01
A GRAMMAR OF BUeM:
THE LeLcMI LANGUAGE
Edward Jay A l l a n
T h e s i s p r e s e n t e d f o r the degree o f
D octor o f P h i lo s o p h y i n the
School o f O r i e n t a l and A f r i c a n S t u d i e s ,
U n i v e r s i t y o f London
i
August, 1973
ProQuest N um ber: 11010328
All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS
The q u a lity of this re p ro d u c tio n is d e p e n d e n t u p o n the q u a lity of the c o p y s u b m itte d . In the unlikely e v e n t that the a u th o r did not send a c o m p le te m a n u s c rip t and there are missing p a g e s , these will be n o te d . Also, if m a te ria l had to be re m o v e d ,
a n o te will in d ic a te the d e le tio n .
uest
P roQ uest 11010328
Published by ProQuest LLC(2018). C o p y rig h t of the Dissertation is held by the A u tho r.
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02
A b s t r a c t
T h i s grammar o f the Lelemi d i a l e c t o f Busm i s the f i r s t attem pt to d e s c r i b e the morphology and s y n ta x o f any o f the 14 Togo-Remnant la n g u a g e s i n d e t a i l ; i n i t , I have t r i e d to d e s c r i b e the major s t r u c t u r e s and many o f th e minor s t r u c t u r e s o f the la n g ua g esw hich o c c u r i n i n f o r m a l o r s e m i- fo r m a l s p e e c h . The p h o n e t i c s and most o f the phonology are d e s c r i b e d i n taxonomic terms; the vowel harmony system and the s y n t a x and morphology,
however, are d e s c r i b e d i n a s l i g h t l y m o d i f i e d "A s p e c t s "
model o f t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l - g e n e r a t i v e grammar. Of s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t to the n o n - s p e c i a l i s t are my d i s c u s s i o n s o f vowel harmony, o f the noun c l a s s sy s tem , and o f the v e r b a l a s p e c t system and s e r i a l verb c o n s t r u c t i o n s .
03
Acknowledgements
To t h e r e a d e r o f t h i s t h e s i s , t h e a c k n o w le d g e m e n ts a r e among t h e l e a s t i m p o r t a n t o f i t s p a g e s ; to me, how
e v e r , t h e y a r e among t h e most i m p o r t a n t , f o r i n them I can t h a n k t h e p e o p l e whofve h e l p e d me. F o re m o s t among them a r e my p a r e n t s , w i t h o u t whose m o r a l , f i n a n c i a l and e v e r y o t h e r k in d o f s u p p o r t 1 1d n e v e r have s t a r t e d , l e t a l o n e f i n i s h . I owe a deep d e b t o f g r a t i t u d e a l s o to my s u p e r v i s o r , P r o f e s s o r J a c k C a rn o c h a n , f o r h i s g e n t l e
n u d g e s — a n d , when n e c e s s a r y , f o r h i s n o t - s o - g e n t l e n u d g e s ; my s p e c i a l t h a n k s a l s o to Dr. N e i l V. Sm ith and to Mr.
F.D .D . W inston f o r a g r e a t many u s e f u l d i s c u s s i o n s and s u g g e s t i o n s . I ' d a l s o l i k e to t h a n k many o t h e r members o f t h e s t a f f s o f t h e L i n g u i s t i c s D e p a r t m e n t s a t U n i v e r s i t y C o l l e g e and a t SOAS and o f t h e SOAS A f r i c a D e p t, f o r h e l p and a d v i c e most f r e e l y g i v e n . a n d to th e C e n t r a l Re
s e a r c h Fund f o r p r o v i d i n g me w i t h eq u ip m e n t and money f o r i n f o r m a n t s 1 f e e s .
So many p e o p l e h e l p e d me i n Ghana t h a t I d o n ' t r e a l l y know where to b e g i n , th o u g h f i r s t p l a c e i n my t h a n k s must
0 li
u n d o u b ted ly go to George Eamson A g y e i , my stew a rd , one o f my p r i n c i p a l i n f o r m a n t s , and most i m p o r t a n t l y my f r i e n d , f o r a l l he did to make my s t a y i n Ghana both s u c c e s s f u l and e n j o y a b l e . Im mediately a f t e r George, I must mention Nana A g y e i , C h i e f o f Okajakrom and Twifohene o f Buem, whom I had good re a s o n to c a l l &ti
f a t h e r 1, and my i n f o r m a n t s , not o n l y f o r Buem, but f o r o t h e r la n g u a g e s to o ; u n f o r t u n a t e l y , th ey were too numerous to thank i n d i v i d u a l l y by name, but my appre
c i a t i o n g o e s out to them a s i n d i v i d u a l s . My thanks a l s o go out to Mr. W.K. Agbenyega, P r i n c i p a l o f J a s i - kan T r a i n i n g C o l l e g e , Mr. P.K. Akoto-Ampaw, P r i n c i p a l o f S t . F r a n c i s 1 T r a i n i n g C o l l e g e , and Ms. J a n e t E.
B ooth, O f f i c e r - i n - C h a n g e o f th e Hohoe T e a c h e r s C e n te r, f o r t h e i r k i n d n e s s i n l e t t i n g me t e a c h a t t t h e i r r e
s p e c t i v e i n s t i t u t i o n s and to my fariends— former c o l l e a g u e s and former s t u d e n t s — f o r making work so f u n .
F i n a l l y , my s i n c e r e thanks to Dr. and Ms. Kevin C.
Ford f o r l i n g u i s t i c and o t h e r support and to my e r s t w h i l e roommate, Mr. James A. E n g l e r , f o r p u t t i n g up w i t h o u t c o m p la in t w ith my f i e l d n o t e s and e v e r y t h i n g e l s e
c l u t t e r i n g up the k i t c h e n t a b l e .
Table o f C o n te n ts
A b s t r a c t ... 2
Acknowledgements ... 3
Part I# I n t r o d u c t i o n ... 15
The P e o p l e ... 17
The Language ... 19
G en etic R e l a t i o n s h i p s ... 19
D i a l e c t s o f Buem ... 20
E a r l i e r work on the language ... 26
Work i n the language ... 28
The Grammar ... 29
Source d i a l e c t ... 29
F ield w o rk ... 29
Scope and format o f t h e grammar ... 31
Part I I . Phonology ...34
T r a n s c r i p t i o n ... 35
The Word ... .. • ... 37
The S y l l a b l e • • • • ... 39
The Consonants • * ... 43
Consonant C l u s t e r s ... 51
C l - c l u s t e r s ... 51
Cv- c l u s t e r s • • • • • ... 52
The Vowel System ... 55
The v o w e ls ... 55
Vowel harmony ... .. • . • ... 60
Reduced vowel harmony ... 66
Tone • • * • • • ... 76
Part I I I . The S en ten ce ... 83
Q u e s t i o n s ... 85
E x c la m a tio n s ... 87
I m p e r a t i v e s ... 88
B a s i c c l a u s e s t r u c t u r e ... 88
Part IV. The Noun Phrase ... 90
Types o f Noun Phrase ... 91
The Nominal Type o f Noun Phrase ... 91
Simple Nouns ... 92
07
The Noun C l a s s System ...*... 97
C o -o c c u r r e n c e r e s t r i c t i o n s on p r e f i x e s • • • 115 Noun S u f f i x e s ... 117
Concord and Agreement 119 Compound Nouns ...1^5 Noun + Noun c o m b i n a t i o n s ... . . ... 125
Noun + Verb c o m b i n a t i o n s ...129
Other c o m b i n a t i o n s ... 131
S y n t a c t i c n o t e s ... . . 1 3 2 D e r iv e d Nouns • • • • • « • * * . • » ...134
D er iv ed Agent Nouns ...* D er iv ed Nouns o f S u i t a b i l i t y ... 142
D er iv ed Nouns o f P l a c e ... 153
Other D er iv ed Nouns ... 157
P o s s e s s o r s 161
Nominal p o s s e s s o r s ... 161
P o s s e s s i v e pronouns ... 166’
I n a l i e n a b l e p o s s e s s i o n ... 168
Noun M o d i f i e r s ... 171
Sex Markers ... 171
P a r t i c i p l e s ... 174
08
Numbers ... 181
C a rd in a l numbers ... ... . 181
O rd inal numbers ... 186
C a rd in a l and o r d i n a l numbers used t o g e t h e r • 189 ^Counting p l u r a l s ” ... 190
A d j e c t i v e s ... 192
D ete r m in e r s ... 195
S p a t i a l d e t e r m i n e r s ... 198
The r e f e r e n t i a l d e te r m in e r ... Use w ith o t h e r m o d i f i e r s ... ... . . 199
R e l a t i v e C l a u s e s ... 20$
nSame S u b j e c t ” R e l a t i v e C l a u s e s ... 202
" D i f f e r e n t S u b j e c t ” R e l a t i v e C l a u s e s ... 205
Q u a n t i f i e r s ... 209'
C o -occu rrence r e s t r i c t i o n s ... 210
P e r s o n a l Pronouns ... 21?
O b j e c t i v e pronouns ... 214" Independent pronouns ... 216
P o s s e s s i v e pronouns ... 222
R e f l e x i v e or r e c i p r o c a l pronouns ... 222*
I n f i n i t i v e s ...• 224
The I n f i n i t i v a l Phrase a s s u b j e c t o f a ver b 226 The I n f i n i t i v a l Phrase a s o b j e c t o f a verb 230 I n f i n i t i v e s used f o r emphasis ... 233
P a r t V. The Verb Phrase ... 235
The Verb P h ra se ... 236
The Verb ... 236
V e r b a l Concord markers ... 238
Tense markers ... 242
M o d a lity markers ... 243
The Verb Root ... 244
Verb S u f f i x e s ... 246
Verb Paradigms . • 253 The A f f i r m a t i v e Simple P a s t ... 253
The A f f i r m a t i v e P a s t P r o g r e s s i v e ... 256
The A f f i r m a t i v e Simple P r e s e n t ... 261
The A f f i r m a t i v e P r e s e n t P r o g r e s s i v e ... 267*
The A f f i r m a t i v e Simple S u b j u n c t i v e ... 271
The A f f i r m a t i v e Simple Future ... 275
Verbs marked f o r A sp ect ... 281
C e r t a i n t y ... 282
a o
Customary a c t i o n ... 286 Motion away from th e speaker ... 290 Motion towards the speaker ... 294 N e g a t i o n . . . ... 2 9 8
The N e g a t i v e P a s t ... 299 N e g a t i v e P r e s e n t f o r v e r b s o f s t a t e ... 303 The N e g a t i v e P r e s e n t f o r o t h e r verbs ... 3 0 6
The N e g a t i v e Future ... 3 0 9
The N e g a t i v e S u b ju n c ti v e ... 313 N eg a tio n o f v e r b s marked f o r o t h e r a s p e c t s • 315
I m p e r a t i v e s 320
R e l a t i v e Verb Forms ... 324 The R e l a t i v e P a s t ... 326 The A f f i r m a t i v e R e l a t i v e P re s en t f o r v e r b s
o f s t a t e ... 3 2 7 The A f f i r m a t i v e R e l a t i v e P r e s e n t f o r
o t h e r v e r b s ... 3 2 8 The N e g a t i v e R e l a t i v e P r e s e n t ... 3 2 9
The A f f i r m a t i v e R e l a t i v e Future ... 331
The N e g a t i v e R e l a t i v e Future ... 3 3 1
11
S u b je c t and O b ject P o t e n t i a l s ... 333
S u b j e c t p o t e n t i a l s ... 333
Complementation ... 340
A d v e r b i a l s and P r e p o s i t i o n a l P h ra s es •• 354 A d v e r b i a l s o f accompaniment ... 354
I n s t r u m e n t a l s ... 356
Manner a d v e r b i a l s ... 357
S p a t i a l a d v e r b i a l s ... 360
Time a d v e r b i a l s ... 363
Part VI# C o n ju n ctio n and S u b o r d i n a ti o n ... 369
C o n ju n ctio n o f Noun P h r a s e s ... 370
Conjoined NPs as s u b j e c t s o f a verb . . . 372
E f f e c t s o f c o n j u n c t i o n on noun m o d i f i e r s •• 378 C o n ju n ctio n o f Verb P h ra s es ( S e r i a l Verbs) ... 379
S e r i a l verb c o n s t r u c t i o n s and b u t i ' t o t a k e ' ... 388
S e r i a l verb c o n s t r u c t i o n s and b ute ' t o g i v e ' ... 392
12
S e r i a l verb c o n s t r u c t i o n s and b u t u lo
f to surpass* ... 394
R e p e t i t i o n o f o b j e c t s i n c o n j o i n e d s e n t e n c e s 396 C o n j o i n in g E n t i r e S e n t e n c e s ... 399
The D i s j u n c t i v e C o n ju n c tio n s ... 402
C o n ju n ctio n o f e n t i r e s e n t e n c e s ... 403
Con ju n ction o f Noun P h ra s es a s s u b j e c t s o f a verb . ... 404
C on ju n ctio n o f Noun P h r a s e s a s o b j e c t s o f a verb * ... 409
C o n ju n ctio n o f Noun P h r a s e s a s o b j e c t s o f p r e p o s i t i o n s ... • 406
The use o f l y e and rnunS in q u e s t i o n s •• 407 Sequence o f T en ses ... 409
S e n t e n c e s a s Complements ... 415
I n d i r e c t D i s c o u r s e ... 418
I n d i r e c t s t a t e m e n t s . . . . ... 418
I n d i r e c t q u e s t i o n s ... 422
I n d i r e c t commands • • ... 425
I n d i r e c t i n t e r j e c t i o n s ...426
Sub o rd in a te C l a u s e s ... 427
"If" c l a u s e s ... . . . ... 427
The c a u s a l c l a u s e ... 433
The time c l a u s e ... 436
The purpose c l a u s e ...» 440
The ttas i f " c l a u s e ... ... 441
Ju nctu re phenomenon ... 442
Pa rt VII* Emphasis ... 444
The "Oral Comma," n i ... 445
Emphasis o f a Noun Phrase ... 449
Emphasis o f the s u b j e c t o f a verb ... 449
Emphasis o f th e o b j e c t o f a verb ... 449
N ega tio n and Noun Phrase emphasis ... . . . 453
Emphasis o f a Verb ... 555
I n t e r r o g a t i v e Words ... 455
Appendix A ... 459 Summary o f the Noun C l a s s System • • • • • 460
Appendix B. Connected T e x t s . 464 The O r i g i n s o f Baglo ... *... 465 Why There are C h i e f s ... 470 k ^ t o n j a ... . ... 474
B i b l i o g r a p h y 478
P a rt I . I n t r o d u c t i o n
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il7
The P e o p le
The a r e a around th e h i l l s which mark th e b o rd er betwen Ghana and Togo i s — o r should b e - - o f i n t e r e s t
to the com parative A f r i c a n i s t f o r i t i s i n h a b i t e d by a number o f d i f f e r e n t p e o p l e s , c a l l e d c o l l e c t i v e l y the Togo Remnant p e o p l e s , who speak l a n g u a g e s which seem q u i t e d i f f e r e n t from the l a n g u a g e s spoken by t h e i r n e i g h b o r s . In t h i s grammar, I s h a l l a tte m p t to d e s c r i b e th e language spoken by the Buem, who a r e , w i t h a p o p u l a t i o n o f about 1 7 , 0 0 0 , th e second most numerous o f a l l th e Togo Remnant p e o p l e s and by f a r the most numerous o f any o f the te n Togo Remnant p e o p l e s now l i v i n g i n p r e s e n t - d a y Ghana.
The Buem l i v e i n s e v e n t e e n v i l l a g e s and towns i n the middle o f Ghana*s V o l t a Region ( s e e map); t h e s e v i l l a g e s and towns are l o c a t e d between the Togo border*
to the East and Tapa A b o t i a s e and Vorawora (b o th ex c l u d e d ) to the Vest and between Hohoe to the South and Kadjebi to the North (b o th e x c l u d e d ) . There are no Buem s e t t l e m e n t s i n Togo i t s e l f . While the b i g g e s t
18
town i n the Buem s p e a k in g a r e a i s J a s i k a n , much o f J a s i - k a n f s p o p u l a t i o n c o n s i s t s o f m ig ra to ry c o c o a farmers
from Togo and o t h e r p a r t s o f Ghana, so t h a t the Buem town w i th th e g r e a t e s t number o f Buem s p e a k e r s i n i t i s p ro b ab ly Borada, where the Paramount C h i e f l i v e s .
L i n g u i s t i c a l l y and e t h n i c a l l y , , the Buem a re bor
dered by th e Akans to th e North and West, by the
B o w i r i , th e Ak p afu -L olob i and the Likpe to the South, and by th e Axlo and Kposo to the E a s t . J u s t beyond th e A k p a f u - L o lo b i , the L ikp e, the Axlo and the Kposo a r e the Ewes. Both Akan and Ewe b e l o n g to the V o l t a - Comoe sub-group o f Kwa; a l l the o t h e r l a n g u a g e s are Togo Remnant l a n g u a g e s . Most Buem, i n c l u d i n g th e women, speak Buem p l u s a n o th e r languages the w e s t e r n
segment o f the Buem, the B&fana, speak Buem and Akan, w h i l e th e e a s t e r n segment, the B&lfcmi, speak Buem and Ewe; a l m o s t a l l the younger Buem a l s o speak a t l e a s t
some E n g l i s h a s w e l l , and some of. the oldnmen s t i l l u nderstand German.
19
The Language
G e n e t i c R e l a t i o n s h i p s . A c c o r d i n g to H e in e ( 1 9 6 8 ) , Buem i s most c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o . A k p a f u - L o l o b i and
t h e n t o L i k p e and S a n t r o k o f i ; H e in e p l a c e s a l l f o u r l a n g u a g e s w i t h i n t h e "NA” s u b - d i v i s i o n o f th e ' Togo Remnant l a n g u a g e s ( h e n c e f o r t h , TRLs). The r e l a t i o n
s h i p s , h o w e v e r , o f t h e TRLs w i t h o t h e r l a n g u a g e
g r o u p s s t i l l r e m a i n s q u i t e i n d e t e r m i n a t e : G r e e n b e r g (1963) f e e l s t h a t t h e TRLs a r e a s u b - g r o u p o f Akan- Ewe i n t h e Kwa s u b - f a m i l y o f N ig e r - C o n g o ; H e in e a g r e e s w i t h t h i s , a d d i n g t h a t he f e e l s t h e TRLs a r e most
c l o s e l y r e l a t e d to Guang, b u t t h a t Guang i s c l o s e r t o Akan t h a n i t i s to t h e TRLs. On t h e o t h e r h a n d , de Wolf (1971) f e e l s t h a t "Togo Remnant i s d e f i n i t e l y p a r t o f Benue-Congo and t h a t a l l o t h e r l a n g u a g e s o f
G r e e n b e r g 1s (1966) Kwa s u b f a m i l y DO form p a r t o f a h i g h e r u n i t o f ” which Benue-Congo i s t h e o t h e r p a r t 11
(de W o l f ’ s e m p h a s i s ) and c o n t i n u e s by p l a c i n g t h e TRLs ■ t e n t a t i v e l y on a l e v e l c o - o r d i n a t e w i t h P l a t e a u and
J u k u n o i d u n d e r Benue-Congo. At p r e s e n t , h o w e v e r, o n l y
<20
t h e S c o t t i s h v e r d i c t o f "Not P r o v e n " ca n be g i v e n to any o f t h e s e c l a i m s .
D i a l e c t s o f Buem. Buem s p e a k e r s a r e d i v i d e d i n t o two g r o u p s : t h e B&fana ( l i t e r a l l y , " th o se^ w h o r e m a i n e d " ) , who l i v e to t h e n o r t h and w e s t o f B a i k a and who c a l l what t h e y s p e a k L t f a n a , and t h e Balem i ( l i t e r a l l y ,
" t h o s e who a d v a n c e d " ) , who l i v e to t h e e a s t o f Teteman and who c a l l what t h e y s p e a k Lblfcmi. I n a d d i t i o n ,
L b f a n a h a s t h r e e r e a d i l y d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e s u b - d i a l e c t s :
" G e n e r a l " L £ f a n a , t h e L b f a n a spoken i n B a i k a , and t h e Lfcfana spoken i n B o r a d a . L&lemi i s s u b s t a n t i a l l y u n i form and i s m u t u a l l y i n t e l l i g i b l e w i t h a l l f o r m s o f L b f a n a . I n t h i s grammar, I s h a l l u s e t h e name "Buem"
to r e f e r t o t h e l a n g u a g e sp o k en by t h e B&fana and t h e BStlfcmi, r e s e r v i n g t h e names "Lfcfana" and "L£lbm i"
s t r i c t l y f o r m a t t e r s d e a l i n g w i t h one d i a l e c t b u t n o t t h e o t h e r ; t h e name "Buem", i i n c i d e n t a l l y , i s o f Twi o r i g i n and i s t h e name u s e d by non-Buems t o r e f e r to
t h e Buem and by Buems t h e m s e l v e s t o r e f e r t o t h e m s e l v e s to non-Buems.
21
While a f u l l - s c a l e d i a l e c t s t u d y i s i m p o s s i b l e h e r e , t h e f o l l o w i n g n o t e s s h o u l d i n d i c a t e some o f t h e more s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s b etw e en L t l e m i and Lb- f a n a :
1* V o c a b u l a r y . • L b f a n a h a s , i n g e n e r a l , b o rro w ed many more words from Akan t h a n h a s L b l t m i . In a d d i t i o n , Lfcfana s p e a k e r s from B a i k a seem to have i n n o v a t e d , r a
t h e r more words from o t h e r s o u r c e s t h a n have s p e a k e r s o f any o f t h e o t h e r d i a l e c t s , p r e s u m a b ly b e c a u s e B a i k a s p e a k e r s form a s o r t o f e n c l a v e among s p e a k e r s o f L ik p e and L o l o b i .
2. P h o n o l o g y , ( a ) I n Lfcllmi, / l / may o c c u r i n an y c o n s o n a n t a l p o s i t i o n and i s a l m o s t a l w a y s r e a l i z e d a s f l j l - In L e f a n a , h ow eve r, / l / o c c u r s a s f l j o n l y morpheme i n i t i a l l y ; e l s e w h e r e , / l / h a s t h e f o l l o w i n g r e a l i z a t i o n s :
i . I n B o r a d a , / l / n e v e r o c c u r s word- i n i t i a l -
Lfcl. m a B o r a d a n a fyam'
L t l . l i s e m i B o ra d a I s e m i ‘T e t e m a n 1
Lfel. l £ d l B o r a d a e d l 11 a t e 1
22
i i . I n L b l t m i , / l / i s a l m o s t a l w a y s r e a l i z e d a s £l^J when i t f o l l o w s a c o n s o n a n t ; i n L £ f a n a , h o w e v e r, / l / i s a l w a y s r e a l i z e d a s ^ r j a f t e r a c o n s o n a n t :
L b l . b=>bla ~ L £ f . b ^ b r a ' t o d o 1 L b l . =5kl3z> ~ L £ f . -)kr=>=> ' c a n o e 1 L b l . 3kl&ma ~ L £ f . =>krama ' d o g ' L £ l . a v i a t e - L t f . I i v r a t e ' t h i r t y 1 i i i . I n L £ l£ m i, t h e f i r s t p e r s o n s i n g u l a r
a g r e e m e n t p r e f i x f o r p a s t t e n s e s o f t h e v e r b i s l e - o r I f - , d e p e n d i n g on vowel harmony; i n most L k f a n a d i a l e c t s , h o w ev e r, i t i s n e - o r n i - and i n t h e B o r a d a s u b
d i a l e c t , a s j u s t n o t e d , i t i s e - o r 1- :
L b l . l e d l ~ L £ f . n e d i ' I a t e *
L e i . lef=> ~ L t f . n t f b ' I washed*
L&1. l£bJ> ~ L £ f . n ib S ' I came*
L b l . l f y S - L b f . n i y e ( I b o u g h t '
L e i . Ifmwl ~ L £ f . nimwi ' I p r a i s e d 1
(b) Lfclemi v e r b s w i t h th e s t r u c t u r e "CV^lVg ^ ave r e f l e x e s i n L b f a n a i n which t h e r e i s s y n c o p e o f t h e f i r s t
v o w e l, y i e l d i n g -CrV^ : ,
L e i . butulfc - L b f . b u t r 5 ' t o s u r p a s s '
L b l . b^kuli? - L £ f . br>krz) ' t o c u t*
T h i s s y n c o p e , a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e l e n g t h e n i n g o f t h e f i n a l vowel o f t h e word, a l s o o c c u r s w i t h some nouns a s w e l l :
L e i . a d il2 i L l f . ad ralt 1 food f
Lfcl. l e t a l & L l f . l e t r a a ' m a t 1
L i l . l e v a l l . 0*0 L l f . le vra S. * e g g f ( c ) I n L e f a n a , u n d e r l y i n g n a s a l i z e d v o w e ls a r e
r e a l i z e d a s n a s a l i z e d v o w e ls on t h e s u r f a c e a s w e l l ; h o w ev e r, i n a t l e a s t t h e Baglo s u b - d i a l e c t o f L £ lb m i, u n d e r l y i n g n a s a l i z e d v o w e ls a r e r e a l i z e d o n l y a s o r a l v o w e ls u n l e s s t h e y o c c u r b e f o r e a s t o p c o n s o n a n t w i t h i n
t h e same noun p h r a s e , i n which c a s e t h e u n d e r l y i n g
0*0
n a s a l i z e d v o w e ls a r e r e a l i z e d a s V + N :
L £ l . fatuj - L b f. { ^ t u j
L e i . [=>t3J ~ Li:f. £z>tz>J L £ l . l^b=>kuj - L £ f . [ t o k u j L b l . liyfe =>tz).
Lfcf. lfyfe =>t:o.
1s+Pa+buy h o u s e . ' I b o u g h t a ' h o u s e . 1
' e l e p h a n t 1 1 h o u se * ' t o chew*
1 a . b .
b u t , i n b o t h Lfcllmi and L b f a n a , 2 . l£s& =>t=> r\ kemo.
1s+Pa+go h o u s e 0 i n s i d e . f I went i n s i d e t h e h o u s e . 1
(d) I n L b f a n a and i n some s u b - d i a l e c t s o f L l l e m i , t h e s e q u e n c e / t / + / i / i s r e a l i z e d a s [ t j i ] | t h i s
p a l a t a l i z a t i o n d o e s n o t o c c u r i n t h e B ag lo s u b - d i a l e c t o f L e l s m i :
[* a tij - - T e t . £ h t f i j Ok. [ a t f i ] j ^ l f t l j - ~ T e t . f l i t j l j
Ok. f n i t j i ] ]
^ n & D t i m l O k . [~m=>=>tj"imlJ f I*m r e d u c i n g Bag.
Bag.
Bag.
* f a t h e r *
*1 took*
B ag . f z o t i a ] - Ok. [ h c t t j ' i k j Bag. [ =>=>tinaj - Ok [ b b t ^ i n k j
T h ere i s one e x c e p t i o n to t h i s , however; i n a l l d i a l e c t s , t h e segment / t / o f t h e v e r b bz>tl *to know* i s r e a l i z e d a s [d^J i n t h e p r e s e n t t e n s e a f f i r m a t i v e ,
th o u g h i n p a r a d i g m s f o r a l l o t h e r t e n s e s t h e segment / 1 / i s r e a l i z e d e i t h e r a s [ t j o r a s [ y f j i d e p e n d i n g on
( e . g . , p r i c e ) 1
*he l e a r n s *
*he t e a c h e s *
125
d i a l e c t . I n B a g l o , f o r e x a m p le , we g e t t h e f o l l o w i n g a l t e r n a t i o n s : .
[ h d ^ i j f I know1 [ n & a t l j ' I d o n ' t know1
f a d j l ] 'Y o u ( s ) know’ L k a t l J 'Y o u ( s ) d o n f t know1 C=>d^lj 'He knows 1 [ r o t l j 'He do e s n ' t know1 [ b b d ^ l j 'We know' £bz>z>tlj 'We d o n ' t know' e t c *
( e ) Some nouns w hich s h o w l r e d u p l i c a t i o n o f t h e stem c o n s o n a n t i n Lfclemi have r e f l e x e s i n L e f a n a i n w hich
t h e f i r s t s y l l a b l e o f t h e stem i s d e l e t e d w i t h a concom
i t a n t l e n g t h e n i n g o f t h e vowel o f t h e p r e f i x :
L l l . b n l n l L l f . 3=>na 'man'
L l l . k a j i j e L l f . k a a j e 'monkey'
L l l . lr)wer)wl L l f . aaT)wi ' b e e '
L l l . a l e l e L l f . a l e l e • f l y ’
3* S y n t a x , ( a ) I n L £ l e m i , b o t h low t o n e and mid t o n e v e r b s a r e hon§)honous i n t h e a f f i r m a t i v e s i m p l e p a s t t e n s e ; i n L&fana, mid t o n e and low t o n e v e r b s a r e d i f f e r e n t i a t e d i n t h e a f f i r m a t i v e s i m p l e p a s t :
126
L e i . ler)wSi
L l f . nepwk f I cooked*
' I cooked; I h a r v e s t e d '
nepwa 'I h a r v e s t e d '
(b) Even i n in fo r m a l o r c a s u a l s p e e c h , Lelemi s p e a k e r s g e n e r a l l y r e t a i n th e f u l l range o f concord and agreement i n pronouns and i n verb p r e f i x e s ; many Lefana s p e a k e r s , on the o t h e r hand, use the unmarked pronoun forms i n in fo r m a l speech and appear to a l t e r n a t e randomly between marked and unmarked agreement i n verb p r e f i x e s i n casual s p e e c h .
E a r l i e r work An the l a n g u a g e . Heine (1968) p r e s e n t s the most compreh en sive o v e r - v i e w o f the f i e l d o f Togo Remnant s t u d i e s ; however, s i n c e H e i n e ' s aims were
the comparative s tu d y o f the r e s p e c t i v e noun c l a s s s y s tem s coupled w i t h the h i s t o r i c a l r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f th e l e x i c o n , h i s treatm ent o f i n d i v i d u a l l a n g u a g e s i s n e c e s s a r i l y b r i e f . To d a t e , th e o n l y l e n g t h y s t u d i e s o f any o f th e TRLs are F o r d ’ ( 1 9 7 1 ) , a s t u d y o f a s p e c t s , p r i m a r i l y t o n a l , o f Avatime, and Hdftmann ( 1 9 7 1 ) , an o u t l i n e grammar o f Lelemi w ith some co n n e c t e d t e x t s ;
27
u n f o r t u n a t e l y , I did not l e a r n o f Hdftmann’ s grammar u n t i l t h i s t h e s i s was v i r t u a l l y completed* O t h e r w is e ,
t h e r e have been o n l y about 15 works d e a l i n g w ith Buem a s Buem; f o r the most p a r t , t h e s e works are w o r d l i s t s , o f which Kropp (1967) i s by f a r the most e x t e n s i v e and
th e most u s e f u l f o r g e n e r a l p u r p o s e s , w h i l e Cansdale (undated) i s a v a l u a b l e com parative g u id e to animal names throughout Ghana* The f i r s t known work on the s y n t a x o f Buem i s Vestermann ( 1 9 1 0 ) , which g i v e s a
b r i e f o u t l i n e , g e n e r a l l y a c c u r a t e , o f some o f the major s t r u c t u r e s o f the language and which has a Lefana-German l e x i c o n a s w e l l ; o t h e r s y n t a c t i c work c o n s i s t s o f
Hdftmann ( 1 9 6 6 ) , Hdftmann ( 1 9 7 0 ) , A l l a n (1972a) and A l l a n ( i n p r e s s ) . S e i d e l ( 1 8 9 8 ) , working from Plehn
( 1 8 9 5 ) , r e p r e s e n t s th e f i r s t attem p ted d e s c r i p t i o n o f the phonology o f Buem; p o s s i b l y owing to sh o rtco m in g s i n th e so u rce m a t e r i a l (which I have n o t s e e n ) , S e i d e l ’ s work i s w i l d l y i n a c c u r a t e , and th e f i n d i n g s i n V e s t e r mann (1910) a re much more i n l i n e w ith my own, e s p e c i a l l y w ith fcespect to the vowel system ( A l l a n , 1972b; s e e
a l s o Ford ( i n p r e s s ) ) .
1
28
Vork i n t h e l a n g u a g e , Funke (1919) p r e s e n t s t he f i r s t c o n n e c t e d t e x t , a d i s c u s s i o n o f m a r r i a g e c u s t o m s which i n t e r n a l e v i d e n c e s u g g e s t s came from a s p e a k e r from Te t e ma n. The Rev. Fr# A#0# D o g l i , from B a g l o , w r o t e e v e r y t h i n g e l s e p r i n t e d i n Buem: t e n p a m p h l e t s , l a r g e l y r e l i g i o u s and p e d a g o g i c a l i n n a t u r e , whi ch a p p e a r e d a t i r r e g u l a r i n t e r v a l s b e t we e n 1953 and 1955; i n a d d i t i o n , F r . D o g l i t r a n s l a t e d t h e e n t i r e C a t h o l i c m i s s a l , whi ch
i s s t i l l i n u s e . At t h e p r e s e n t t i m e , t h e Rev. FFr * J . L a a s t i s p r e p a r i n g a Lel emi hymn book a t Te t e ma n. B o t h Fr# D o g l i a n d , I b e l i e v e , Fr# L a a s t t r a n s c r i b e Buem
u s i n g Ewe o r t h o g r a p h y ; l e t t e r s my L b f a n a s p e a k i n g f r i e n d s have w r i t t e n me g e n e r a l l y u s e Twi o r t h o g r a p h y . As f a r a s I know, t h e r e a r e no p l a n s t o t r a n s l a t e t h e B i b l e i n t o Buem.
I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e s e t e x t s , and t h o s e i n Hdftmann and A y i t e v i ( 1 9 6 8 ) , t h e r e a r e two p h o n o g r a p h r e c o r d s
( i # e . , f o u r s i d e s ) o f e v a n g e l i c a l p r e a c h i n g by a Mr#
Odumah, f r o m, I b e l i e v e , Te t ema n .
>23
The Grammar
S o u r c e d i a l e c t . T h i s grammar i s b a s e d on t h a t d i a l e c t o f Lfclbmi spoken i n Bagl o and i n B a g l o- O d u m a s e ,
m i l e s from B a g l o . I c h o s e t h i s d i a l e c t p r i m a r i l y b e c a u s e i t i s p r o b a b l y t h e most c o n s e r v a t i v e and b e c a u s e t h e o n l y Buem l i t e r a t u r e , o t h e r t h a n F u n k e f s t e x t , i s w r i t t e n i n t h i s d i a l e c t . I n a d d i t i o n , L l l £ m i f o r m s i n g e n e r a l can be u s e d a s a s o r t o f " b a s e " f r om whi ch c e r t a i n L £ f a n a f or ms c a n be p r e d i c t e d g i v e n t h e a d d i t i o n o f a s m a l l number o f l o w - l e v e l p h o n o l o g i c a l r u l e s ,
l i k e t h e / l - r / a l t e r n a t i o n and m e t a s t h e s i s / s y n c o p e r u l e s d i s c u s s e d i n D i a l e c t s o f Buem, a b o v e . S i n c e t h e c o n v e r s e , t h a t Lfclemi f or ms c a n be p r e d i c t e d from t h e L&-
f a n a f o r m s , i s n o t t r u e i n t h e s e l f - s a m e c a s e s , a
grammar o f Lelfcmi c a n be c o n s i d e r e d a s b e i n g , i n a s i g n i f i c a n t way, a " s o u r c e grammar" f o r L e f a n a .
F i e l d w o r k . I c o l l e c t e d m a t e r i a l f o r t h i s grammar d u r i n g a 23- mont h f i e l d t r i p from S e p t emb e r 1970 t o J u l y 1972;
t h e f i r s t y e a r o f t h i s t i me I s p e n t a t J a s i k a n T r a i n i n g
130
C o l l e g e , J a s i k a n (Buem) and t h e b a l a n c e o f my s t a y a t S t . F r a n c i s 1 T r a i n i n g C o l l e g e , Hohoe. My p r i n c i p a l i n f o r m a n t s f o r L b f a n a were M e s s r s . Kojo G i n g e r Ray B r a i m a h - M i n t a h , a s t u d e n t a t J a s i k a n T r a i n i n g C o l l e g e , and George Lamson A g y e i , a s t u d e n t a t V o l t a Commercial C o l l e g e , b o t h n a t i v e s o f Okaj a kr om, and my p r i n c i p a l
i n f o r m a n t s f o r L l l l m i were M e s s r s . Lewis D.K. Dokpor, a s t u d e n t a t J a s i k a n T r a i n i n g C o l l e g e who came from B a g l o , and Dominic K. Nyar ko, a s t u d e n t a t S t . F r a n c i s 1
T r a i n i n g C o l l e g e who came from Ba g l o - Od u ma s e . B o t h o f my p r i n c i p a l L l l b m i i n f o r m a n t s had had p r e v i o u s e x p e r i e n c e w i t h w o r k i ng w i t h t h e i r l a n g u a g e : Dokpor s t a y e d w i t h h i s c l a s s i f i c a t o r y g r a n d f a t h e r , t h e Rev.
F r . D o g l i , who t r i e d t o p a s s on t o him a f e e l f o r t h e s t r u c t u r e o f h i s l a n g u a g e , and Nyarko had p r e v i o u s l y s e r v e d a s an i n f o r m a n t f o r H i l d e g a r d Hoef t ma nn d u r i n g h e r f i e l d t r i p t o B a g l o . Mr. P h i l i p Agyakwa, from A t o n k o r , and Mr. Lucas Aggadey, from B a g l o , a l s o c o n
t r i b u t e d s u b s t a n t i a l a mount s o f t i m e , and M e s s r s .
M i c h a e l Dudu and R i c h a r d Akoto-Addey gave me much u s e f u l i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e B o r a d a d i a l e c t o f L e f a n a .
131
C o s t s o f t h e f i e l d w o r k were met by t h e C e n t r a l R e s e a r c h Fund o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f London, whi ch p r o v i d e d me w i t h a g e n e r o u s g r a n t f o r e q u i p m e n t and i n f o r m a n t ' s f e e s .
Scope and f o r m a t o f t h e grammar. I n t h i s grammar I w i l l d e a l w i t h t h e s y n c h r o n i c d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e
p h o n o l o g y , m o r p h o l o g y , c £ n d s y n t a x o f L £ l b mi : b e c a u s e t h e o n l y p u b l i s h e d d e s c r i p t i o n s o f any o f t h e Togo Remnant l a n g u a g e s c o n s i s t p r i m a r i l y o f s k e t c h y f r a g m e n t s , d e a l i n g m o s t l y w i t h t he noun c l a s s s y s t e m s
and r a r e l y w i t h a n y t h i n g e l s e , i t seems t o me p r e f e r a b l e t o a t t e m p t a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e c o m p l e t e l a n g u a g e
( w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f i t s s e m a n t i c s ) , e v e n a t t h e r i s k o f a p p e a r i n g t o d e a l w i t h some p o r t i o n s o f t h a t d e s c r i p t i o n s u p e r f i c i a l l y , r a t h e r t h a n t o d e a l w i t h a s m a l l e r p o r t i o n o f t h e l a n g u a g e e x h a u s t i v e l y .
The p h o n o l o g y c o n s i s t s o f t h e t ax o n o m i c d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e s o u n d s t h a t I have h e a r d ' u s e d i n s p e e c h and o f t h e p e r m i s s a b l e c o m b i n a t i o n s o f t h o s e s o u n d s ; I h a v e , i n a d d i t i o n , t r i e d t o g i v e a g e n e r a t i v e p h o n o -
!32
l o g i c a l a cc o u n t o f the vowel harmony s y s te m . The mor
p h o lo g y and s y n ta x are d e s c r i b e d w i t h i n the framework o f the "A s p e c t s model" ( a l i a s "Standard Theory") o f t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l g e n e r a t i v e grammar a s proposed i n
Chomsky (1965) and m o d i fi e d i n Chomsky (19720* B a s i c a l l y , t h i s th eo r y e n t a i l s the u s e o f a r e l a t i v e l y s m a ll number o f ord ered c o n t e x t - f r e e r u l e s , c a l l e d "base r u l e s , " which e s t a b l i s h th e fldeep s t r u c t u r e , " o r th e b a s i c r e l a t i o n s h i p and o r d e r o f the e l e m e n t s o f a s e n
t e n c e , f o l l o w e d by a s e r i e s o f c o n t e x t - s e n s i t i v e
r u l e s , not n e c e s s a r i l y o r d e r e d , c a l l e d " t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l r u l e s , " which can a l t e r th e r e l a t i o n s h i p s and o r d e r i n g e s t a b l i s h e d by th e b a se r u l e s and which can combine e l e m e n t s to form th e " s u r f a c e s t r u c t u r e . " G e n e r a l l y s p e a k in g , i n t h i s grammar I w i l l u se b a se r u l e s to de
v e l o p what has t r a d i t i o n a l l y been c a l l e d "syntax" and t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l r u l e s to d e v e lo p what has t r a d i t i o n a l l y been c a l l e d "morphology." I have g e n e r a l l y o m itt e d b a s e r u l e s which r e w r i t e n o n - t e r m i n a l symbols i n t o i n d i v i d u a l words, i n o r d e r to a v o id u s e l e s s p e d a n t r y . At t h i s p o i n t ,
I should mention t h a t I in te n d to u se the t h e o r y o f
'33
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l grammar a s a t o o l t o h e l p t o d e s c r i b e t h e l a n g u a g e , n o t to us e t h e l a n g u a g e a s a t o o l to hfelp d e s c r i b e t h e t h e o r y o f t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l grammar; i n s h o r t , I d o n ! t want t o h i d e t he f o r e s t f o r t he " t r e e s . "
S i n c e I am n o t a n a t i v e s p e a k e r o f L e l e m i , I c a n n o t c l a i m t h a t my r u l e s w i l l g e n e r a t e " a l l and o n l y " gram
m a t i c a l s e n t e n c e s i n L e l e m i ; my r u l e s w i l l , however, g e n e r a t e a l l t h e s t r u c t u r e s commonly u s e d w i t h i n a
s i n g l e s e n t e n c e o f d i s c o u r s e and s h o u l d g e n e r a t e many o f t h e r a r e r s t r u c t u r e s a s w e l l .
E x c e p t where t h e s t u d y o f s e m a n t i c s d i r e c t l y im
p i n g e s on t h e s y n t a x o f Le l e mi o r where t h e s e m a n t i c s o f Lel emi p r e s e n t e d d e f i n i t e p r o b l e m s t o me when I was l e a r n i n g t h e l a n g u a g e , t h e f i e l d o f s e m a n t i c s h a s b e e n e x c l u d e d from t h i s grammar.
P a r t I I . P h o n o l o g y .
35
T r a n s c r i p t i o n
I n t h i s grammar, I have u s e d t h e " A f r i c a ” a l p h a b e t , r a t h e r t h a n t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l P h o n e t i c A l p h a b e t
( I P A) , to t r a n s c r i b e s e g m e n t a l s p e e c h s o u n d s , i . e . , c o n s o n a n t s , v o w e l s , and g l i d e s ; t h i s t r a n s c r i p t i o n d i f f e r s from an IPA t r a n s c r i p t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e f o l l o w i n g : t h e u s e o f t h e symbol • y 1 t o d e n o t e t h e p a l a t a l g l i d e t r a n s c r i b e d i n IPA a s f j f , and t h e
a.lreo IaS u s e o f t h e symbol s and !c f t o d e n o t e t h e p a l a t a l a f f r i c a t e s t r a n s c r i b e d i n IPA a s ’ d ^ 1 and 1 * 9 r e
s p e c t i v e l y . S u p r a s e g m e n t a l s p e e c h s o u n d s a r e t r a n s c r i b e d a s f o l l o w s :
v N a s a l i z a t i o n
v High t o n e
v (unmar ked) Mid t o n e
V Low t o n e
fv Downstepped t o n e
U n d e r l y i n g r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s s u b j e c t to morphophonemic a l t e r n a t i o n s a r e w r i t t e n w i t h c a p i t a l l e t t e r s , e . g . ,
t h e form BA- i s t h e u n d e r l y i n g r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e s u r f a c e p r e f i x e s ][ba] o r [be] ( w i t h t h e s e l e c t i o n b a s e d
on vowel h a r m o n y ) . I n u n d e r l y i n g r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s , t o n e i s marked a s f o l l o w s :
*
V U n d e r l y i n g High t o n e on t h a t segment VI U n d e r l y i n g Mid t o n e >i it it
V U n d e r l y i n g Low t o n e u it ti
V U n d e r l y i n g High t o n e on p r e c e d i n g segment
V U n d e r l y i n g Mid t o n e tt n tt
V U n d e r l y i n g Low t o n e it n tt
When t o n e i s n o t marked f o r an u n d e r l y i n g s e g m e n t a l , V , t h i s i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e t o n e on t h a t s e g m e n t a l i s
s u b j e c t t o v a r i a t i o n .
B e c a u s e a s t r i c t l y phonemic t r a n s c r i p t i o n c o u l d n o t a d e q u a t e l y d e a l w i t h p r o b l e m s o f morphophonemic a l t e r n a t i o n , s u c h a s t h o s e p r e s e n t e d by t h e vowel h a r mony s y s t e m , I h a v e used a b r o a d p h o n e t i c t r a n s c r i p t i o n i n s t e a d , whi ch d i f f e r s from a phonemic t r a n s c r i p t i o n i n r e c o g n i z i n g , f o r e x a mp l e , t h e / l - r / a l t e r n a t i o n ' s whi ch a s t r i c t l y phonemic t r a n s c r i p t i o n would i g n o r e .
The Word
A "word” ( a s opposed to a "morpheme") i n Buem can be d e f i n e d i n e i t h e r o f two ways:
i . A word i s a s e q u e n c e o f s o u n d s which c a n be u t t e r e d i n i s o l a t i o n and which c a n n o t be segment ed i n t o
s h o r t e r s e q u e n c e s o f sounds s uch t h a t e a c h s uc h s h o r t e r s e q u e n c e o f s o u n d s can a l s o be u t t e r e d i n i s o l a t i o n , o r
i i . A word i s a s e q u e n c e o f s o u n d s which can f u n c t i o n i n s y n t a g m a t i c r e l a t i o n w i t h a word a s d e f i n e d above and
whi ch c a n n o t be segment ed i n t o s h o r t e r s e q u e n c e s o f s o u n d s s u c h t h a t e a c h s uc h s h o r t e r s e q u e n c e o f s o u n d s i s i t s e l f a word, e i t h e r a s d e f i n e d i n ( i . ) above o r irr t h e f i r s t p a r t o f t h i s d e f i n i t i o n .
Words d e f i n e d u n d e r ( i . ) would be p r i m a r i l y n o u n s , v e r b s , c a r d i n a l number s, a d v e r b s , e t c . whi ch c o u l d o c c u r e i t h e r a s commands o r a s a n s w e r s t o q u e s t i o n s , f o r e x a m p l e , by t h e m s e l v e s ; words d e f i n e d u n d e r ( i i . ) would be p r i m a r i l y noun m o d i f i e r s , v e r b m o d i f i e r s , p r e p o s i t i o n s , c o n j u n c t i o n s , e t c . which c o u l d n ’ t n o r m a l l y o c c u r by t h e m s e l v e s i n i s o l a t i o n , b u t which can o c c u r w i t h words which carl o c c u r
i n i s o l a t i o n . While t h e s e d e f i n i t i o n s do have some l o o p - h o l e s , t h e y s h o u l d be s u f f i c i e n t l y r i g o r o u s f o r my n e e d s .
The o n l y m o n o s y l l a b i c words i n Buem a r e : i . O b j e c t P r o n o u n s ,
i i . The " O r a l Commay" - n i , and some
i i i . C o n n e c t i v e s ( P r e p o s i t i o n s and C o n j u n c t i o n s ) , i v . A d v e r b s ,
v . A d j e c t i v e s , a n d Noun Q u a n t i f i e r s , and v i . Onomat opoei c wor ds .
A l l o t h e r words have a t l e a s t two s y l l a b l e s ; t h e l o n g e s t word I have y e t e n c o u n t e r e d h a s f i v e s y l l a b l e s . The v a s t m a j o r i t y o f a l l words have o n l y two s y l l a b l e s , i n c l u s i v e o f p r e f i x , f o l l o w e d by a much s m a l l e r number w i t h t h r e e
s y l l a b l e s , i n c l u d i n g p r e f i x , and an e ve n s m a l l e r number, a l m o s t a l l o f them v e r b s , w i t h f o u r s y l l a b l e s , i n c l u d i n g p r e f i x .
The S y l l a b l e
T h e r e a r e s e ve n t y p e s o f s y l l a b l e which o c c u r i n n a t i v e Buem wo r d s , l i s t e d below i n d e s c e n d i n g o r d e r o f e s t i m a t e d f r e q u e n c y :
i . CV' , i i . V t
i i i . CwV , i v . C i v ,
v . N ,
v i . Vn , and v i i * CVn .
The CV t y p e o f s y l l a b l e i s f a r t he commonest s i n c e i t t h e o n l y t y p e o f s y l l a b l e t h a t can o c c u r anywhere i n a word and s i n c e , w i t h c e r t a i n mi n o r e x c e p t i o n s , i t i s
t h e o n l y t y p e o f s y l l a b l e t h a t must o c c u r i n a word,
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Next commonest i s t h e V t y p e o f s y l l a b l e , which o c c u r s e i t h e r a s an a f f i x o r a s the- r e s i d u e o f a presumed CV t y p e s y l l a b l e i r h a i N o u n Stem which h a s u n d e r g o n e me t as t h e s i s o r some s i m i l a r p r o c e s s .
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The o n l y t i m e s t h a t a V s y l l a b l e o c c u r s a s t h e o n l y s y l l a b l e o f a word a r e t h e O b j e c t Pronoun f o r t h e sec ond p e r s o n s i n g u l a r , o , and o n o ma t o p o e i c words and t h e a n s w e r s to q u e s t i o n s - which a r e " Ye s - Nd. "
i i i ’Y e s ’
' N o 1 ' - -
Bo t h CwV and C1T t y p e s o f s y l l a b l e s have t h e same d i s t r i b u t i o n , o c c u r r i n g o n l y i n s t e m s , n e v e r a s a f f i x e s . They sure e x e m p l i f i e d on pp. 5 1 f f and o c c u r a s t h e o n l y s y l l a b l e s o f a word o n l y i n p o s s e s s i v e p r o n o u n s ( s e e pp. 1 6 6 - 8 ) ,
i n i m p e r a t i v e s , i n a d j e c t i v e s / n o u n q u a n t i f i e r s , and i n o n o m a t o p o e i c wor ds.
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S y l l a b i c n a s a l s o c c u r o n l y word i n i t i a l l y o r i n compounds o r d e r i v e d f o r m s .
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S y l l a b l e t ype Vn o c c u r s o n l y in t h e word f o r b o r n ' ,
=>nta, a n t a , and i n t h e Baglo d e t e r m i n e r s 2 nv^ f t h a t ' and 2 n D^ ' y o n d e r ' ; s y l l a b l e t y p e CVn o c c u r s o n l y i n t h e word f o r ' c o r n 1, l e n t a , i n t he Ba g l o d e t e r m i n e r s when t h e y have CV- p r e f i x e s , e . g . , banv=> ' t h o s e ' , and i n p a r t i c i p l e s d e r i v e d from Verb Stems w i t h u n d e r l y i n g n a s a l i z e d v o w e l s :
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The Consonants
Ther e a r e 21 c o n s o n a n t s i n L b l bmi , 18 o r a l c o n s o n a n t and 3 n a s a l c o n s o n a n t s ; t h e s e c o n s o n a n t s , p l u s / r j / 9
w h i c h i s a c o n d i t i o n e d a l l o p h o n e o f / j i / r e c o g n i z e d i n t h e o r t h o g r a p h y , a r e l i s t e d i n F i g u r e I . E x c e p t a s n o t e d b e l ow, t h e s e c o n s o n a n t s have no a l l o p h o n i c v a r i a t i o n s .
/ t / i s a l w a y s r e a l i z e d i n t h e B a g l o d i a l e c t o f L e l e m i a s [ t ] e x c e p t i n t h e a f f i r m a t i v e p r e s e n t t e n s e o f t h e v e r b bz>tl ’ t o know1, where / t / i s r e a l i z e d a s
h V
a j l *2s knows* - a a t i *2s d o e s n ’ t know I n o t h e r d i a l e c t s , t h e r e a r e o t h e r a l t e r n a t i o n s a s w e l l , a l r e a d y d i s c u s s e d i n P a r t I u n d e r D i a l e c t s o f Buem.
/ k p / h a s t h r e e d i f f e r e n t r e a l i z a t i o n s , o f w h i c h t h e most common, [ k p j , h a s two f u l l c l o s u r e s . O c c a s i o n a l l y , h o we v e r , some s p e a k e r s u s e [pwj b e f o r e / i / :
£ukpi] ' , [upv&lj *3s d i e d 1.
R a r e l y , some s p e a k e r s u s e a s t r o n g l y a s p i r a t e d j p ^ b e f o r e a b a c k v o we l :
£llkpi>J - ’p l a c e , knot *
/ b / s o me t i me s i s r e a l i z e d a s [ t j 9 i n s t e a d o f \ y ] , a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a s e n t e n c e s
(bkasej jjBS. a s fej ‘b i r d s '
/ f / h a s a v a r i e t y o f a l l o p h o n e s , o f which t h e com
mo n e s t i s a l a b i o - d e n t a l r e a l i z a t i o n i n which t h e u p p e r t e e t h come i n t o c o n t a c t w i t h t h e b ac k o f t h e l i p r a t h e r t h a n t h e t o p and i n which t h e r e i s l i t t l e o r no r o u n d i n g ; t h i s y i e l d s a sound i n t e r m e d i a t e b e t w e e n t h a t u s u a l l y t r a n s c r i b e d a s ' f ' and t h a t u s u a l l y t r a n s c r i b e d a s e i t h e r
' 5 ' o r ' f ' . The r e a l i z a t i o n
I f ]
i s g e n e r a l l y h e a r d b e f o r e / w / ; o c c a s i o n a l l y , a form o f / f / w i t h q u i t e a no t i c e a b l e " w h i s t l e " component a l s o o c c u r s b e f o r e / w / , e s p e c i a l l y b e f o r e / w i / sI n t h e wor<
t h e p h a r y n g e a l f r i c a t i v e [6*] iis o c c a s i o n a l l y u s e d :
£bafwi=>J - [b&.J-wl=>j - jb&j-swl^] ' i d o l , f e t i s h
<
C&buofiwara],
though one sp ea k er does u se the g l o t t a l f r i c a t i v e h e r e i n s t e a d :
[ febuohwara].
and [Jsw J s o u n d s , Kropp (1967) w r i t e s :
^5
"The sound t r a n s c r i b e d i n L e j a n a i s a b i l a b i a l p a l a t a l v o i c e l e s s s p i r a n t , i n whi ch t h e u p p e r l i p p r o t r u d e s s l i g h t l y o v e r t he l o w e r ( v i z . Akan h w ) . Sometimes a s l i g h t w h i s t l e can, be h e a r d . ” Th e r e i s n o o m e n t i o n e l s e w h e r e i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e o f t h e " w h i s t l e ” v a r i a n t o f / f / , a l t h o u g h t he w h i s t l e i s o f t e n , a s I s a y , q u i t e n o t i c e a b l e : H e i n e ( 1968) s i m p l y l i s t s b o t h / f / and a s phonemes, w i t h o u t f u r t h e r comment. I t may b e , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t t h e w h i s t l e v a r i a n t i s q u i t e a r e c e n t i n n o v a t i o n .
/ p / i s w r i t t e n ' n y ' i n t h e t e x t s . I t h a s a v e l a r a l l o p h o n e [ r ) j , whi ch o c c u r s b e f o r e / u / : ar)u fh e / s h e / i t !
/ l / d o e s n o t a l t e r n a t e w i t h / n / i n t h e Bagl o d i a l e c t , n o r d o e s i t a l t e r n a t e w i t h / r / i n t h e Bagl o d i a l e c t e x c e p t i n t h e f o l l o w i n g wor ds :
k a d r u l , k=> ' c o mp o u n d 1 k wa b l a ~ kwabr a ' Thank y o u '
l i j e r o ' I send g r e e t i n g s * b u v r e ~ b u v l s ' P l e a s e *
biovruma ' t o be d i f f e r e n t ' ,
bzst r a ' t o d e p a r t '
a v r ukpo ' G o d 1
/ r / o c c u r s o n l y i n t h e above s e v e n w o r d s , i n t h e Baglo d i a l e c t , and i n l o a n wo r d s :
l ^ r l ' t r u c k , l o r r y * f r a i d e ' F r i d a y '
rjkrali ' Accra*
r a u r a 'Worawora*
g e g r e g e ' a t y p e o f b u s h w i t h m i l k y s t e m s '
