establish a positive and trustful connection between the parties.

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21 The goal of the second topic was to investigate the relationship between the museum and the respective institutional environment, essential to understand which kind of relationship elapses with public institutions and other stakeholders. The third topic purpose was to examine the organizational change selected and to explore eventual correlations with institutional pressures. This part was also intended to understand the choices before the change and the positive or negative outcomes after that. The fourth and last topic of the interview regarded the performance measurement system, the KPI selected, the actors involved in the measuring process and eventual external influences.

Interviews were conducted in person or via video call and in both cases were recorded. The permission to be recorded was given signing the consent form. They lasted between 65 and 100 minutes. The interview with the Rijksmuseum and the Louisiana Museum were conducted in English whereas the one with the Museo Egizio di Torino in Italian. In this case the questions were translated into Italian and every unclear concept was explained and discussed extensively in order to avoid biases.

The transcript of the interviews is available in the Appendix B (CONFIDENTIAL). The final version of the questions can be found in Appendix A.

Data analysis

Coding is a central analytic process in the grounded theory (Corbin et al., 1990). Charmaz (2014) underlines that the coding in quantitative study is a preliminary phase that comes even before the data collection. Notwithstanding in order to not exclude any possible implication in a qualitative analysis the coding is contextual to the data collecting.

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22 participant experience, and relevance, when a study develops a consistent analytic framework that correctly explains the relationship between processes and structures (Charmaz, 2006). Lastly, the selective coding ‘is the process by which all categories are unified around a core category, and categories that need further explication are filled-in with descriptive detail’ (Corbin et al. 1990, 14). This technique is generally used in the final stages of the research (Corbin et al., 1990). According to Corbin et al., (1990)the highlighted ‘core category’ have a central role in the research due to the fact that all the other minor categories have to enter into a relationship with them. During all these phases of the coding process using memos, namely notes taken during the entire research process, results to be essential (Charmaz, 1996; Goulding, 1999) in order to monitor the categories and, then, the propositions development (O’Reilly et al., 2015).

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3. Findings

This chapter presents the outcomes derived from the coding of the interviews and the analysis of the national cultural policy system. As a matter of fact, the cultural policy system has been essential to better understand the national framework in which every museum is embedded. It is also important in order to comprehend the role of the institutions and to determine the degree of pressure coming from the institutional context.

The findings are organized following the three organizations of the sample. Each section is structured as follows: the first part focuses on the museum itself, its history and its financing system; then, in the second part, it is possible to find the description of the environment surrounding the museum (existing cultural policy, main involved actors and institutional pressures). In the end, the core dimensions of organizational change and performance measurement will be treated. The three sections are outpaced by a brief introduction on the European cultural policy.

3.1 Europe

All the three countries that I am going to analyze are part of the EU, therefore the cultural policy of each of these countries is also influenced by the EU normative system. The most relevant principles are given in the Art. 6 of the TFEU and are the following: ‘respect for identity and promotion of cultural diversity and intercultural dialogue, respect for freedom of expression, association and opinion, support for creativity and promotion of cultural participation, democratisation of culture and cultural democracy’ (Compendium, 2019). Through this document the Council of Europe does not only state the general principles that have to be followed by EU members, but it also traces a path for international collaboration with NGO or other international organs. Next to it another aim pursued by the EU regards the collaboration in the cultural heritage ‘by promoting research, combating illicit trafficking in cultural goods, and supporting the protection of heritage sites’ (TFEU, 2016).

3.2 Louisiana Museum

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24 happenings, lectures, concerts and debates hosted by the museum contributed to its fame making it a relevant cultural centre which plays a fundamental role in the international and Danish cultural life. Also its venue is important since it is considered to be one of the most iconic architectures of the modernist style. The project from Jorgen Bo and Vilhelm Wohlert develops around an old villa and from the early beginning it has been conceived already with commercial activities: café, shop. This represented a huge innovation at that time and reflected the founder’s business-oriented mindset. Nonetheless, Knud Jensen was harshly criticized because of this vision and its conception of an art that had to be available for everyone, going against the common idea of art just for the elite.

Starting as a one man’s project, the Louisiana Museum is now one of the few existing examples of profitable museums. As a matter of fact, with the profit made in the last couple of years the institution was able to create equity. However, not being allowed to make profit as a museum the equity has been removed acquiring art to grow the collection.

Keeping the mentality of its founder, Louisiana has always tried to be a modern and innovative institution, this is why it has passed through three main stages from its foundation, three important organizational changes that significantly shaped its strategy. The first phase recalls the establishment of the museum itself when the founder as the director revolutionised the entire Danish cultural context. The second stage starts with the new Executive Director, Poul Erik Tøjner, who renewed the museum with a professionalization of all the ‘facilities’ that allowed the museum to establish an international reputation. The third step is the one analyzed through this study and regards the professionalization of the processes, strongly supported by the new CFO who completely transformed the organization. This last change will be further deepened in Chapter 3.2.4 .

3.2.1 Museum financing system

The Louisiana museum receives grants from the state only for 15% of its total annual expenditure, a very low percentage compared to the other Danish museums. Next to it , 20% comes from donations of foundations and private institution and 65% by internal activities such as ticketing, publications, internal cafe, internal shop. An important role is played by the 62 thousands members of the Louisiana museum which pay annually 500 DKK (around 67 €). These memberships represent an important asset for the annual budgeting.

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25 The Danish cultural policy is based on the assumption that the State defines the framework for a country and provides for ‘cultural development through a Ministry of Culture, which follows overall policy objectives and approaches from a general perspective’ (Compendium, 2019). Thus, as for the Netherlands (see the following paragraphs), the State does not define the concept of artistic value, it provides instead a framework where artists and institutions can be economically supported. As highlighted by Dueland (2003), Denmark, together with Sweden and Norway, belongs to the ‘Nordic Cultural Model’, a system with a high degree of public funding in the cultural sector. The Danish model is also characterized by a high level of decentralization, indeed a big role is played by municipalities, which contribute to the public cultural expenditure for ⅔ of the total. However, as previously stated this is not the case of the Louisiana. In this sense, it goes against the tide of the other European countries, characterized by higher state expenditure.

My focus on Danish cultural policy evolution starts from the 80s, when it is possible to observe a switch in the aim of cultural politics as ‘tools to serve social purposes’ (Compendium, 2019). This concept has been implemented during the 90s and was combined with economic and political interests, as a consequence of the acknowledgement of the potential economic impact of culture as a sight to behold for tourists. This period overlaps with the introduction of performance contracts by cultural institutions management with the goal of stimulating ‘efficiency in the implementation of the overall aims’ (Compendium, 2019). In this sense two reports represented an innovation: the ‘Danmarks kreative potentiale 2000’ (Denmark’s Creative Potential 2000) enacted by the Danish Ministry of Culture and the Ministry of Business and Economic Affairs and the ‘Denmark in the Culture and Experience Economy - 5 new steps’ (2003) which reinforced and enhanced the willingness to exploit the economic potential of culture, accomplishing the process that started in the 90s. Regarding arts council, the Danish system is similar to, and inspired, by Norwegian and Swedish models. Art councils were all reunited in the Kunstrådet (the Danish Art Council) in order to be better coordinated and to stimulate new approaches on cultural policy. The same strategy was adopted during the 2000s for ministerial departments that, after several merges, in 2012 were unified in the Kulturstyrelsen (the Danish Agency for Culture).

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26 level the cultural policy integration. Other fundamental institutions are the Councils and Committees that perform the function of experts within the agencies, and their final decision cannot be overruled. Lastly, the State Institutions, which are under the responsibility of the Ministry of Culture when it comes to the foundation and implementation of their actions. They are approximately 700.

An important phenomenon needs to be mentioned: the public supports to cultural organizations, both public and private, is decreasing by 2% each year. This trend is threatening especially the management of small organizations, much more dependent than institution like the Louisiana to variations in the public funding. As L reported, cultural organizations do not know when the reduction will come to an end, mining the short and long term strategy of each institution as well as their existence. As mentioned before the Louisiana receives just 15% by government funding, but other museums receive 50% of the total expenditure or even more; for them the pressure exerted from the government is really high.

3.2.3 The museum and the institutional environment

The Louisiana Museum main stakeholders are the government, due to its grants, the other Danish museums, due to a partnership agreement started in 2019, and the two foundations that support and finance the activities of the museum. The foundations’ contribution is essential for the ambitions and the international reputation of the museum, as L stated. The role of the foundations has changed during the years, indeed they passed from a position of merely donors to have an active role in monitoring the whole process of money spending. Another fundamental stakeholders are, of course, the visitors who have always played a central role in the Louisiana’s politics.

From the interview, several dimensions appeared to have a consistent role in mitigating the pressure perceived by the museum and coming from public institutions. The size of the museum is one of these variables, as L said ‘the bigger you are, the better position (A/N you have), the stronger you are’ which means that the size of the museum influences both at a local context and at a country level. The Louisiana Museum is ranked as the 7th most visited attraction in the country, the only museum listed. This condition puts the organization in a ‘special position’ (as L said) for the state compared to the other museums, lowering the coercive pressure perceived.

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27 underlined by L is the reputation and professionalization of the highest level of the management, in the case of the Louisiana, the Board of Trustees, composed of professionists coming from different fields such as architecture, finance, geology. The positive results obtained constitute also a great element in reducing coercive and mimetic pressures from the environment, contributing to enhance the status of the museums.

3.2.4 Organizational change

The organizational change analyzed is the one that occurred in 2008 and consists of the enforcement of the financial department and the introduction of a new CFO in the organization. The effect of this change is the implementation and professionalization of a reporting and budgeting system as well as project planning, definition and implementation of KPI and privatization of external contracts. As L stated, the 2008 was the year of the third step of the reorganization since its foundation. This change can be regarded as a change in the culture and in the orientation of the organization. All the new practices introduced aimed to professionalize the entire organization enabling also the insourcing of commercial activities. This change represented a model of inspiration for other museums, as L said:

‘ When I talked to colleagues and other people in my position in other museums there wasn't a real focus on commercial activities. But that has changed a lot during the last 10 years, because they know the importance of it ... if you have a shop or a cafe then, as I mentioned, you can support the museum content. So there has been a change in the focus in many museums. So they are more looking at the Louisiana model and the way how we run out our museum, and a lot of museums are run in that way today. But that was not the case 10 years ago ‘

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28 internal, driven by internal forces. Thus, it is possible to see in this change also the willingness to disengage from external dependence, reaching or aiming to economic self-sufficiency.

3.2.5 Performance measurement

This paragraph is strongly related to the previous one, due to the fact that the core organizational change included also a change in the performance measurement.

As previously mentioned, L (the new CFO) introduced new parameters as KPI at three different levels: macro level, process level, micro level. The first group aimed to provide evidences of the efficiency and effectiveness of the management of the organization, and also to prove the importance of the organization for Denmark as a successful business model. This is the case, for example, of the calculation of the ratio VAT / fund received, which is 1.25, to show to government, during the annual inspection, the importance of the institution as a profitable activity for the country. At a process level, it was introduced a new budgeting system in order to provide precise data on expenses to support the content creation and not just an approximate idea of the costs. It was also added a new way of post process measuring to better reflect on the previous exhibitions and to improve the content creation. The third group of new KPIs seeked for the professionalization of business activities connected with the Louisiana, i.e. shop and cafe, in order to transform them into profitable asset; L understood the potentiality of the

Overall, the background and the previous experience of the CFO played an important role in the introduction of new KPIs; the following lines provide a clear example:

‘when I started here, they always made budgets for exhibition, but they won't never keep it. They will always extend the budget all the time... every time it became more expensive… I wanted to be more realistic and we started doing that. And then of course we had to prioritize and we had to cut costs somewhere but we obviously became much more efficient and we became much more better in controlling the whole financial situation‘

3.3 Museo Egizio di Torino

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29 for Egyptian art in the world after the one in Cairo, the only one that Egyptian authorities did not ask back for the restitution of the collection. Its original collection was enriched during the Thirties by 30000 new archaeological findings thanks to new archaeological campaigns financed by the museum itself.

From an organizational perspective, the museum has been private with a special superintendence until 2005 when the public collection was entrusted through subscription to a private foundation. This scenario constituted a novelty in the Italian scene and since the Italian legislation did not explicit this possibility, they had to build the entire organization without being able to take inspiration from any existing example. Further details on this change will be analyzed in detail in the following paragraphs.

The Museo Egizio di Torino is not financed by any national or local institution, it raises therefore autonomously 100% of the annual expenses. In recent years, from 2015 onwards, it even overcame 100% reaching a range between 102% to 113%, depending on the year. Due to the mission and legal constraints profit has to be allocated in a research fund, which enables the presence of scientific research staff. Unfortunately the interviewee was not allowed to share information about the composition of this 100% and the impact of the shop, ticketing and sponsorships on the income.

However before 2015, i.e. during the organizational change analyzed, the financing system was different. As a matter of fact in 2005 (the first year of activity) 750 thousands euros were conferred as equity by the original bestowal. Moreover, it was conferred an extraordinary fund of 50 million euros as a captive use for the building restoration and another fund of 3 million (released every five years) for ordinary expenses. This last fund was created to achieve a balanced budget. The ordinary fund was confirmed for two consecutive quinquennium but not for the third. In 2014, the board of directors decided to switch to an annual fund for ordinary expenses, restricting thus the museum strategy. Nevertheless, this new financing system forced the museum to move towards a different and positive direction, as T points out:

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30 strengthening of our income activities, in order to ideally reach the economic self-sufficiency’1

The outcome has been particularly impressive since after 2015, they reached breakeven every year, obtaining also a surplus, conferred into a fund for scientific research.

3.3.2 Institutional environment

In Italy the State has always played a prominent role in arts and culture and economically it still represents the primary funding actor for the main cultural institutions including heritage, museums, archives and libraries, leaving cultural industries, and occasionally performing arts, aside (Compendium, 2019). As a matter of fact cultural industries financially depend on the marketplace, even if in exceptional cases they can receive public subsidies. Nonetheless in the last years the government’ support has been gradually decreasing. This trend negatively affected the publicly funded categories, which now have to rely more on grants coming from the non-profit private sector and from the marketplace itself (Compendium, 2019).

The State has also a central role from an administrative perspective. Indeed as mentioned in the Compendium (2019) the Italian administrative model expects “direct intervention in public administration the support of cultural activities, and, in many cases, in the management of cultural institutions (museums, sites, theatres, etc…)”. Such administrative responsibilities are shared among the different cultural departments of municipalities, provinces, regions and of the Ministry of the Heritage, Cultural Activities and Tourism (MiBACT) which operates at a national level and holds the most relevant functions (Compendium, 2019).

In terms of cultural policies Italy follows the four basic principles of the Council of Europe, previously cited, giving particular attention to the values of preservation of identity and creativity support and not that much for cultural participation (Compendium, 2019). Besides that, the Italian policy system regarding the organization in the museum sector is based on ‘Il codice dei beni culturali e del paesaggio, codice Urbani’2_{and the ‘Decreto Musei, Organizzazione e funzionamento dei Musei}

Statali’3_{, promoted by the MiBACT. This document affirms the importance of museum’s constitution,}

statute, balance sheet and organization. According to the Decreto the balance sheet has to show the

1_{Translated quote from Italian: ‘}_{L'aspetto invece di grandissima sfida e che secondo me dopo tanti anni ci ha}

fatto bene è stato che, avendo solo un fondo di dotazione ordinario annuale abbiamo compreso che la nostra forza stava nel l'irrobustimento finanziario delle nostre capacità di raccolta ricavi, per un tendenziale raggiungimento dell' autofinanziamento’

2_{Cultural Heritage and Territory code, code Urbani}

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31 plan of the financial and economic results and the principles are the same as the for profit sector. Regarding the organizational structure it foresees 5 functional areas that have to be present in museums: a) direction, b) management of the collection, study, research, education, c) marketing, fundraising, relationship with the public, d) administration, finance and HR, e) structure, security. However, the museums with special autonomy have, in addition to the previous functional area, other important organism like a board of directors, a scientific committee and a board of auditors; furthermore they have scientific, financial, economic, accounting and organizational autonomy. Cultural institutions with this particular title are 24, and they could be considered the ‘Italian superstars’. They include la Galleria degli Uffizi, to the Colosseo, from Pompei to Reggia di Caserta. These museums are subjected to direct supervision of the MiBACT. An innovative aspect of the Decreto is the introduction of a new figure, Direttore Generale Musei4_{(DGM). The DGM has a}

prominent role in museum discipline since he has to provide the standards for control and evaluation of cultural institutions, and also give an evaluation to every institution in terms of efficacy and effectiveness. In this terms, the standards provided annually by ICOM have to be taken into account. The creation of the DGM was a radical change in the Italian Cultural Policy.

An aspect that is related to the Italian cultural policy and that is particularly relevant for this research, regards public museums that became private. As mentioned in the description, this is the case of Museo Egizio di Torino where however, the change was not explicitly regulated and constituted a new case study. This type of change in the ownership and of entrusting a public asset to a private legal subject exists only for two other cultural organization: fondazione MAXXI (Rome) and fondazione Aquileia (Acquileia).

Within the institutional environment we cannot avoid mentioning the impending phenomenon of the private museum. Indeed, Italy is at the second place for number of private museums in the world, with +62% of them having been founded after 2000 (Zorloni, 2019). This tendency is also assessed by BMW Art Guide (2015) and the Private Art Museum Report (2015). Following the research of Zorloni (2019), from a governance point of view these institutions are mainly part of for profit organizations (banks or investment funds), not for profit organizations, can have a private ownership or represent a collaboration between a private subject with the public institution.

3.3.3 The museum and the institutional environment

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32 The main stakeholders of the museum coincide with the Board of founders, that incorporates political institutions, both at local and country level, as well as bank foundations which are, as T said, particularly relevant in Turin in terms of economic influence. Moreover, also the visitors and other cultural institution play an important role.

The re-foundation of the Museo Egizio di Torino has been the outcome of an intense political initiative, originated by the agreement of the previously cited institution and since the beginning until 2014 the museum perceived a strong coercitive pressure from those figures, which have a double role of founders and political figures. T specifies that this pressure should not be always regarded as negative; following T words:

‘(A/N political) interferences, in their positive sense, have often helped us to solve problems and national dynamics in terms of authorization […] however, sometimes, political

institutions pressed, forcing us to make decisions that would have solved local problems’ 5

As mentioned before from a governance perspective, the museum was a new and unprecedented case in the Italian context and in this sense the organization struggled in the beginning to manage itself. When afterwards the organization was growing together with its competencies and the political influences started to be perceived as a limitation for the museum strategy, Evelina Christillin, the president, played an important role in reducing the political pressure.

The size, age, and growing competencies as well as accredited and well-known figures who joined the organization started to decrease the coercive pressure. As T said:

‘from 2015 onwards, even if (A/N political figures) hardly tried to include museum decision in wider political decision, we have opposed because we started to have a strength as institution and in that moment we had the possibility to say no’

In 2015 the budget system and the funds allocation started to be approved on a one year base, instead of a quinquennial one, making almost impossible a long-term strategy planning. Surprisingly the museum reacted reaching the economic self-sufficiency and disengaging from any dependence from external funds. Next to these factors others appeared to have an influence in

5_{Translated quote from Italian: ‘Le interferenze, nella loro accezione positiva, spesso ci hanno aiutato a}

risolvere i problemi e le dinamiche autorizzative nazionali … qualche volta invece le interferenze politiche ci hanno fatto un'azione di pressione affinché le decisioni gestionali in qualche modo accogliessero le

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33 shaping the relationship between museum and institutional environment. The value creation and scientific research, according to T, contribute to the local establishment, enhancing the status of the cultural organization, whereas travel exhibition and scientific research played an important role for the international reputation.

3.3.4 Organizational change

The organizational change analyzed regards the switch from being a public to a private institution and occurred in 2004-2005. It can be regarded as a change that lasted 10 years due mainly to two reasons. From a policy perspective, the case of the Museo Egizio represents a novelty in the Italian context, that’s why they defined themselves as an ‘experiment’, and the direct consequence was that they had to discover from a legal perspective how to act and this required time. The second reason is that from a managerial perspective the museum had to discover all the best practices and develop its own experience:

‘I didn't know exactly what I would have faced (A/N when I joined the organization in 2004) because there was no structure [...] the work dynamics were completely fluid and destructured

also from a conceptual perspective’ 6

Before 2004 the museum was organized as a ‘small ministry department’: a superintendent had the function of director, there were curators, ministerial officials and administrative employee. The communication department, archivist department and marketing department were profoundly underdeveloped, when present there was just one employee. The external activities, like the bookshop, were already outsourced. In this sense, this change can be considered a total re-foundation of the organization. The 2004-2005 structure, reduced the number of employees of approximately 65%, with the results of lowering the distance with the top level of the management and decentralizing the decisional process. With this respect a lower size of the institution contributed to the building up of a shared strategy, in which every member of the organization gave his contribution.

Contrary to common sense, the 2004-2005 organizational change decreased the general efficiency of the museum, especially in the first years after the refoundation. As t said, the reformulation of all the practices led to a general increase of the effort to achieve objective; every practice needed to be discovered and refined, every challenge was new and a new way of problem

6_{Translated quote from Italian: ‘non sapevo esattamente che cosa avrei affrontato perché non c'era}

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34 solving was needed. The overall organization aimed from 2004-2005 to 2015 to the bureaucratization and formalization of processes, in order to achieve efficiency. As T said ‘in the destructured fluidity of ideas and practices’ the organization did not spend enough time in evaluating and formalizing the past activities. Overall this change can be regarded as the result of both an internally driven force and external pressures. The internal willingness to implement the activity of the museum moved the organization towards the change during the years, whilst external pressures, such as the change in the funds allocation, together with political impositions on the museum’s strategy, forced the organization to undertake a new path, aiming to economic self-sufficiency.

3.3.5 Performance measurement

The performance measurement system was introduced by the development of the European Funds Department together with the scientific director of the museum. The formalization of a model is still in act, and takes inspiration from studies of Dutch universities. As highlighted by T, starting measuring cultural and economic performances enhanced the institutional dimension of the organization, providing a concrete measure of the worth of the work and the activities of the museum. This characteristic directly affected the pressure from the institutional environment, especially with stakeholders such as local and national government and banks and other financial institutions. More in depth, as stated by T, this resolution helped to talk and deal with those stakeholders, because those numbers returns and justifies the choices made. One example highlighted by T, regards the measurement of the impact on the local context, estimated around 187 million €. Concerning this last measure, T said:

‘what we have done (A/N the measurement of the impact on the local context), we did it to create a recognizable identity of economic value creation. Obviously, the museum also creates another type of value, but that number is understandable by the majority. When politics are in our board of founders, they don’t know what managing a museum means, and often they ask for following incoherent strategies with our governance, but in these occasions I can say: “My value is 187 million, this means that my choices are correct” [...] and so where there is an attempt of political interference, we can say openly no and that was not possible in the past’ 7

7_{Translated italian quote: ‘}_{quello l'abbiamo fatto in qualche modo per crearsi una identità riconoscibile di}

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35

3.4 The Rijksmuseum

The ‘museum of the Netherlands’ was born in 1800 and hosts the biggest collection of the country; it is also the first museum in the country for visitors, approximately 2.3 million per year. It is also in the top 30 museum in the world for visitors per year. The collection is active and extremely variegated, it ranges from the 17th to the 20th century, with a particular focus on Dutch arts, but also includes collection for other parts of the world (particularly relevant is the Asian pavillion). It also preserves several masterpieces from the Night Watch (Rembrandt) to the Milkmaid (Vermeer), passing from the Square Man (Appel) and the Threatened Swan (Asselijn).

As mentioned before, the museum opened the 31 of May 1800 with the name of ‘Nationale Kunstgalerij’ and a few years later the collection was taken to Amsterdam. The works of the actual museum started in 1876, because the previous placement didn’t fit the requirements of the cultural organizations, and the works finished 9 years later in 1885 with the official reopening of the museum; several were also the renovations in the 20th century.

Regarding the structure of the museum, in 1927 it is possible to observe an important switch. Under the managing director Schmidt-Degener, we can assess the first structural change in the curatorial departments, with the split of the Department of Dutch History from the Department of Sculpture & applied Arts; the same happened in the 50s with the Asian Art Department after the donation of the asian collection.

Another important topic regards how the museum is financed or finance itself. The Rijksmuseum receive one third of the finances by the state and of the remaining they raise on themselves. One third of this 66% is the income from ticket sales, and the other two thirds come from private donations, institutional donations and sponsorships.

3.4.2 Institutional environment

The Netherlands follows the four basic principles of the Council of Europe, previously cited. Besides that, the Dutch cultural policy system is based on the concept that ‘the state should distance itself from value judgements on art’ (Compendium, 2019); this means that the state delegate the art

Institutional Pressures and Organizational Changes in the Museum Sector: a Grounded Theory approach

Contents

1.

Introduction

2.

Grounded theory

3.

Findings

_Introduction

_{Grounded theory}