The Active Role of Courts in Consumer Litigation

T HE A CTIVE R OLE OF C OURTS IN C ONSUMER L ITIGATION

T HE A CTIVE R OLE OF C OURTS IN C ONSUMER L ITIGATION

Applying EU Law of the National Courts’

Own Motion

Anthi Beka

Cambridge – Antwerp – Chicago

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Th e Active Role of Courts in Consumer Litigation. Applying EU Law of the National Courts’ Own Motion

© Anthi Beka 2018

Th e author has asserted the right under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, to be identifi ed as author of this work.

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ISBN 978-1-78068-617-2 D/2018/7849/63

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British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

To Judge Jos é Mar í a Fern á ndez Seijo for the “ courage of law ”

I ’ m fi ne with a world where people have the right to break the law. But I also want, as a judge, the right to make people respect it. Isn ’ t that what liberalism is ? Emmanuel Carr è re, Other lives but mine (translated by Linda Coverdale) London, Serpent ’ s Tail, 2012

FOREWORD

BY PROFESSOR ELISE POILLOT

For me, it is a real pleasure to present Dr. Anthi Beka ’ s monograph devoted to Th e Active Role of Courts in Consumer Litigation – Applying EU Law of the National Courts ’ Own Motion , as it was a pleasure for me to supervize her doctoral research during her four years at the University of Luxembourg. Th e book, published today, is a revised version of her PhD thesis which revealed her outstanding research qualities. It was presented to, and discussed, by a prestigious European committee composed of: Prof. Dr. Vassilios Skouris, then-President of the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU);

Prof. Dr. Norbert Reich, University of Bremen, who is considered the father of German consumer law; Prof. Dr. Eleft heria Neframi, University of Luxembourg, a renowned expert on EU law; Prof. Dr. Christian Twigg-Flesner, University of Warwick, a consultant on the UK ’ s Consumer Rights Act; and Dr. Jos é Mar í a Fern á ndez Seijo, Judge at the Commercial Court of Appeal, Barcelona, who made the very fi rst CJEU reference for preliminary ruling on the matter of the role of the courts in consumer proceedings, followed by other such important requests in connection with Spanish consumer law. Since then, Dr. Anthi Beka has worked as a legal administrator in the chambers of a Member of the Court of Justice. Dr. Beka did not, however, abandon the world of legal research as confi rmed by her most recent publications. ^*

Her monograph on the “ Active Role of Courts in Consumer Litigation ” is more  evidence of the excellence of her scientifi c production. It transforms a young  researcher ’ s work, already quite remarkable by reason of its scientifi c quality, into a mature work that describes, analyzes and provides a critical appraisal of the complexity of the relationship which exists between national legal orders and the EU legal framework. Beyond the extremely valuable

* A. Beka , “ Th e Protection of the Primary Residence of Mortgage Debtors: Embedding the ‘ Basic Needs ’ Principle in Mortgage Repossession Proceedings ” in L. Ratti (ed.), Embedding the Principles of Life Time Contracts, A Research Agenda for Contract Law (Th e Hague, Eleven Publishing, 2018 ), 247 – 276 ; G. Cuniberti and A. Beka, “ National Report – Luxembourg ” in B. Hess et al. (eds.), Evaluation Study of National Procedural Law and Practices in Terms of their Impact on the Free Circulation of Judgments and on the Equivalence and Eff ectiveness of the Procedural Protection of Consumers under EU Consumer Law , MPI Luxembourg for Procedural Law as commissioned by the Directorate-General for Justice and Consumers, European Commission (Nomos/Hart forthcoming 2018).

Intersentia Foreword by Professor Elise Poillot

viii

contribution of Dr.  Beka ’ s study to the doctrine of active courts in consumer litigation, her book brings to light the very essence of the relationship which exists between judges  – whether they operate at a national level or at a regional level – and citizens. It is more than a legal study; it is a social study. It is the narrative of human and judicial bondage.

Th e book refl ects Dr. Beka ’ s original, innovative, and remarkably insightful look into the ex offi cio power of European judges in the context of consumer law. While conducting her extensive research of this doctrine from a theoretical (i.e., legislative and doctrinal) perspective, Dr. Beka went further, by examining the practical application of the ex offi cio power by fi rst-instance courts and by interviewing legal practitioners and judges from various Member State courts of fi rst instance to gain a better insight into the complex issues they face when confronted with consumer complaints, as well as the solutions they adopt. She wanted to see the doctrine in action. Dr. Beka concludes that the ex offi cio doctrine applies under two circumstances: when “ mandatory law ” is applicable to a specifi c context (e.g., a legislative presumption that one party to a transaction has a weaker negotiation position than the other); and when there is an imbalance in the consumer ’ s legal relationship with the business. Dr. Beka reveals, for the fi rst time, a clear formulation of the legal framework surrounding the ex offi cio doctrine. She also demonstrates that this legal framework not only forges a Europeanized model of an active consumer court, but also stands as a pillar of procedural consumer law, touching upon a fundamental aspect of civil procedure. She shows how the narrative of consumer procedural law has evolved, and will continue to evolve, to incorporate the specifi cities of consumer law into the procedures themselves and how it impacts diff erent types of proceeding (payment, insolvency and mortgage). Dr. Beka, in light of her innovative empirical study of fi rst instance court judges, also establishes that this doctrine has already transformed the judicial mind-set in diff erent jurisdictions.

Her collaboration with Spanish and English judges, as well as her fi rst-hand observations at relevant court hearings, gives her work a unique, cutting-edge perspective. Finally, and perhaps most surprisingly, Dr. Beka ’ s work reveals how seemingly technical, procedural rules can encompass a humanized perception of procedure. She is able to demonstrate that, behind the courts ’ procedural rulings, the ex offi cio doctrine allows citizens ’ true stories to unfold before the judges ’ eyes and allows courts, be they the CJEU or a fi rst-instance national court, to take on the role of “ guardian of EU fundamental rights ” . Th e need for such a guardian, and the courts ’ assumption of that role, is more crucial than ever because the on-going crisis transcends fi nance and now strikes at the very pillars of the Member States ’ and EU ’ s polities; the courts ’ application of this doctrine in consumer law makes plain that, contrary to some frequently expressed opinions, EU law is not a disembodied set of rules interpreted by judges far removed from the citizens ’ daily reality.

Foreword by Professor Elise Poillot

However, Dr. Beka also acknowledges that judicial failure to act in accordance with the ex offi cio doctrine – that is, a judge ’ s refusal to exercise the discretion he has to protect fundamental rights – can theoretically be sanctioned or corrected within the judicial system, but hardly will be in practice. Rather, Dr. Beka shrewdly suggests that, to solve that problem, extrajudicial measures must be taken. For example, she proposes judicial training in the exercise of ex offi cio power to accustom judges to such a legal mechanism. She also convincingly advocates raising judicial awareness of the human consequences of unfair contractual terms in consumer transactions and supporting judges in their attempt to identify and address such unfair or imbalanced provisions.

Her conclusions and solutions are ground-breaking.

Th ose who will read Dr. Beka ’ s book will not only learn about the active role of courts in consumer litigation. Th ey will also be reminded that the law is not a mere conceptual process, but is made by and for human beings and that scholars should bear this in mind when they embark on a legal research. Anthi Beka never forgot it, even when she came across extremely complex legal issues.

Th e understanding of this fact is evident in her book because she is not only an extremely talented lawyer, she is fi rst and foremost, an extremely talented person.

Prof. Dr. Elise Poillot Professeur en Droit civil Director of the Consumer Law Clinic University of Luxembourg

INTRODUCTION

BY JUDGE ETIENNE RIGAL

Le premier poste de juge que j ’ ai occup é a é t é celui de juge d ’ application des peines. Durant 8 ann é es, j ’ ai é t é charg é d ’ accompagner et de surveiller des condamn é s, parfois de les incarc é rer, de ma propre initiative, d ’ offi ce, au nom de leur apparente dangerosit é , de la protection de la s é curit é collective, de l ’ ordre public.

Puis je suis, presque par hasard, devenu juge d ’ instance, ce magistrat qui est tout à la fois appel é à ê tre un civiliste g é n é raliste de proximit é et un sp é cialiste du droit de la consommation, notamment du droit du cr é dit.

L à , j ’ ai appris que je ne devais pas, d ’ offi ce, m ’ int é resser à l ’ ordre public, au nom duquel j ’ avais pourtant tant puni. J ’ avais incarc é r é tant d ’ hommes et de femmes, le plus souvent pleins de leurs faiblesses sociales et psychologiques.

Je ne devais pas prot é ger, m ê me ceux que la loi appr é hendait comme les faibles au contrat.

On choisit d ’ ê tre jug é dans l ’ id é e de rendre justice et mon id é e du juste est celle de l ’ unit é sociale et de la coh é rence. En cela je ne pouvais et je ne peux toujours pas penser le droit comme divisible; il n ’ y a pour moi qu ’ un ordre public, sans distinction entre sa part p é nale et sa part civile. Protection et sanction ne se justifi ent l ’ une que par l ’ autre.

Penser l ’ unicit é du droit et rester le juriste que j ’ avais choisi d ’ ê tre, dans la coh é rence de son offi ce, voil à ce qui m ’ a guid é et me guide encore aujourd ’ hui.

Un autre refus m ’ habitait, celui de c é der à la tentation de d é fi nir moi-m ê me, seul, mon offi ce, alors que je suis appel é à rendre la justice au nom du peuple fran ç ais, comme le rappelle la loi, à servir. Exclure l ’ imperium du juge et pourtant r é sister à ce qui é tait la jurisprudence restrictive de notre Cour de cassation. Une seule voie é tait l é gitime, m ’ en remettre au dialogue des juges et au droit de l ’ Union.

Tout ce qui m ’ a conduit à interroger celle qui alors se nommait la CJCE est ici racont é .

Le code civil fran ç ais en son article 1231-5 é nonce que: « Le juge peut, m ê me d ’ offi ce, mod é rer ou augmenter la p é nalit é … convenue (au contrat) si elle est manifestement excessive ou d é risoire » .

J ’ appelle de mes voeux des juges en charge, au besoin d ’ offi ce, d ’ ê tre gardiens de l ’ exc è s et protecteurs de l ’ ordre public, cela dans l ’ exercice de toutes leurs fonctions civiles comme p é nales.

Intersentia Introduction by Judge Etienne Rigal

xii

Comment ne pas ê tre heureux que ces questions, au-del à de se poser au juge, int é ressent une doctrine enrichissant la pens é e commune.

Pour toutes ces raisons, j ’ ai accept é sans aucune h é sitation et avec gratitude de r é diger l ’ avant-propos de l ’ ouvrage de Madame Anthi Beka, Th e Active Role of Courts in Consumer Litigation – Applying EU Law of the National Courts ’ Own Motion qui retrace l ’ histoire, é crite avec d ’ autres, de juges nationaux qui s ’ en sont remis à la Cour de Justice de l ’ Union Europ é enne afi n que la voie l é gitime du relev é d ’ offi ce soit trac é e. Mme Beka apporte à ces histoires un cadre scientifi que, ce qui lui permet de prendre la hauteur de vue que nous n ’ avions pas et d ’ observer de fa ç on pos é e et objective les cons é quences l é gales qui en sont d é coul é es. Qu ’ elle en soit ici remerci é e.

Etienne Rigal Vice-pr é sident du tribunal d ’ instance de Villefranche-sur-Sa ô ne Vice-pr é sident de la commission des clauses abusives [ Translated by the author ]:

Th e fi rst judicial position I held was one of a sentencing judge. Over an eight  year period, I was in charge of accompanying and monitoring condemned persons, sometimes having to incarcerate them, on my own initiative due to their apparent dangerousness, for the sake of protecting the general public and for public order. Th en I became, almost by chance, a fi rst instance judge, a judge that is in charge of civil law disputes and a specialist of consumer law, in particular consumer credit law, at the same time.

In this role, I learned that I should not raise pleas of public policy of my own motion in the name of which I had, nonetheless, sentenced in the past.

I incarcerated many men and women, quite oft en, people who had many social and psychological weaknesses. My role was not to protect even those people that the law designated as the weaker party in the contract.

One decides to become a judge in order to deliver justice and my idea of justice is one of social unity and coherence. From this perspective, I could not, and I cannot still, envisage the law as divisible; for me there is only one public order, one without distinction between the penal element and the civil element.

Protection and sanction are mutually justifi ed.

To think of the unity of law and to remain the lawyer that I have chosen to be, heeding to the coherence of the legal function, is what has guided me and still guides me today.

I have also refused to concede to the temptation of defi ning my judicial role alone, as I am expected to provide justice in the name of the French people and to serve as the law requires. I have had to exclude the exercise of the power of the judge, while still having to resist what was, at the time, the restrictive case law of

Introduction by Judge Etienne Rigal

our court of cassation. Th e only legitimate way to reach a solution was to resort to the dialogue of judges and to Union law.

Th e reasons which led me to make a reference for preliminary ruling to the Court which, at that time, was called the European Court of Justice are discussed in this book.

Article 1231-5 of the French Civil Code provides: “ Th e court may, even of its own motion, moderate or increase the penalty ( … ) decided (in the contract) if it is manifestly excessive or petty ” .

I invite full-heartedly judges to penalize excessive claims – if need be of their own motion – and to protect the public policy in the framework of the exercise of their civil or penal duties.

I can only be glad that such questions occupy not only the judiciary, but are also the focus of academic research, enriching refl ection.

For these reasons, I accepted without any hesitation, and with gratitude, the off er to write an introduction for Anthi Beka ’ s book, Th e Active Role of Courts in Consumer Litigation – Applying EU Law of the National Courts ’ Own Motion , which retraces the history of the national judges who addressed the Court of Justice of the European Union so as to establish the active role of the courts.

Anthi Beka gives these stories a scientifi c framework, which allows her to take a high level view which we judges do not have and to observe, in a measured and  objective way, the resulting legal consequences. For this, she should be thanked.

Etienne Rigal Vice-President of the First Instance Court

of Villefranche sur Sa ô ne, France Vice-President of the French Unfair Terms Law Commission

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

As you set out for Ithaca hope the voyage is a long one, full of adventure, full of discovery.

C.P. Cavafy, 1863 – 1933 As the “ voyage ” on which this work has taken me comes to an end, I wish to take a pause and deeply thank those persons that made it fascinating.

I wish to start with the Dean of the Faculty of Law of the University of Maastricht, Professor Jan Smits, for supporting the publication of this book with Intersentia. It was aft er reading his dissertation more than ten years ago that I developed a particular research interest for the then emerging fi eld of European private law. I seise this occasion to express my admiration for his work and for the leading research conducted by the M-EPLI Maastricht European Private Law Institute.

I also wish to thank Intersentia, in particular two of its excellent professionals, Ann-Christin Maak-Scherpe and Rebecca Moff at.

If this book comes to fruition, it will be thanks to the constant support of Judge Michail Vilaras, with whom I have the honor to work at the European Court of Justice. Working with him for the past two years provided me with a fresh insight into the subject of this work and motivated me to proceed with its publication. I thank my colleagues with the chambers and in particular the legal secretary, Flavien Mariatte, for all our discussions over the last two years.

I also wish to thank the former legal secretaries, Kostas Popotas and Evelyne Tichadou.

I would next wish to express my gratitude toward Professor Elise Poillot, this excellent legal mind, whose innovative ideas “ sail ” the research in the fi eld of European private law through new terrains. I had the chance to benefi t from her wise guidance during the completion of my dissertation at the University of Luxembourg, upon which this book builds and expands. I would then wish to thank the members of the jury of my dissertation for providing the most useful comments which further nourished my refl ection. I would fi rst of all start with the late Professor Dr. Norbert Reich, the loss of whom has deeply saddened the academic community. He leaves behind a legacy that will guide the future generations of European private law scholars. I would like to thank the former President of the Court of Justice, Professor Vassilios Skouris, under the wise presidency of whom the consumer active court doctrine was established.

Professor Skouris so kindly accepted to honor my work with his presence and

Intersentia Acknowledgments

xvi

to share his invaluable experience with me. I would like to thank Professor Christian Twigg-Flesner, Professor Eleft heria Neframi and the expert-member of the jury, Judge of the Court of Barcelona, Jos é Mar í a Fern á ndez Seijo.

Meeting Judge Jos é Mar í a Fern á ndez Seijo, this exceptional fi gure of the judiciary, was a turning point in my work. His “ humanized ” vision of law has deeply inspired me. I thank him so much for all the time and care he devoted to my work and for inviting me to participate in a conference of the Judicial Council ( Consejo General del Poder Judicial ) on the impact of the case law of the Court on the protection of mortgage debtors in the Spanish legal system.

My participation as a national rapporteur for Luxembourg to the empirical study of the Max Planck Institute (Luxembourg) on the strand pertaining to the procedural protection of consumers, carried out in 2016 on behalf of the European Commission, gave me the chance to hold interviews with national judges in Luxembourg. I would in particular like to thank Judge Fran ç oise Hilger for explaining to me the particularities of the ex offi cio judicial role and for sharing with me her enthusiasm for a human vision of proceedings.

I also thank Judge Gérard Biardeaud, Vice – President of the Tribunal de Grande Instance of Limoges and Director of consumer law judicial training at the French National School of the Judiciary ( É cole Nationale de la Magistrature), for inviting me to participate in a seminar on consumer credit and the case law of the Court of Justice which enhanced my understanding of the infl uence of this case law on the French legal order.

Back in 2013, I had the chance to meet with county court judges in England. It was a precious chance to gain an insight of English small claims and repossession proceedings in the County Court of Kingston upon Hull. I am thankful to Judge Besford, Judge Mclliwaine, Judge Knightinghale, Judge Neal and Judge Richardson, who took the time to answer my enquiries with much enthusiasm. Th e person who very kindly took care that I meet with the judges was clerk Stephen Jones.

I would like to thank the former Dean of the Faculty of Law of the University of Hull, Professor Christian Twigg-Flesner, for welcoming me on my visit to the faculty, which gave me the chance to hold fruitful discussions with Honorary Fellow Diana Wallis and Reader Dr. Lisa Whitehouse.

Finally, I met with judges in Greece at the height of the sovereign debt crisis and during a period where the fi rst instance courts had to deal with a very high number of applications of over-indebted consumers, following the coming into force of the (then) new law on consumer insolvency. I visited the County Court of Th essaloniki and Volos. I wish to thank Judge Konsta, Judge Arvanitidis and Judge Kotsianis. I was very touched by the humanity with which they exercise their judicial role.

I would then like to thank the academic community of the FDEF of the University of Luxembourg, and more particularly Professor S é verine Menetrey.

Acknowledgments

Her theory of the procedure as a lever in recalibrating competing interests ( outil de r é equilibrage des int é r ê ts ) has followed me throughout my work. I had the important occasion to benefi t from discussions with the Visiting Professor and former Judge in the General Court, Arjen Meij, who so kindly shares his wisdom with young scholars. Th e theoretical insight of Professor Johan van der Walt has been an incredible source of refl ection. Particularly in the fi rst stages of my research, I found a compass in my discussions with Professor Herwig Hofmann, Professor Gilles Cuniberti and Professor J ö rg Gerkrath.

I will always remain intellectually indebted to the Professors of the Department of Civil Law, Civil Procedural and Labor Law at the Faculty of Law at Aristotle University of Th essaloniki (Greece). It is not easy to fi nd the words to thank the person who I would wish to consider as my mentor in law, Professor  Evangelia Podimata. Her writings are intellectual diamonds to which every young researcher can aspire. I also wish to thank Emeritus Professor Marianos Karasis, Professor Paris Arvanitakis, Professor Konstandinos Stamatis, Professor Nikoleta Paisidou, Professor Athanasios Pouliades, Professor Christina Deliyanni-Dimitrakou and Professor Eutuxia Kounougeri- Manoledaki.

It is a good occasion to say a heartfelt thank you to the people who welcomed me in the European Commission during my internship in 2007, Dr. Emil Ems, Dr. Francisco Caballero Sanz and Klaus Ossmann, who continue to follow my academic steps since then.

Coming to the end of these acknowledgments, I thank my family Nikolaos, Ifi geneia and Anna Beka, and my husband, Lorenzo Debay, for always being there and for embracing me with all their love. As the late Professor Norbert Reich used to tell me jokingly, your husband is the true “ weaker party. ” On this occasion, I ask him to excuse me for all the time I deprived him of and to thank him for believing in me and for accompanying me in this eff ort.

Anthi Beka Luxembourg, March 15, 2018 Disclaimer: All opinions expressed are strictly those of the author.

CONTENTS

Foreword by Professor Elise Poillot . . . vii

Introduction by Judge Etienne Rigal . . . .xi

Acknowledgments . . . xv

List of Cases . . . xxvii

List of Abbreviations . . . xxxiii

Introduction . . . 1

PART I. THE DOCTRINE OF THE ACTIVE CONSUMER COURT IN CONTEXT Chapter 1. Setting the Scene: Europeanization of Consumer Procedural Law and Judicial Protection of Union Rights . . . 9

1. Th e Direct Europeanization of Consumer Procedural Law . . . 10

2. Th e Indirect Europeanization of Consumer Procedural Law . . . 17

2.1. Th e Function of Procedural Autonomy: A Mechanism Underpinning the System of Decentralized Enforcement of Union Law . . . 19

2.2. Th e Eff ective Protection of Union Rights Reshaping Procedural Autonomy . . . 29

2.2.1. Th e Principle of Equivalence: A Mild Impact Upon Member State Autonomy. . . 30

2.2.2. Th e Principle of Eff ectiveness in its Various Expressions and the Principle of Eff ective Judicial Protection . . . 31

2.2.3. Th e Articulation between the Principle of Eff ectiveness and Eff ective Judicial Protection as Standards of Review . . . . 38

Chapter 2. Th e General Rule on the Application of Union Law by National Courts of Th eir Own Motion . . . 45

1. Th e General Rule on the Ex Offi cio Application of Union Law: Th e Van Schijndel Line of Case Law . . . 48

1.1. Th e Main Strands of Reasoning . . . 48

1.1.1. Th e Public Policy Equivalence Principle . . . 48

1.1.2. Minimum Eff ectiveness . . . 49

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1.2. Th e General Rule in Civil and Administrative Proceedings. . . 51

1.3. Th e General Rule in Proceedings for Review of an Arbitration Award . . . 62

2. Th e Conceptual Elements of the Ex Offi cio Application of Union Law . . . 66

2.1. Public Policy: An Elusive and Variable Concept . . . 66

2.2. Union Public Policy before Union Courts . . . 68

2.3. Union Public Policy and Mandatory Law before National Courts . . . 72

Chapter 3. National Perspectives on the Application of Union Law by National Courts of Th eir Own Motion. . . 77

1. Th e “Prevailing Conceptions” with Regard to the Role of the Courts and the Parties: On the Principle of Party Presentation . . . 78

2. Illustrations from the National Courts’ Perspective on the Application of Union Law of Th eir Own Motion . . . 83

2.1. Th e English Court Perspective . . . 83

2.1.1. General Observations on the Relative Role of the Courts and the Parties . . . 83

2.1.2. Mandatory Rules of Union Law and the Role of the Courts . . . 86

2.2. Th e French Court Perspective . . . 88

2.2.1. General Observations on the Relative Role of the Courts and the Parties . . . 88

2.2.2. Th e Obligation and Faculty to Raise a Point of Law: Pure Points of Law and Points of Mixed Fact and Law . . . 91

2.2.3. National Case Law on the Powers of the Courts to Raise a Point of Law of Th eir Own Motion: Perspectives from the French, Belgian and Luxembourgian Case Law . . . 95

2.2.4. Ordre Public, Mandatory Law and Role of the Courts . . . 98

2.2.4.1. Public Policy and Ex Offi cio Obligation . . . 99

2.2.4.2. Mandatory Union Law and Role of the Courts . . . 102

2.3. Th e German Court Perspective . . . 105

2.3.1. General Observations on the Relative Role of the Courts and the Parties . . . 105

2.3.2. Mandatory Law and Powers of the Courts . . . 112

2.3.2.1. National Mandatory Law . . . 112

2.3.2.2. Mandatory Union Law . . . 116

2.4. Final Remarks on Van Schijndel and the National Legal Perspectives . . . 118

Contents

PART II. THE EMERGENCE AND DISTINCTIVE FEATURES OF THE ACTIVE CONSUMER COURT DOCTRINE

Chapter 4. Th e Establishment, Refi nement and Consequences

of Application of the Active Consumer Court Doctrine . . . 129

1. Océano Grupo: Laying the Foundations of an Active Consumer Court . . . 130

1.1. Th e Purposive Interpretation of the Unfair Contract Terms Directive Along the Lines of the Full Eff ectiveness of Union Law. . . 133

1.2. Th e Protection of the Consumer as Mandatory Law. . . 136

1.2.1. Th e Original Consideration of the Unfair Terms Legislation as a Refl ection of the Mandatory Rules of Economic Public Policy . . . 136

1.2.2. At the Crossroads of Concepts . . . 139

1.2.3. Th e Active Court and Impartiality . . . 140

1.3. Th e Terms Covered by the Doctrine . . . 141

1.4. Th e National Judgment . . . 143

2. Cofi dis: Turning the Tide, from Barcelona to Vienna via Luxembourg . . . 143

2.1. Th e “Polemic” Surrounding the Question in Cofi dis . . . 144

2.2. Th e Contribution of Cofi dis on the Building of the Active Consumer Court Doctrine . . . 149

2.3. Th e National Judgment and the Evolution in Legislation and Case Law . . . 151

3. Mostaza Claro and Asturcom Telecomunicaciones: Th e Mandatory Nature and Public Interest Quality of Consumer Protection Law. . . .154

3.1. Mostaza Claro: Th e Contribution to the Th eoretical Construction of the Doctrine . . . 155

3.1.1. Th e Issue of Unfairness of the Arbitration Clause . . . 156

3.1.2. Th e Powers of the Courts in Proceedings for Annulment of a Consumer Arbitration Award: Eco Swiss Tuned to Océano Grupo Purposiveness . . . 159

3.1.2.1. Th e Principle of National Procedural Autonomy . . . 159

3.1.2.2. Th e Mandatory Law and Public Interest Nature of the Protection Against Unfair Terms . . . 161

3.1.3. National Legislative Developments and the Judgment of the National Court . . . 163

3.2. Asturcom Telecomunicaciones: Protection from Unfair Terms of Equal Standing to Rules of Domestic Public Policy . . . 166

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3.2.1. Asturcom Telecomunicaciones: Proceedings for Enforcement of a Final Arbitration Award

and the Powers of the Courts . . . 166 3.2.1.1. Prevalence of the Res Judicata Principle . . . 168 3.2.1.2. Rules Protecting Against the Use of Unfair

Terms of Equal Standing to Domestic

Laws of Public Policy . . . 169 3.2.1.3. Th e Total Inertia Argument and the Alternative

Approach on the Basis of the Right to Eff ective Judicial Protection . . . 171 3.2.2. Pohotovost’: Unfair Terms in the Consumer Credit

Contract Enforced by Means of a Final Arbitration

Award . . . 175 4. Broadening and Refi ning the Doctrine of the Active

Consumer Court . . . 177 4.1. Broadening the Scope of Application of the Doctrine . . . 177

4.1.1. Océano Grupo Extended: Th e Rules of Consumer Protection Legislation Coming Under the Public Interest . . . 178 4.1.1.1. Rampion and Godard: Moving Beyond National

Classifi cations Which Impede the Powers

of the Courts . . . 178 4.1.1.2. Martín Martín: Th e Public Interest of Consumer

Protection Legislation Which Exceptionally

Justifi es a Positive Intervention by the Courts . . . . 181 4.1.2. Th e Obligation of the Courts to Examine

of Th eir Own Motion Infringements of EU Consumer

Protection Legislation . . . 183 4.1.2.1. Duarte Hueros: Th e Powers of the Courts to

Recognize of Th eir Own Motion the Right of the Consumer to Obtain a Remedy

in the Sales Contract . . . 184 4.1.2.2. Faber: Public Interest of the Rule Relating

to the Burden of Proof and Equal Standing

to Domestic Public Policy . . . 186 4.1.2.3. Radlinger and the All-Embracing Approach . . . 188 4.2. Refi ning the Doctrine . . . 189

4.2.1. Th e Obligation of the Courts Attached to the

Availability of All Factual and Legal Elements . . . 190 4.2.2. Th e Limited Obligation to Order Investigation

Measures . . . 195 4.2.3. An Obligation Subject to the Observance

of Adversarial Proceedings . . . 199

Contents

4.2.4. An Obligation to Raise the Unfair Term Independent of the Consumer Submission in that Regard,

but not Against his Will . . . 200 4.2.5. An Obligation of the Lower Courts and Eventually

of the Courts of Appeal . . . 203 5. Consequences of the Exercise of the Powers of the Courts

to Raise of Th eir Own Motion Pleas of Consumer Law . . . 205 5.1. Th e Assessment of the Validity of the Contract . . . 206 5.2. Th e Prohibition of Revision of an Unfair Term

and the Question of Substitution by a Statutory Provision . . . 208 5.2.1. Prohibition of Revision of the Content of an Unfair

Term in Order to Bring it to Compliance Levels . . . 208 5.2.2. Substitution of an Unfair Term by a Supplementary

Provision of National Law . . . 212 5.3. Declaration of Unfairness in Collective Proceedings

and Consequences for the Individual Action . . . 216 5.3.1. Erga Omnes Eff ect of the Finding of a Term Unfair

in Collective Proceedings: Invitel and Beyond . . . 216 5.3.2. Impact of Ongoing Collective Proceedings Upon

Pending Individual Proceedings . . . 223 5.4. Scope of the Force of Res Judicata of a Judgment

Declaring a Term Unfair . . . 227 5.5. Application by the Courts of Th eir Own Motion

of a Penalty Provided for the Infringement of the

Consumer Legislation . . . 229 6. Th e “Weaker Position” Rationale Tested Against Consumer

Associations . . . 233 6.1. Injunctive Relief, Rules on Jurisdiction and the Structure

of Legal Remedies . . . 234 6.2. Intervention of Consumer Associations in Individual

Consumer Law Proceedings . . . 236 Chapter 5. Th e Impact of the Active Consumer Court Doctrine

in Specifi c Proceedings . . . 239 1. Powers of the Courts in Order for Payment Proceedings . . . 240

1.1. Application of the Ex Offi cio Doctrine in the Order

for Payment Proceedings: Banco Español de Crédito . . . 241 1.2. Entrenching the Powers of the Courts in the Order

for Payment Proceedings: Finanmadrid . . . 245 2. Th e Duty of Court to Consider Consumer Protection Law

in Consumer Insolvency Proceedings: Radlinger . . . 249

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xxiv

3. Th e Legacy of Aziz for the Development of a Constitutional

Approach . . . 254 3.1. Th e Antecedents of Aziz: Th e Constitutional Challenge

of Mortgage Enforcement Law . . . 256 3.1.1. Th e Decision of the Spanish Supreme Court

on Anti-Defi ciency Challenge . . . 258 3.1.2. Th e Decision of the Spanish Constitutional Court

on the Limitation of Grounds of Defense . . . 258 3.2. Eff ective Judicial Protection of the Consumer

in the Mortgage Enforcement Proceedings . . . 260 3.2.1. Th e Procedural Question: Limitation of the Grounds

of Defense and Lack of Interim Relief . . . 260 3.2.2. Constitutional Dimension of the Protection

of the Mortgage Debtor . . . 265 3.2.2.1. Eff ective Judicial Protection . . . 266 3.2.2.2. Th e Right to Respect for One’s Family Life

and One’s Home . . . 268 3.2.2.3. Th e “Citizenship” Dimension of Residential

Mortgage Contracts . . . 274 3.3. Th e Legacy of Aziz for Procedural Guarantees

in the Mortgage Repossession Process . . . 280 3.3.1. Cases Building Upon the Constitutional Elements

of Aziz . . . 280 3.3.1.1. Procedural Imbalance in Mortgage Repossession

Proceedings and Eff ective Judicial Protection . . . . 281 3.3.1.2. Limitation Periods for Entering Grounds

of Objection in Repossession Proceedings . . . 286 3.3.1.3. Th e Limits of the Ex Offi cio Doctrine

in Infl uencing Reform of the National

Repossession Procedure . . . 287 3.3.2. Extrajudicial Proceedings and Consumer Protection:

Building Upon Aziz . . . 291 3.4. Substantive Guidelines on the Concept of Unfairness . . . 300

3.4.1. Signifi cant Imbalance: Th e National Rule

Benchmark . . . 301 3.4.2. Good Faith: Fair and Equitable Dealing as if Th ere

would have been Negotiation . . . 304 3.4.3. Application of the Criteria for Appreciation

of Unfairness with Regard to the Disputed

Contractual Terms . . . 305 3.4.4. Th e Decision of the National Court . . . 309

Contents

Chapter 6. Th e Infl uence and Eff ectiveness of the Active Consumer Court

Doctrine οn National Legal Systems . . . 313

1. Spain: Th e Reform of the Ley de Enjuiciamiento Civil . . . 315

1.1. Th e Reform Following Banco Español de Crédito . . . 316

1.2. Th e “Aziz Earthquake” . . . 319

1.2.1. Th e Framework of Reform of Law 1/2013 . . . 321

1.2.2. Th e Modifi cations in Relation to the Control of Unfair Terms in Mortgage Enforcement Proceedings . . . 323

1.2.2.1. Th e Content of Mortgage Terms and their Control in Extrajudicial Enforcement Proceedings . . . 323

1.2.2.2. Judicial Control of Unfair Terms and Grounds of Defense . . . 325

1.2.3. Other Modifi cations of Civil Procedure Reinforcing the Protection of Mortgage Debtors . . . 327

2. France: Enshrining the Powers of the Courts in the Consumer Code . . . . 328

3. Th e UK: Th e Consumer Rights Act 2015 . . . 334

4. Th e “Eff ectiveness” of the Doctrine of the Active Consumer Court. . . 338

4.1. Visibility of the Doctrine before National Courts . . . 339

4.2. Eff ective Application of the Doctrine and Consequences for the Courts not Applying the Doctrine . . . 342

4.3. Th e Transposability of the Doctrine of the Active Consumer Court . . . 347

Final Conclusions: Changing the Narrative and Moving Forward . . . 353

1. An Autonomous Union Doctrine on the Basis of a Union Public Policy of Protection . . . 354

2. Th e Weaker Party and the Active Role of the Courts . . . 355

3. A Benchmark of Eff ectiveness: Strengthening Consumer Procedural Protection in a Wide Array of Proceedings. . . 356

4. A Contemporary Reading of Consumer Legislation . . . 356

5. Fundamental Rights Considerations . . . 357

6. Th e Variable Degree of Infl uence of the Doctrine on National Legal Orders . . . 358

7. Th e Doctrine in Times of Crisis . . . 358

8. Changing the Narrative in Individual Consumer Litigation with the Recognition of Distinct Procedural Rules . . . 360

Bibliography . . . 363

Index . . . 373

About the Author. . . 375

* Cases are in chronological order.

LIST OF CASES *

COURT OF JUSTICE OF THE EUROPEAN UNION

Case 26/62 Van Gend en Loos , EU:C:1963:1 ... 119

Case 6/64 Costa v. ENEL , EU:C:1964:66 ... 119

Case 33/76 Rewe-Zentralfi nanz and Rewe-Zentral , EU:C:1976:188 ... 18 , 26 , 50 Case 45/76 Comet , EU:C:1976:191 ... 18

Case 106/77 Simmenthal , EU:C:1978:49 ... 33 , 50 , 134 Case 61/79 Denkavit Italiana , EU:C:1980:100 ... 28

Case 158/80 Rewe v. Hauptzollamt Kiel (Butter Buying Cruises) , EU:C:1981:163 ... 34

Case 102/81 Nordsee , EU:C:1982:107 ... 63

Case 199/82 San Giorgio , EU:C:1983:318 ... 33

Case 14/83 Von Colson and Kamann , EU:C:1984:153 ... 22 , 26 , 28 Case 222/84 Johnston , EU:C:1986:206 ... 37

Case 80/86 Kolpinghuis Nijmegen , EU:C:1987:431 ... 26

Case 222/86 Heylens , EU:C:1987:442 ... 37

Joined Cases 46/87 and 227/88 Hoechst , EU:C:1989:337 ... 74

Case C-213/89 Factortame , EU:C:1990:257 ... 33 , 266 C-6/90 and C-9/90 Francovich and Bonifaci v. Italy , EU:C:1991:428 ... 33

C-128/92 Banks v. British Coal , EU:C:1993:860 ... 33

C-87/90, C-88/90 and C-89/90 Verholen , EU:C:1991:314 ... 28 , 51 – 52 C-271/91 Marshall , EU:C:1993:335 ... 28 , 35 C-46/93 and C-48/93 Brasserie du P ê cheur SA v. Bundesrepublik Deutschland and Th e Queen v. Secretary of State for Transport ex parte Factortame Ltd and Others , EU:C:1996:79 ... 33

C-312/93 Peterbroeck , EU:C:1995:437 ... 50 – 51 , 55 C-430/93 and C-431/93 Van Schijndel and Van Veen , EU:C:1995:441 ... 4 , 35 – 36 , 45 , 50 – 51 , 53 , 67 , 77 , 79 , 84 C-72/95 Kraaijeveld , EU:C:1996:404 ... 51 , 56 , 67 , 85 – 86 C-188/95 Fantask , EU:C:1997:580 ... 33

C-192 – 218/95 Comateb , EU:C:1997 ... 33

C-261/95 Palmisani , EU:C:1997:351 ... 30

C-367/95 P Commission v. Sytraval , EU:C:1998:154 ... 69

C-326/96 Levez v. Jennings Ltd , EU:C:1998:577 ... 28 , 30 C-343/96 Dilexport , EU:C:1999:59 ... 33

C-126/97 Eco Swiss China Time Ltd and Benetton International NV , EU:C:1999:269 ... 49 , 51 , 62 – 63 , 65 , 67 , 74 , 103 , 155 , 161 Case C-210/98 P Salzgitter v. Commission , EU:C:2000:172 ... 70

Intersentia List of Cases

xxviii

C-240/98 – C-244/98 Oc é ano Grupo , EU:C:2000:346 ... 1 – 2 , 10 , 46 , 74 , 87 , 111 , 122 , 129 – 135 , 335 C-397/98 and C-410/98 Metallgesellschaft and Others , EU:C:2001:134 ... 33 C-453/99 Courage and Crehan , EU:C:2001:465 ... 33 – 34 C-50/00 P Uni ó n de Peque ñ os Agricultores v. Council , EU:C:2002:462 ... 21 , 37 C - 167/00 Henkel , EU:C:2002:555 ... 219 , 235 – 236 C-453/00 K ü hne & Heitz , EU:C:2004:17 ... 66 C-473/00 Cofi dis , EU:C:2002:705 ... 5 , 129 , 138 , 143 , 149 – 150 , 230 C-224/01 K ö bler , EU:C:2003:513 ... 33 , 66 , 342 – 344 C-276/01 Steff ensen , EU:C:2003:228 ... 28 , 39 C - 397/01 – C - 403/01 Pfeiff er and Others , EU:C:2004:584 ... 348 C-237/02 Freiburger Kommunalbauten , EU:C:2004:209 ... 131 , 156 , 301 C-263/02 P Commission v. J é go-Qu é r é , EU:C:2004:210 ... 37 C-173/03 Traghetti del Mediterraneo , EU:C:2006:391 ... 342 C-234/04 Kapferer , EU:C:2006:178 ... 36 , 66 , 168 C-295/04 – C-298/04 Manfredi , EU:C:2006:461 ... 33 – 34 , 54 , 67 C - 302/04 Ynos , EU:C:2006:9 ... 210 C-222/05 – C-225/05 Van der Weerd , EU:C:2007:318 ... 4 , 18 , 45 , 51 , 55 , 57 – 60 , 116 , 125 , 174 C-402/05 P and C-415/05 P Kadi and Al Bakaraat , EU:C:2008:461 ... 37 C-429/05 Rampion and Godard , EU:C:2007:575 ... 124 , 138 , 178 , 180 , 189 , 202 , 253 , 355 C-432/05 Unibet , EU:C:2007:163 ... 26 , 34 , 37 , 126 , 262 , 266 C-168/05 Mostaza Claro , EU:C:2006:675 ... 5 , 72 , 123 , 129 , 136 , 154 , 156 , 160 – 163 , 191 , 336 C-2/06 Willy Kempter , EU:C:2008:78 ... 66 C-268/06 Impact , EU:C:2008:223 ... 18 , 27 , 29 , 282 C-378/07 – C-380/07 Angelidaki and Others , EU:C:2009:250 ... 28 C-420/07 Apostolides , EU:C:2009:271 ... 68 C-2/08 Falimento Olimpiclub , EU:C:2009:506 ... 168 C-8/08 T-Mobile Netherlands and Others , EU:C:2009:343 ... 54 , 67 C-12/08 Mono Car Styling , EU:C:2009:466 ... 28 , 36 , 39 C-40/08 Asturcom Telecomunicaciones , EU:C:2009:615 ... 36 , 49 , 60 , 154 , 156 , 166 , 168 – 169 , 206 , 227 , 293 C-63/08 Pontin , EU:C:2009:666 ... 28 – 30 , 37 C-89/08 P Commission v. Ireland and Others , EU:C:2009:742 ... 69 , 200 C-137/08 P é nz ü gyi L í zing , EU:C:2010:659 ... 72 , 111 , 124 , 136 , 142 , 155 , 195 , 331 , 336 C-227/08 Mart í n Mart í n , EU:C:2009:792 ... 4 , 45 , 124 , 127 , 136 , 155 , 178 , 181 – 182 , 189 , 203 – 204 , 206 – 207 C-243/08 Pannon GSM , EU:C:2009:350 ... 72 , 75 , 111 , 136 – 137 , 142 , 155 , 163 , 189 , 191 , 193 , 201 – 202 , 331 , 336 , 344 C-317 – 320/08 Alassini , EU:C:2010:146 ... 18 , 29 , 37 , 39 , 267 – 268 , 282 C-484/08 Caja de Ahorros , EU:C:2010:309 ... 197 C-65/09 Weber and Putz , EU:C:2011:396 ... 35 C - 262/09 Meilicke and Others , EU:C:2011:438 ... 28 , 36

List of Cases

C-360/09 Pfeiderer , EU:C:2011:389 ... 25 , 43 C-429/09 Fu ß , EU:C:2010:717 ... 343 , 348 C-76/10 Pohotovost ’ v. Kor č kovk á ( “ Pohotovost ’ I ” ), EU:C:2010:685 ... 166 , 175 , 181 , 206 , 229 , 236 , 307 C-282/10 Dominguez , EU:C:2011:559 ... 272 C-378/10 VALE É p í t é si , EU:C:2012:440 ... 28 C-411/10 and C-493/10 N.S. and Others , EU:C:2011:865 ... 37 C - 453/10 Pereni č ov á and Pereni č , EU:C:2012:144 ... 155 , 176 , 203 , 206 – 208 C - 472/10 Invitel , EU:C:2012:242 ... 133 , 216 – 217 , 223 , 301 , 304 C - 527/10 ERSTE Bank Hungary , EU:C:2012:417 ... 291 – 294 C-591/10 Littlewoods Retail and Others , ECLI:EU:C:2012:478 ... 29 – 30 , 33 C-617/10 Å kerberg Fransson , EU:C:2013:105 ... 37 C-618/10 Banco Espa ñ ol de Cr é dito , EU:C:2012:349 ... 5 , 36 , 122 , 142 , 192 , 208 , 240 , 242 – 243 , 282 , 316 C-12/11 McDonagh , EU:C:2013:43 ... 279 C-92/11 RWE Vertrieb , EU:C:2013:180 ... 303 C - 199/11 Otis and Others , EU:C:2012:684 ... 40 C-397/11 J ő r ö s , EU:C:2013:340 ... 137 , 155 , 201 , 204 C-415/11 Aziz , EU:C:2013:164 ... 5 , 37 , 122 , 126 , 130 , 215 – 216 , 227 , 254 , 262 , 264 , 267 , 269 , 279 , 282 , 302 , 305 , 307 , 315 C-472/11 Banif Plus Bank , EU:C:2013:88 ... 42 , 137 , 142 , 155 , 192 , 194 , 199 – 201 , 254 , 268 , 282 , 310 C-488/11 Asbeek Brusse , EU:C:2013:341 ... 72 , 137 , 142 , 155 , 196 , 198 , 201 , 204 , 208 , 211 , 279 , 283 , 306 , 314 , 343 C-536/11 Donau Chemie , EU:C:2013:366 ... 25 , 27 , 36 , 38 , 43 C-583/11P Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami and Others v. European Parliament

and Council , EU:C:2013:625 ... 21 , 26 , 34 , 37 C-604/11 Genil 48 and Comercial Hostelera de Grandes Vinos , EU:C:2013:344 ... 28 , 36 C-32/12 Duarte Hueros , EU:C:2013:637 ... 184 – 185 , 189 C-93/12 Agrokonsulting-04 , EU:C:2013:432 ... 39 , 268 C-176/12 Association de M é diation Sociale , EU:C:2014:2 ... 237 , 272 C-226/12 Constructora Principado , EU:C:2014:10 ... 302 C-274/12 P Telef ó nica v. Commission , EU:C:2013:852 ... 21 C-413/12 Asociaci ó n de Consumidores Independientes de Castilla y Le ó n ,

EU:C:2013:800 ... 233 – 236 , 337 C-470/12 Pohotovost ’ v. Miroslav Va š uta ( “ Pohotovost ’ II ” ), EU:C:2014:101 ... 127 , 176 , 233 , 236 – 238 , 278 , 307 , 337 , 346 C-482/12 Macinsk ý and Macinsk á , EU:C:2013:765 ... 269 , 271 , 292 – 293 , 298 C-559/12 P France v. Commission , EU:C:2014:217 ... 69 C - 565/12 LCL Le Cr é dit Lyonnais , EU:C:2014:190 ... 229 – 231 , 254 , 330 C - 26/13 K á sler and K á slern é R á bai , EU:C:2014:282 ... 160 , 208 , 212 – 214 C-34/13 Ku š ionov á , EU:C:2014:2189 ... 37 , 41 , 126 – 127 , 265 , 269 – 270 , 272 , 279 , 291 , 293

Intersentia List of Cases

xxx

C-116/13 Banco Popular Espa ñ ol and Banco de Valencia , EU:C:2013:759 ... 260 – 261 , 263 – 264 , 305

C-209/13 United Kingdom v. Council , EU:C:2014:283 ... 69

C-280/13 Barclays Bank , EU:C:2014:279 ... 281 ,

288 – 290 , 303 , 327 C - 342/13 Sebesty é n , EU:C:2014:1857 ... 157

C - 404/13 ClientEarth , EU:C:2014:2382 ... 26

C-449/13 CA Consumer Finance , EU:C:2014:2464 ... 28 , 36 C-482/13 – C-485/13 and C-487/13, Unicaja Banco , EU:C:2015:21 ... 208 , 214 , 239 , 281 , 308 , 322 C-497/13 Faber , EU:C:2015:357 ... 72 , 142 , 186 , 188 , 198 – 199 , 202 , 205 , 253 , 314 , 343 C - 537/13 Š iba , EU:C:2015:14 ... 196

C-567/13 Bacz ó and Vizsnyiczai , EU:C:2015:88 ... 342

C-143/13 Matei , EU:C:2015:127 ... 213

C-602/13 Banco Bilbao Vizcaya Argentaria , EU:C:2015:397 ... 281

C-681/13 Diageo Brands , EU:C:2015:471 ... 68

C - 8/14 BBVA , EU:C:2015:731 ... 281 , 287 , 322 C-32/14 ERSTE Bank Hungary , EU:C:2015:637 ... 254 , 291 , 294 C-49/14 Finanmadrid , EU:C:2016:98 ... 241 , 246 – 248 , 317 C - 69/14, T â r ş ia , EU:C:2015:662 ... 36 , 48 , 66 , 169 C-96/14 Van Hove , EU:C:2015:262 ... 213

C-169/14 Morcillo and Garc í a , EU:C:2014:2099 ... 37 – 38 , 41 , 126 , 248 , 265 , 267 , 269 , 279 – 282 , 284 , 322 C - 377/14 Radlinger and Radlingerov á , EU:C:2016:283 ... 41 , 123 , 155 , 175 , 181 , 184 , 189 , 195 , 229 , 250 – 251 , 253 – 25 C - 381/14 and C - 385/14, Sales Sinu é s and Drame Ba , EU:C:2016:252 ... 224 – 226 C - 421/14 Banco Primus , EU:C:2017:60 ... 227 – 228 C - 439/14 and C - 488/14 Star Storage and Others , EU:C:2016:688 ... 40

C - 441/14 DI , EU:C:2016:278 ... 348

C-559/14 Meroni , EU:C:2016:349 ... 68

C - 161/15 Bensada Benallal , EU:C:2016:175 ... 49 , 51 , 59 – 62 C - 168/15 Tom á š ov á , EU:C:2016:602 ... 174 , 190 – 192 , 344 C - 119/15 Biuro Podr ó ż y ‘ Partner ’ , EU:C:2016:987 ... 43 , 221 – 223 C - 154/15 C - 307/15 and C - 308/15 Guti é rrez Naranjo and Others , EU:C:2016:980 ... 72 ,

136 – 137 , 224 , 227 – 228 , 230 , 232 , 263 C - 191/15 Verein f ü r Konsumenteninformation , EU:C:2016:612 ... 218 – 220 C-201/15 AGET Iraklis , EU:C:2016:972 ... 76 , 347 C - 243/15, Lesoochran á rske zoskupenie VLK , EU:C:2016:83 ... 18 , 26 , 40 C - 598/15 Banco Santander , EU:C:2017:945 ... 269 , 292 , 296 – 297 C-627/15 Gavrilescu , EU:C:2017:690 ... 346 – 347 C - 682/15 Berlioz Investment Fund , EU:C:2017:373 ... 26 , 37 C-7/16 Banco Popular Espa ñ ol and PL Salvador , EU:C:2016:523 ... 290

C - 73/16 Pu š k á r , EU:C:2017:253 ... 42 C - 75/16 Menini and Rampanelli , EU:C:2017:457 ... 37 , 40 , 158

List of Cases

C-96/16 and C-94/17 Banco Santander and Escobedo Cort é s

[2016] OJ C 145/24 ... 215 , 308

C-122/16 P British Airways v. Commission , EU:C:2017:861 ... 69

C-147/16 Karel de Grote – Hogeschool Katholieke Hogeschool Antwerpen , EU:C:2017:928 ... 171

C - 348/16 Sacko , EU:C:2017:591 ... 40

C-70/17 Abanca Corporaci ó n Bancaria [2017] OJ C121/17 ... 211 , 215 , 307

EUROPEAN COURT OF HUMAN RIGHTS

271 , 273 McCann v. Th e United Kingdom , judgment of 13 May 2008, App. No 19009/04 ... 269 ,

271 , 273 Rousk v. Sweden , judgment of 25 July 2013, App. No 27183/04 ... 269 , 273 Vrzi ć v. Croatia , judgment of 12 July 2016, App. No 43777/13 ... 273

FRANCE

Cass. civ. 3 è me, 28 January 1987, Bull. civ. III, no 13, p. 8 ... 100

Cass. avis, 9 October 1992, Bull. avis no 4 ... 146

Cass. civ. 1re, 4 January 1994, Bull. civ. IV, no 2, p.1 ... 103

Cass. civ. 1re, 7 February 1995, Bull. civ. I, no 77 ... 147

Cass. civ. 1re, 3 January 1996, Bull. civ. I, no 11 ... 14

Cass. civ. 1re, 10 April 1996, Bull. civ. I, no 178 ... 147

Cass. civ. 1re, 4 June 1996, Bull. civ. I, no 238 ... 147

Cass. civ. 1re, 15 December 1998, Bull. civ. I, no 365 ... 146

Cass. civ. 1re, 15 July 1999, Bull. civ. I, no 246 ... 146

Cass. civ. 1re, 15 February 2000, Bull. civ. I, no 49 ... 100 , 146 , 148 Cass. civ. 1re, 2 October 2002, Bull. civ. I, no 229 ... 153

Cass. civ. 1re, 7 December 2004, Bull. civ. I, no 304 and 305 ... 153

Cass. civ. 1re, 30 March 2005, Bull. civ. I, no 159 ... 153

Cass. civ. 1re, 14 April 2005, JT 2005, p. 659 ... 96

Cass. ass. pl é n., 7 July 2006, Bull. civ. 2006 ... 96

Cass. civ. 3 è me, 25 April 2007, Bull. civ. 2007 ... 96

Cass. ass. pl é n., 21 December 2007, Bull. civ. 2007, no 10 ... 95

Cass. civ. 2 è me, 11 March 2010, Bull. civ. II, no 55 ... 334

THE NETHERLANDS

Hoge Raad, 11 September 2009, Cagemax, NJ 2010, 369 ... 59

Intersentia List of Cases

xxxii

SPAIN

Tribunal Supremo, Judgment No 664/1997 of 5 July 1997, STS 4793/1997 ... 131 , 136

Tribunal Supremo, Judgment No 179/1998 of 20 February 1998, STS 1137/1998 ... 131

Tribunal Supremo, Judgment No 128/2006 of 16 February 2006, STS 681/2006 ... 258

Tribunal Constitucional Pleno, Order No 113/2011 of 19 July 2011 ... 258

Tribunal Supremo, Judgment No 241/2013 of 9 May 2013, STS 1916/2013 ... 263

Tribunal Supremo, Judgment No 464/2014 of 8 September 2014, STS 3903/2014 ... 263

Tribunal Supremo, Judgment No 705/2015 of 23 December 2015, STS 5618/2015 ... 215 , 306 Tribunal Supremo, Judgment No 79/2016 of 18 February 2016, STS 626/2016 ... 215 , 306

UNITED KINGDOM

Darlington BC v. Wiltshier Northern Ltd [1995] 1 WLR 68 (CA) ... 84

Boys and Girls Welfare Society v. McDonald [1996] IRLR 129 ... 87 , 335 Paul Edwards v. Th e British Athletic Federation and the International Amateur Athletic Federation [1998] 2 CMLR 363 ... 86

Gibbs Mew Plc v. Graham Gemmell [1999] ECC 97, 112 ... 87

R. v. London Borough of Hammersmith & Fulham [2000] Env.L.R. 532 ... 86

Moase v. Secretary of State for the Environment [2001] Env.L.R. 13 ... 85

Horsham Properties Group Ltd v. Clark and Beech [2008] EWHC 2327 (Ch) ... 299

R v. Horncastle [2010] 2 AC 373 ... 269 – 270 Manchester CC v. Pinnock [2010] 3 WLR 1441 ... 270

Lombard North Central Plc v. Automobile World (UK) Ltd [2010] EWCA Civ. 20 ... 84

Qazi v. Harrow LBC [2003] UKHL 43 ... 270

McDonald v. McDonald [2016] UKSC 28 ... 273

L IST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ADR Alternative Dispute Resolution BGH Bundesgerichtshof

Conv Conveyancer and Property Lawyer CMLR Common Market Law Review CPC Code de Proc é dure Civile CPR Civil Procedure Rules CJQ Civil Justice Quarterly

ECHR European Convention on Human Rights ECJ European Court of Justice

ECtHR European Court of Human Rights ELRev European Law Review

ERCL European Review of Contract Law ERPL European Review of Private Law

EuCML Journal of European Consumer and Market Law

EUVR Zeitschrift f ü r Europ ä isches Unternehmens- und Verbraucherrecht LEC Ley de Enjuiciamiento Civil

MCD Mortgage Credit Directive

RTDEur Revue Trimestrielle du droit europ é en ZEuP Zeitschrift f ü r Europ ä isches Privatrecht ZPO Zivilprozessordnung