An evaluation and update of the E-Scan
entrepreneur test
Lieuwe Oosterling
august 2009
Rijksuniversiteit Groningen
Faculty Economics & Business
An evaluation and update of the E-Scan
entrepreneur test
Rijksuniversiteit Groningen
Faculty Economics and Business
Master Small Business & Entrepreneurship
Author
Name: Lieuwe Sjouke Oosterling
Student number: 1670131
Email:
lieuweoosterling@hotmail.com
Supervisor: prof. dr. P.S. Zwart
Rijksuniversiteit Groningen
Master coordinator: dr. C. Lutz
Rijksuniversiteit Groningen
Research done for:
Dr. M.P. Driessen
Foreword
This research has been done for the study Business Administration, specialization Small Business & Entrepreneurship and is regarded as a Master Thesis for graduation in this study. The supervision according to this research is from Martijn Driessen and Peter Zwart.
The subject concerning the research is the E-Scan entrepreneur test, which is part of Entrepreneur Consultancy BV. With the research, the current E-Scan is evaluated and the norm profiles that are currently used are updated. I want to thank Martijn Driessen for giving me an opportunity to perform this research. I also want to thank Martijn Driessen for the time and effort he had to make to help me during the period of research. Furthermore I want to thank Peter Zwart for his supervision, time and effort during the research process. Finally I want to thank my family and friends, who always supported me during my study period. Special thanks go to my cousin, who was so kind to read my paper and to give some grammatical comments.
Lieuwe Oosterling,
Summary
This research has been done with the E-Scan entrepreneur test as subject, which is part of Entrepreneur Consultancy BV. The research is regarded as a Master Thesis for graduation in the study Business Administration, specialization Small Business and Entrepreneurship at the Rijksuniversiteit Groningen. In this research, it is examined which traits are missing in the current E-Scan, the current norm profiles of the E-Scan are updated, and new branches with their own norm profiles are added to the E-Scan.
The aim of the research is: ‘Evaluating the current traits and capabilities that are used in the Scan, make the developers of the scan aware of missing traits in the Scan, improving the E-Scan by evaluating and updating the norm profiles, and adding two new branches to the E-E-Scan.’ Seven questions are used to perform the research.
The E-Scan is an entrepreneur test which measures if an individual possesses the traits and capabilities to become successful as an entrepreneur. Within the E-Scan, seven traits and three capabilities are used to measure the entrepreneurial personality. Before an individual fulfills the E-Scan, he is asked in which branch he is active. At the moment, there are eleven branches in the E-Scan, each with their own norm profile. The norm profiles show a standard score for each trait and capability.
Current literature shows that there are a lot of traits that are not in the E-Scan, but that are related to entrepreneurial success. Some of these traits are related to traits that are used in the E-Scan, others are completely different. The traits that are not related to traits in the E-Scan and that are related to entrepreneurial success are tolerance of ambiguity, innovativeness, optimism, self-efficacy, self-criticism, self-discipline, and aggression. It is not possible to add all these traits to the E-Scan, because that makes the E-Scan too broad and unclear. According to the cooperating advisors, the most important traits which should be addedare optimism and self-discipline.
trait. Furthermore it is remarkable that all the three capabilities that are used in the E-Scan; flexibility, creativity, and market awareness, score higher in the new norm profiles in comparison to the old ones. Also the trait endurance scores higher in the new norm profiles than in the current norm profiles.
The norm profiles of the branches that are added to the E-Scan, the construction branch and health care branch, do not show very remarkable differences with the norm profiles of the other eleven branches. In both of the branches, the trait need for power scores low. In the norm profile of the Construction branch, the highest score is for the capability flexibility. In the healthcare branch, the traits endurance and social orientation and the capability market awareness show the highest scores.
Table of contents
Foreword 3
Summary 4
Table of contents 6
Chapter 1: Introduction / problem definition 8
1.1 Introduction 8
1.2 Aim of the research and research questions 9
1.3 Composition survey 10
Chapter 2: About the E-Scan 11
2.1 The E-Scan 11
2.2 Branches of the E-Scan 13
2.3 Traits and capabilities of the E-Scan 13
2.4 Norm profiles 16
2.5 Conclusion 17
Chapter 3: The entrepreneur and entrepreneurial traits 18
3.1 The entrepreneur 18
3.2 Important traits for entrepreneurs 20
3.3 Conclusion 23
Chapter 4: Instruments to measure entrepreneurial personality 26
4.1 Instruments that measure personality 26
4.2 Instruments that measure entrepreneurial personality 30
Chapter 5: Research method 37
5.1 Procedure of gathering information 37
5.2 Plan for data analysis 38
5.3 Research development and respondents 39
5.4 Reliability and validity 40
Chapter 6: Results 42
6.1 Important traits and capabilities for the E-Scan 42
6.2 New norm profiles of the E-Scan 47
6.3 Importance of the E-Scan for the construction and healthcare branch 54 6.4 The norm profile of the construction and healthcare branch 57
Chapter 7: Conclusion 60
7.1 Evaluating current traits and capabilities and missing traits in the E-Scan 60
7.2 Norm profiles of the E-Scan 64
Chapter 8: Recommendations and discussion 67
Chapter 1: Introduction / problem definition
1.1 Introduction
This research is based on the Entrepreneur Scan (E-Scan), which is developed by Martijn Driessen and Peter Zwart. The E-Scan is a successful instrument that measures the entrepreneurial personality. Already more than 120.000 (potential) entrepreneurs used the E-Scan and also big institutions like the Rabobank are using the E-Scan for measuring the entrepreneurial personality. Before an individual fills in the E-Scan, he is asked in which branch he is active. In the current E-Scan, there are eleven different branches available. After fulfilling the E-Scan, the individual gets a score on ten different traits and capabilities that are related to entrepreneurial success. The traits and capabilities that are used are based on an earlier research of Driessen (2005). For each of the eleven branches in the E-Scan, there exists a norm profile, which includes a norm score for each of the ten different traits and capabilities. The scores of the individual can be compared with the scores in the norm profile. These norm profiles are developed a couple of years ago with the help of advisors of branch organizations and branch related consultancy bureaus that represent each of the eleven branches.
Besides the traits and capabilities that are used in the E-Scan, there are a lot of other traits that seem to be important for entrepreneurial success according to the literature. In this research, an overview of important traits that can possibly be added to the E-Scan will be given. Because the norm profiles are developed a couple of years ago, it is possible that the current norm profiles are outdated and that the current norm scores are not the current standard anymore. Therefore, the current norm profiles of the different branches will be evaluated and updated. The current E-Scan is developed for eleven different branches. This means that there is no specific norm profile for individuals who (want to) operate in branches different then the eleven that are currently in the E-Scan. These individuals can choose for the general branch with a general norm profile, but this is not an ideal situation. Therefore, it is useful to upgrade the current E-Scan by adding new branches to the Scan with their own norm profile. With this research, the usefulness of the E-Scan for the construction branch and the healthcare branch is examined and norm profiles for these branches are developed and added to the E-Scan.
related consultancy bureaus. This part of the research does focus on other traits and not on other capabilities, otherwise the survey becomes too broad. This will lead to a less profound survey. The second goal is to increase the quality of the E-Scan by evaluating and updating the current norm profiles. The final goal is to make the E-Scan useful for a broader public by adding two new branches to the scan.
1.2 Aim of the research and research questions
The aim of the research is:
‘Evaluating the current traits and capabilities that are used in the E-Scan, making the developers of the scan aware of missing traits in the E-Scan, improving the E-Scan by evaluating and updating the norm profiles, and adding two new branches to the E-Scan.’
The sub-questions that are used to completethe research are:
1 Which traits are, according to the literature, important to become a successful entrepreneur?
2 Which instruments, besides the E-Scan, are used to measure entrepreneurial personality and which traits are used?
3 What is the link between the traits from the literature and traits from the personality measurement instruments? Which of these traits have a link with traits of the E-Scan and which are missing traits in the E-Scan?
4 Which current traits or capabilities are, according to the different branches, less important for the E-Scan and which new traits are important to add to the E-scan for their branch? 5 What do the new norm profiles look like? In which way do they differ from the currently
used norm profiles?
1.3 Composition Survey
Chapter 2: About the E-Scan
2.1 The E-Scan
In 2005, Martijn Driessen wrote his doctoral thesis about the Entrepreneur Scan and in 2006, Martijn Driessen and Peter Zwart published the article ‘De E-scan Ondernemerstest ter beoordeling van ondernemerschap’. The E-Scan is a scan that is developed for (potential) entrepreneurs. By means of the E-scan entrepreneurs are able to reflect their weak and strong entrepreneurial traits and capabilities and they can find out if they possess the right traits and capabilities to become a successful entrepreneur. With this information, it is possible for entrepreneurs to work on their weak qualities and to control their strong qualities. The E-Scan is developed for eleven different branches. For each specific branch, there exists a norm profile to which the entrepreneurs can compare their own results (Driessen, 2005; Driessen & Zwart, 2006).
After answering 111 questions about their own personality on a 7-point Likert scale, it is possible for the entrepreneur to buy a personal report. In the personal report, the entrepreneur can find a score on each of the ten different traits and capabilities that are included in the E-Scan. They can compare these scores with the scores of the norm profile of the branch and with the average scores of the branch that they are part of. In figure 2.1, an example is given of a spider web model (Driessen & Zwart, 2006) in which the average scores of company takeovers and the scores of a norm profile of a branch are compared.
Driessen and Zwart (2006) mention four different thinking styles, which are developed by Hermann (1996). These thinking styles are pioneer, salesman, manager and expert. In the personal report, a circle diagram is exposed with percentages of the four thinking styles related to the entrepreneur. There is also an explanation of the four thinking styles and an explanation in which way the entrepreneur has similarities with the thinking style and how to handle these similarities. In figure 2.2, there is an example of a circle diagram with percentages on the four different thinking styles.
Figure 2.2: Circle diagram with percentages on the four thinking styles of Hermann (1996)
2.2 Branches of the E-Scan
Currently, there are eleven branches included in the E-Scan. These eleven branches are:
1. Retail Food 2. Retail Fashion 3. Remaining Retail 4. Repair Businesses 5. Wholesale Business 6. Small Industry 7. Catering Industry 8. Business Services
9. Culture, Sports and Recreation 10. Personal Services
11. Remaining Services
For each of these eleven branches, there exists a norm profile and an average score of entrepreneurs within the branch. Entrepreneurs that are not from one of the above branches can choose for a general branch. The current eleven branches will be expanded with two new branches, the construction branch and the healthcare branch.
2.3 Traits and capabilities of the E-Scan
The E-Scan includes seven traits and three capabilities. On each of the traits and capabilities, the entrepreneur gets a score after finishing the E-Scan. The different traits and capabilities are explained in this paragraph.
2.3.1 Need for Achievement
2.3.2 Need for Autonomy
Need for Autonomy is often the (non) deliberate reason why an individual wants to become an entrepreneur. An entrepreneur has the need of freedom to decide and to do what is right according to him. Successful entrepreneurs make independent decisions, solve their own problems, and do their tasks successfully by their selves.
2.3.3 Need for Power
Need for Power is the need to be in control of others and to tell other people what to do. It can be a reason to become an entrepreneur, because an entrepreneur is in control. Successful entrepreneurs know what they want and know how to influence other individuals to achieve their goals. They take for granted that other individuals accept their authority and opinion.
2.3.4 Social Orientation
Social Orientation is the extent in which a person is aiming at other people. Successful entrepreneurs know that other people and social networks are very important to realize their ideas. They easily get in touch with other people and keep their business intentions in mind in their social life. Successful entrepreneurs can also ignore their social needs and focus their attention on the business.
2.3.5 Self Belief / internal locus of control
Self Belief, or internal locus of control, is confidence in your own capabilities and self-confidence in relation to other people. Successful entrepreneurs have the confidence that they will achieve their goals by their selves. They are confident that they will successfully accomplish each assignment. They think that their success is not dependent on other individuals and are always confident towards other people, even if these people are richer, more important or more powerful.
2.3.6 Endurance
2.3.7 Market Awareness
Market Awareness is imagining what the needs of the (potential) customers are and involving this in your own operating management. Successful entrepreneurs adapt their operating management to the specific needs of their target group. They are also able to give an accurate insight in what the competitors do. They are aware of the content of the professional magazines and talk with customers so that they are able to anticipate on changes in the market.
2.3.8 Creativity
Creativity is the ability to “play” with thoughts and discover and try new opportunities. Successful entrepreneurs are open for the things that occur in their environment. They are not hindered by the restrictions of the situation, but are challenged by the opportunities. They contain the ability to think from different angles and leave the roads that have already been discovered aside. Due to this, they are able to transpose problems into new opportunities and they are willing to take risks.
2.3.9 Flexibility
Flexibility is the ability to adapt. Successful entrepreneurs react to perceived changes in the environment, like new desirability’s of customers or new competitors in the market. They interpret opportunities and threats on their effect and adapt their business(plan) to this.
2.3.10 Risk Tolerance
Risk Tolerance is the ability to cope with uncertainty and the willingness to take losses. Successful entrepreneurs are active risk takers. They are pro-active towards opportunities and take these opportunities with energy, initiative and the willingness to realize the desired result of the opportunity, despite of the risks that are inherent to the perceived opportunity. Their goals are more related to improving their current life than to maintaining their current life.
2.4 Norm Profiles
For each of the eleven different branches, there exists a norm profile. The purpose of the norm profiles is that an entrepreneur can compare his own score to a score that is the standard in the branch. This paragraph explains what norm profiles are and how they are determined.
2.4.1 Definition of norm profiles
For the assessment of test results, it is important to have a reference with which a score can be compared. An example of such a reference is a norm score, which is for example used at entrance examinations of certain schools. A norm score gives the minimum score that is needed to gain entrance at a school or type of education. Also entrepreneurship and in this case the E-Scan needs a standard for assessment of the individual scores on traits and capabilities that are important for entrepreneurial success. For the E-Scan, a norm profile is developed which is established with help of advisors of different branch organizations and branch related consultancy bureaus. These advisors assess (starting) entrepreneurs for their living, which means that they have a reliable opinion of what is important to become successful as an entrepreneur. For each of the branches in the E-Scan, there are between the four and six advisors asked to give their independent opinion about each trait and capability and to give scores on these traits and capabilities. These scores are used in the currently existing norm profiles. In total, 48 advisors did give their opinion and score (Driessen, 2005).
To test if the different assessments of the advisors are reliable, a correlation analysis is done. The correlation score for the general branch is 0,91, for the other branches the correlation scores are lower. The reason for this is the fewer advisors that assessed these branches. More assessing advisors were not necessary because the expectations were that strong diverse opinions would not occur. The correlation scores on the other branches are between the 0,59 and the 0,85. The average correlation score is 0,74 (Driessen, 2005).
2.5 Conclusion
Chapter 3: The Entrepreneur and entrepreneurial traits
In the past, there is a lot of research done about entrepreneurship and measuring entrepreneurial personality. One way to measure entrepreneurial personality is with the E-Scan (Driessen & Zwart, 2006). The E-Scan uses seven traits and three capabilities that are important for an entrepreneur. In other literature, a lot of other traits and capabilities are mentioned that are, according to the different authors, important for entrepreneurial success. In this research, the focus is only on traits that are important for the success of an entrepreneur. In this chapter, a description of the entrepreneur is given, followed by a description of traits that are, according to literature, important for entrepreneurial success.
3.1 The Entrepreneur
Everyone knows the term entrepreneur, but what does the term entrepreneur really mean? According to a dictionary, an entrepreneur is a person who organizes and manages a business, and who assumes that the risk is for the sake of making profit. Inthe literature, there are a lot of other and broader definitions. One of the first definitions of entrepreneurship originates from about 1700 and was defined by Cantillion. Cantillion described the individual as a rational decision maker who takes risk and provides management for the firm (Carland et al., 1984; Kilby, 1971). Cantillion gave the entrepreneur a coordinating function in the market as a merchant. According to Jean Baptiste Say (1767-1832), the entrepreneur also has a coordinating function within the firm. Say said that the entrepreneur has a crucial role in the production and distribution within a firm. Both Say and Cantillion mentioned that an entrepreneur is taking risks because of his renewing activities (Driessen, 2005). According to Schumpeter (1934), the entrepreneur is the shaper of new combinations. With innovations of existing techniques and methods, the entrepreneur is able to realize the same product with a lower cost price, and in an earlier stadium then when new original products are invented and produced. Schumpeter called this creative destruction (Schumpeter, 1934).
identification and exploitation of an opportunity is entrepreneurial. And according to Garfield (1986), someone who develops a niche in the market or develops a strategy to satisfy some needs is an entrepreneur.
Brockhaus & Horwitz (1986) mention that it is difficult to give just one good definition of the entrepreneur. There are a lot of different definitions that all have certain characteristics of the entrepreneur. In 2000, Bolton and Thompson defined an entrepreneur as a person who habitually creates and innovates to build something of recognized value around perceived opportunities. The person can also be in an entrepreneur team. The use of the word habitually implies serial behavior, the pursuit of more than one opportunity sequentially. Finding and seizing opportunities is for an entrepreneur natural and instinctive behavior, some entrepreneurs clearly cannot stop themselves. (Thompson, 2004).
Kuratko & Hodgetts (2004) also state that the definition of the entrepreneur as a person, who undertakes to organize, manage, and assume the risks of a business, is not broad enough anymore. Nowadays the entrepreneur is an innovator or developer who recognizes and seizes opportunities, converts these opportunities into workable and marketable ideas, adds value through time, effort, money, or skills, assumes the risks of the competitive market place to implement these ideas, and realizes the rewards from these efforts (Stevenson & Gumpert, 1985 and Cunningham & Lischeron, 1991).
3.2 Important traits for entrepreneurs
The entrepreneur is overwhelmingly perceived to be different in important ways from the non-entrepreneur, and many researchers believe these differences lie in the background and personality of the entrepreneur (Gartner, 1985). Research about entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial traits begun years ago. In table 3.1 is an overview of traits that are important for entrepreneurs, according to literature.
Table 3.1 Important traits for entrepreneurs
Date Author(s) Characteristic(s)/Trait(s)
1848 Mill Risk bearing
1934 Schumpeter Innovation, initiative
1954 Sutton Desire for responsibility
1961 McClelland Risk taking, need for achievement, affiliation 1963 Davids Ambition, desire for independence, responsibility, self-confidence
1970 Hornaday & Bunker Creativity, need for achievement, power, affiliation, tolerance of uncertainty
1971 Palmer Risk measurement
1971 Hornaday & Aboud Need for achievement, autonomy, aggression, power, recognition, innovative/independent
1973 Winter Need for power
1974 Borland Internal locus of control 1974 Liles Need for achievement
1975 Durand Locus of control
1978 Timmons Drive/self-confidence, moderated risk taker, internal locus of control, creativity/ innovation
1979 DeCarlo & Lyons Drive for independence & success, aggression, need for autonomy 1980 Brockhaus Risk taking propensity
1980 Hull Risk taking propensity
1980 Sexton Energetic/ambitious; positive reaction to setbacks
1981 Hisrich & O’Brien Drive for independence & success, perseverance/endurance, self-discipline 1981 Mescon & Montonari Locus of control, perseverance/endurance, need for autonomy, dominance 1982 Welsch & Young Risk taking propensity, locus of control, self-esteem, innovation
1985 Gartner Risk taking propensity, need for achievement, locus of control
1985 Sexton & Bowman Risk taking propensity, tolerance of ambiguity, locus of control, need for autonomy, dominance, independence, self-esteem
1988 Low & MacMillan Tolerance of ambiguity
1991 Cunningham & Lischeron Drive for independence and success, perseverance, self-esteem, risk taking propensity, need for achievement, locus of control, personal values, tolerance of ambiguity
1994 Krueger & Brazeal Self-efficacy beliefs 1994 Krueger & Dickson Self-efficacy beliefs 1997 Hills et al. Creativity
2003 Ardichvilli et al. Optimism, creativity
In 1848, Mill distinguished a manager from an entrepreneur by the entrepreneurs’ ability of bearing risks. In 1934, Schumpeter mentions that risk-bearing propensity is not an entrepreneurial trait, because risk bearing is inherent to ownership and entrepreneurs are not always owners. However, many authors write that risk-bearing propensity is an essential factor in the entrepreneurial character and function (Carland et al, 1984; Brockhaus, 1980; Hull et al., 1980; Welsch & Young, 1982; Sexton & bowman, 1985). In a framework for new venture creation, Gartner (1985) also mentions risk-taking propensity as one of three important traits that an entrepreneur needs to have to become successful. The two other traits from this framework are need for achievement (Hornaday & Aboud, 1971; McClelland, 1961; Liles, 1974) and locus of control (Borland, 1974; Durand, 1975; Mescon & Montonari, 1981; Welsch & Young 1982; Sexton & Bowman, 1985). According to Brockhaus (1982), these three traits are used in many studies and may have some validity in differentiating among types of entrepreneurs. For instance, McClelland (1965) states that need for achievement drives people to become entrepreneurs. Locus of control is related to expectation of success or failure. People with an internal locus of control think that they are able to influence success (Rotter, 1966) and therefore it is reasonable to think that they become an entrepreneur. Littunen (2000) mentions that according to findings in several studies, a strong need to achieve is related to targets and the desire to reach these targets, while the locus of control is related to turning these thoughts into actions.
In the research of Shaver and Scott (1991) is pointed out that psychometric tests searching for distinctive entrepreneurial traits have been unable to find differences in most personality traits between entrepreneurs and other groups like for example managers. However, there are two personality traits, which are related to successful opportunity recognition, optimism and creativity (Ardichvilli et al, 2003). Krueger and Dickson (1994) and Krueger and Brazeal (1994) point out in their studies that optimism is related to self-efficacy beliefs, which is important for an entrepreneur. Creativity is important because successful entrepreneurs see opportunities that other persons do not see (Schumpeter, 1934; Hornaday & Bunker, 1970; Timmons, 1978). Hills et al. (1997) found by surveying entrepreneurs that 90 % found creativity very important for opportunity recognition.
the question whether an entrepreneur is born or made. According to the school the entrepreneur is considered to have certain traits and an intuitive ability that they are born with and which make them a leader and a successful entrepreneur. These entrepreneurs are able to present ideas, concepts, and beliefs that others find interesting, intriguing, or stimulating. Therefore, these entrepreneurs are endowed with certain traits that differentiate them from others. The successful entrepreneur has strong drives for independence and success (Davids, 1963; DeCarlo & Lyons, 1979; Hisrich & O’Brien, 1981; Dunkelberg & Cooper, 1982; Sexton & Bowman, 1985), high levels of vigor and perseverance/endurance (Hisrich & O’Brien, 1981; Mescon & Montari, 1981; van Uffelen, 2005), and self-esteem (Davids, 1963; Welsh & White, 1981; Welsch & Young, 1982; Sexton & Bowman, 1985).
The Psychological Characteristics School of Entrepreneurship focuses on personality factors and believes that entrepreneurs have unique values and attitudes towards work and life. According to the Psychological Characteristics School of Entrepreneurship, three of the five most important personality characteristics of an entrepreneur are the earlier mentioned risk-taking propensity, need for achievement, and locus of control. The other two are personal values (honesty, duty, responsibility, and ethical behavior), and tolerance of ambiguity (Cunningham & Lischeron, 1991). Entrepreneurs have been shown to possess a significantly higher level of tolerance for ambiguity in comparison to managers (Low & MacMillan, 1988; Schere, 1982; Sexton & Bowman, 1985).
3.3 Conclusion
In the literature, a lot of traits are mentioned that seem to be important for the entrepreneurial personality. The seven traits that are used in the E-Scan, need for achievement, need for autonomy, need for power, social orientation, self belief/internal locus of control, endurance, and risk tolerance, are mentioned as well. Social orientation is in the literature called affiliation. Furthermore there are other traits mentioned that have a strong relation with traits used in the E-Scan. Ambition is strongly related to need for achievement, drive for independence, initiative and responsibility are strongly related to need for autonomy, tolerance of uncertainty is linked to risk taking propensity, and dominance is strongly related to need for power.
In addition to this, there are traits mentioned as important for the entrepreneurial personality, which are not included in the E-Scan. One of these traits, tolerance of ambiguity, shows a relationship with flexibility in the E-Scan. Tolerance of ambiguity is about perceiving ambiguity in information and behavior in an open way, something that flexible individuals also do. Nevertheless, the two dimensions are not exactly the same because flexibility is more about adapting to every single situation, while tolerance of ambiguity is about the ability to take care of difficult and unclear situations. Low & MacMillan (1988) state that tolerance of ambiguity is a psychological characteristic that distinguishes entrepreneurial personality. According to Sexton & Bowman (1985), entrepreneurs score significant higher on tolerance of ambiguity than managers. Innovativeness is related to creativity. If an entrepreneur wants to be innovative, then he needs to be creative. Innovativeness is about introducing successful products or services, or becoming a trendsetter in the market. But a creative entrepreneur is not always innovative, because it is possible that he doesn’t bring his ideas in practice. An entrepreneur is innovative when he implements his creativity. According to Hornaday & Aboud (1971), entrepreneurs rate their selves higher on innovativeness then general people. Welsch & Young (1982) state that a successful entrepreneur is one who is able to monitor the environment and is open to adopt the necessary innovations, so that his organization adapts to changes in the environment.
toward entrepreneurship. Self-reported competencies like self-efficacy predict entrepreneurial performance (Krueger & Brazeal, 1994). Hisrich & O’Brien (1981) mention in their research about female entrepreneurs that many female business owners are successful because of their self-discipline, perseverance and hard work. According to Hornaday & Aboud (1971) and DeCarlo & Lyons (1979), entrepreneurs score significant higher on need for aggression than non-entrepreneurs. Therefore aggression seems to be important for non-entrepreneurs. Van Uffelen (2005) states that successful entrepreneurs need to have self-criticism, in order to achieve the maximum result. In table 3.2 is an overview of the mentioned traits in this chapter that are not in the E-Scan. There is also mentioned to which traits of the E-Scan these traits are linked.
Trait Link with E-Scan
Internal locus of control Synonym for self-belief
Dominance Strong relationship with need for power Affiliation Strong relationship with social orientation Ambition Strong relationship with need for achievement Drive for independence Strong relationship with need for autonomy Initiative Strong relationship with need for autonomy Responsibility Strong relationship with need for autonomy Tolerance of uncertainty Strong relationship with risk-taking propensity Tolerance of ambiguity Little relationship with flexibility
Innovativeness Little relationship with creativity
Optimism No link with traits in the E-Scan
Self-efficacy No link with traits in the E-Scan Self-criticism No link with traits in the E-Scan Self-discipline No link with traits in the E-Scan Aggression No link with traits in the E-Scan
Table 3.2: Traits from literature and their link with traits from the E-Scan
Chapter 4: Instruments to measure entrepreneurial personality
In the past, there are a lot of instruments developed that give an insight in the personality of an individual. In these measurement instruments, different traits are used to describe a person’s personality. There exist instruments that measure just the personality of the individual, but also instruments that focus on the entrepreneurial personality. In this chapter, both of these instruments are outlined. The general personality instruments that are outlined are the NEO-FFI, the FFPI, the EPQ, and the DPQ. The entrepreneurial personality tests that are outlined are the GET test and the DeOndernemerstest.
4.1 Instruments that measure personality
A well-known model for personality measurement is the Big Five Factor model. This model is the product of several decades of factor analytic research centering on trait personality. The Five Factor model can be understood as a theory of normal personality traits, which is composed of five essentially independent dimensions that have been reliably obtained across extensive investigations (Zhang, 2002). The five factors or dimensions that the model uses are extraversion, emotional stability, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness to experience (Mount & Barrick, 1998; Judge et al, 1999). Through the years, a lot of different interpretations were given to the dimensions by different authors. The first two instruments for measuring personality in this paragraph are based on the Big Five Factor model. The final two instruments that are described in this paragraph use other dimensions for measuring personality.
4.1.1 NEO-FFI
4.1.2 FFPI
Another test that uses the Big Five Factor Model is the Five Factor Personality Inventory (FFPI, Hendriks et al, 1999). In the FFPI, the dimension openness to experience is called autonomy. The FFPI results from an attempt to construct a state-of-the-art instrument for the assessment of the Big Five factors of personality either through self-ratings or, preferably (Hofstee, 1994), through ratings by a number of others who know the target person well (Hendriks et al, 1999). The FFPI consists of 100 brief and concrete items (traits). For every trait, the individual needs to answer on a five-point scale if the trait applies to him (1 = does not at all apply to me, 5 = does very much apply to me). The 100 traits are equally distributed over the five factors, and relatively easy to translate in other languages. In student and in more heterogeneous samples, the factor scores (extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability, and autonomy) are sufficiently (autonomy) to highly reliable, stable, and of good construct validity (Hendriks et al., 1999).
4.1.3 EPQ
4.1.4 DPQ
An personality measurement instrument which is often used in the Netherlands is The Dutch Personality Questionnaire (DPQ; Luteijn et al, 2000) The DPQ was originally developed in the Netherlands in the early seventies with the intention of measuring all important personality aspects (Luteijn, 1974). Today, the DPQ is used in many practical settings, like selection, counseling and clinical psychology. The reliability and validity of the DPQ are satisfactory (Luteijn et al, 2000). The DPQ consists of 132 items, answered on a three-point scale (True–?– False), that are non-overlapping keyed in seven scales, measuring the following personality aspects: neuroticism (21 items), social anxiety (15 items), rigidity (25 items), hostility (19 items), egoism (16 items), dominance (17 items), and self-esteem (19 items) (Barelds & Luteijn, 2001).
4.1.5 Link general traits with entrepreneurial personality
the difference between managers and entrepreneurs on the Big Five dimensions. They experienced that entrepreneurs scored significantly lower on the dimension emotional stability and agreeableness than managers. On the dimensions openness to experience and conscientiousness, the entrepreneurs scored significantly higher than managers. On the dimension extraversion, the results between managers and entrepreneurs did not differ. The study from Zhao & Seibert (2006) shows contradictory results with the study of Envick & Langford (2000) towards the dimension conscientiousness.
There has not been research done in the past about the relation between the EPQ and entrepreneurial personality tests. However, it is reasonable to believe that the four dimensions of the EPQ are barely related to personality dimensions that are important for an entrepreneur. According to the EPQ, high levels of psychoticism are linked with an increased vulnerability to psychoses. This has not much to do with entrepreneurship. The social desirability dimension can be of more importance for an entrepreneur. An entrepreneur does not have to be social desirable, although a social network can be important and the ability of making new contacts can easily be stimulated by the social desirability dimension. This is because someone with a high social desirability finds it important to have a big social network. The last two dimensions of the EPQ, neuroticism (emotional stability) and extraversion, are discussed earlier in this paragraph.
4.2 Instruments that measure entrepreneurial personality
This sub-paragraph gives a description of two instruments that measure the entrepreneurial personality, the General Enterprising Tendency and the DeOndernemerstest.
4.2.1 GET
In 1988, Caird of the University of Durham published an article about a developed instrument that tested personality related to entrepreneurship, the so-called General Enterprising Tendency (GET). The GET is a test that consists of a questionnaire with 54 items, which is based on five personality dimensions. The dimensions that are included in the test are need for achievement (12 items), autonomy (6 items), drive and determination (12 items), risk taking (12 items), and creativity (12 items). These dimensions are likely to predict the entrepreneurial personality, and these personality attributes are most strongly related to success (Stormer et al, 1999). Each of the 54 items in the questionnaire are a statement, which a participant answers on a 2-point scale (agree or disagree). A maximum of six points can be scored on the autonomy dimension, on the other dimensions a maximum of twelve points can be scored. Therefore, a maximum of 54 points can be scored in the GET test. The GET test is useful in a variety of situations, for example to measure the enterprising qualities of those who wish to set up a business. But it might also be used by employers concerned to foster enterprising individuals within their own organization
or in the recruitment and selection of personnel (Durham University, 2003). Research of Cromie & O’Donaghue (1992) has shown that the GET test is able to discriminate between entrepreneurs and managers and between entrepreneurs and undergraduate students. Research of Caird (1988) and Cromie & O’Donaghue (1992) show that the construct validity, reliability and consistency of the GET test are guaranteed. The questions that are used in the GET test are in appendix 2.
4.2.1.1 Link between GET and the E-Scan
4.2.2 DeOndernemerstest
In the Netherlands, there is an entrepreneurial personality test called DeOndernemerstest (www.deondernemerstest.nl). This test is developed by the knowledge institution DeOndernemerstest. DeOndernemerstest is like the E-Scan a personality test that measures if an individual possesses the traits and capabilities that are important for a successful entrepreneur. In the DeOndernemerstest, these traits and capabilities are called competencies. There are three different tests. The first one is the novice test, the second one is the essence test, and the third test is the ultimate test. These three tests are further divided in a starter, an entrepreneur, and a manager test. Every test consists of 130 questions that need to be answered on a five-point scale, ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree. The tests will take into account in which organizational phase the organization is. If the organization is in the start-up phase, the participant can choose between all the three tests. If the organization is in the growth or maturity phase, the participant needs an essence test or an ultimate test. After finishing the test, the results are combined in a personal report. The report contains an overview of all the strengths and weaknesses of the participant and indicates to what extent the participant possesses the successful entrepreneurial competencies. Each of the three tests have their own personal report. The questionnaire of the DeOndernemerstest is in appendix 3.
4.2.2.1 Novice test
The personal report of the novice test consists of an entrepreneurial profile, task competencies, and focus competencies.
Entrepreneurial profile
The entrepreneurial profile consists of four competencies: being, changing, knowing, and doing. Being determines if participants are able to remain their selves while trying to get ahead. Changing refers to the participant’s ability to change his ways and translate his ideas into concrete goals. Knowing gives the participant the tools to operate well in practice. Doing is the ability to act in such a way that the participant actually achieves his goals.
Task competencies
financial insight. The task competencies are only measured for starters and entrepreneurs, not for managers.
Focus competencies
The focus competencies are crucially important as they tell the entrepreneur where he should be concentrating his energy on. The participant’s focus competencies are dependant on the type of test (novice test, essence test or ultimate test) that the participant selected and the organizational phase the organization of the participant is in. In table 4.1 is a summary of the focus competencies for each organizational phase.
Start-up Growth Maturity
Creativity Courage Courage
Empathy Reliability Reliability
Courage Efficiency Determination
Comm. Skills Resoluteness Resoluteness
Leadership Leadership Comm. Skills
Strategic Attitude Strategic Attitude Leadership Perseverance Insight Ext. Environment Perseverance
Table 4.1: Focus competencies in the DeOndernemerstest (www.deondernemerstest.nl)
4.2.2.2 Essence test
The essence test is more advanced than the novice test. The entrepreneurial profile, task competencies, and focus competencies are also in this test, but the test is extended with a personality profile, that consists of several core competencies.
Personality profile
The personality profile is a profile that includes nine core competencies. These core competencies are intuitive/creative thinking, ability to spot opportunities, dominance, integrity, goal orientation, ambition, vulnerability, self-discipline, and organizing skills. The scores on each of the competencies are showed in a “Spider’s Web” Diagram.
4.2.2.3 Ultimate test
Behavioral competencies
Behavioral competencies are competencies that include behavior, attitude, motives, norms, and values. These are relatively stable personality characteristics that largely determine whether and how to use your knowledge and skills. The behavioral competences are summarized in table 4.2.
1. Creativity 8. Emotional Stability 15. Determination 2. Courage 9. Power of Persuasion 16. Locus of Control 3. Efficiency 10. Critical Thinking 17. Reliability
4. Alertness 11. Empathy 18. Carefulness
5. Resoluteness 12. Perseverance 19. Self-Confidence 6. Flexibility 13. Decisiveness
7. Application 14. Ability to Prioritize
Table 4.2: Behavioral competencies (www.deondernemerstest.nl)
Investment advice
The investment advice gives an answer to the fundamental question if it is worth investing in the organization and yourself. An answer on this question is given with help of the results of the tests. There is no investment advice if the participant of the ultimate test is a manager.
Competencies Kind of competency
Competencies Kind of
competency
Being - Ability to Prioritize Capability
Changing - Dominance Entrepren. trait
Knowing - Integrity Entrepren. trait
Doing - Self-discipline Entrepren. trait
Negotiation skills Capability Ambition Entrepren. trait Communication skills Capability Carefulness Entrepren. trait Leadership Capability Self-Confidence Entrepren. trait Strategic attitude Capability Perseverance Entrepren. trait Insight in ext. environ. Capability Locus of Control Entrepren. trait Marketing insight Capability Reliability Entrepren. trait Financial insight Capability Efficiency Entrepren. trait
Creativity Capability Empathy Entrepren. trait
Ability to spot opport. Capability Decisiveness Entrepren. trait Goal orientation Capability Determination Entrepren. trait Organizing skills Capability Courage General trait Flexibility Capability Resoluteness General trait Application Capability Emotional stability General trait Power of persuasion Capability Alertness General trait Critical thinking Capability Vulnerability General trait Intuitive Thinking Capability
Table 4.3: Summary of the competencies of the DeOndernemerstest (www.ondernemerstest.nl)
4.2.2.4 Link between DeOndernemerstest and the E-Scan
A lot of the competencies from the DeOndernemerstest are capabilities. The E-Scan knows three capabilities, flexibility, creativity, and market awareness. These three capabilities are also presented in the DeOndernemerstest, whereby market awareness is called insight in external environment. All the capabilities that are in the DeOndernemerstest are summarized in table 4.3 Because this research primarily focuses on traits, the capabilities that are in the DeOndernemerstest are less important to this research.
Besides the general personality traits the DeOndernemerstest also knows some entrepreneurial traits. Traits from the DeOndernemerstest that are important for entrepreneurial success are dominance, integrity, self-discipline, ambition, carefulness, self-confidence, perseverance, locus of control, reliability, efficiency, empathy, decisiveness, and determination. From these thirteen traits, some can be related to traits from the E-Scan. Perseverance and determination are strongly related to endurance because all these terms are about gaining a lot of effort to achieve the maximum result. Locus of control is already mentioned in the E-Scan and self-confidence is also related to the trait internal locus of control/self-belief in the E-Scan. Dominance is, as mentioned earlier in this research, related to need for power and carefulness is the same as risk taking propensity only the other way around. Ambition can be compared with need for achievement because both are about the drive to achieve the highest possible. Empathy, self-discipline, integrity, reliability, efficiency, and decisiveness are missing traits in the E-Scan that seem to have value when the entrepreneurial personality is determined. From these six traits, only empathy and integrity can be slightly compared with social orientation, because all the three terms are about the ability to do well with people you are dealing with and about trust towards the people you are dealing with in the business.
4.3 Conclusion
The general personality tests are only partly useful for measuring entrepreneurial personality. Research shows that only two of the Big Five dimensions (conscientiousness and openness to experience) show significant correlations with entrepreneurial personality, although different studies show contradictory results towards the dimension conscientiousness. The relationship between dimensions from the EPQ and DPQ and the entrepreneurial personality is never examined. It seems that most of these dimensions from the two tests have less to do with the entrepreneurial personality, except for the dimensions self-esteem and dominance from the DPQ. To measure the entrepreneurial personality more specific tests, like for example the E-Scan, are needed.
on a 7-point Likert scale. Furthermore, the GET test is based on just 5 personality dimensions, four traits and one capability. The E-Scan uses 7 traits and 3 capabilities for measuring entrepreneurial personality. The traits and capability from the GET test are all entrepreneurial related and used in the E-Scan.
Chapter 5: Research method
This chapter outlines which method is used to gather the information that is necessary to achieve the aim of the research. The research is based on a quantitative method, whereby questionnaires are used. The information that results from the questionnaires is used to answer the following questions:
- What do the new norm profiles look like? In which way do they differ from the currently used norm profiles?
- What do the construction branch and healthcare branch think of the usefulness of the E-Scan for their branch? Which traits are important to include in the E-E-Scan for their branch? - What do the norm profiles for the construction branch and the healthcare branch look like?
In paragraph 5.1 it is outlined why the quantitative method is selected for the research for the existing branches and the new branches. Paragraph 5.2 shows the plan for data analysis. Paragraph 5.3 outlines the research development with both strong and weak elements during the procedure of gathering information. It also mentions who the respondents of this research are and why these respondents are chosen. In the final paragraph 5.4, the reliability and validity of the research are described.
5.1 Procedure of gathering information
5.1.1 Existing branches
Before the start of the research, different possibilities of gathering information are considered, like interviews, brainstorm sessions and questionnaires. For the research, there is information needed that will help to update the current norm profiles of the E-Scan. Besides information that will help to update the norm profiles, there is also information needed about the current trait and capabilities. The usefulness of these traits and capabilities for entrepreneurial success needs to be examined and there needs to be examined which traits that are important for entrepreneurial success are missing in the E-Scan. Eventually, there is chosen to use questionnaires for gathering the information that is needed for the research.
E-Scan. With a questionnaire, it is possible to get the needed information from a reasonable number of respondents during a short amount of time. The questionnaire is also preferred over a brainstorm session. Multiple brainstorm sessions would be needed because it is impossible to have a good session with a group of more than fifty people. Another disadvantage of a brainstorm session is that there are always more dominant people who talk most of the time. This will leave the opinion of other individuals in the background. The last and maybe most important reason why there are questionnaires used is because in the past, the norm profiles are also created with help of questionnaires. Because of the good experience with questionnaires in the past, there is chosen to use questionnaires for this research too.
5.1.2 New branches
This research will add two new branches to the E-Scan, the construction branch and the healthcare branch. The same three possibilities of gathering information as for the existing branches are considered. For creating a norm profile for the construction branch and healthcare branch, a questionnaire is used. This questionnaire makes it also possible to find out what the usefulness of the E-Scan is for these branches and which traits are missing in the E-Scan for these branches. The possibilities of a brainstorm session or interviews are more likely in this situation because for the two new norm profiles, less respondents are needed than for the update of the eleven current norm profiles. Still there is chosen to use a questionnaire. The main reason is because of the consensus that will be realized within the creation of all the norm profiles. Besides, when it is possible to gain representative information for the eleven existing branches with a questionnaire, then it is also possible to gain representative information with a questionnaire for the two new branches. The questionnaires that are used in this research for the current branches and the new branches are in appendix 4.
5.2 Plan for data analysis
5.3 Research development and respondents
The research that is performed is a quantitative research with questionnaires. The questionnaires needed to be answered by professional advisors that are working for branch specific branch organizations or consultancy bureaus. For the update of the current used norm profiles, as many as possible branch organizations and consultancy bureaus that work in each of the eleven branches of the E-Scan were approached. For the new norm profiles, as many as possible branch organizations and consultancy bureaus that work in the construction branch and healthcare branch were approached. The advisors that eventually were approached are independent and experienced individuals who know how their branch functions and what is important to become a successful entrepreneur in their specific branch. The reason why entrepreneurs are not asked to participate to the research is because they can see themselves as successful and therefore it is possible that they rate the traits and capabilities that they possess higher than other traits and capabilities.
did not know if they possessed the knowledge that is needed to fill in the questionnaire. Also some of the advisors that did cooperate to the research were very busy. Therefore it took much time before they filled in the questionnaire. These advisors were called several times to remind them to cooperate to the research. This all resulted in the fact that it took much longer to collect the amount of information that was needed to perform a reliable research. Eventually, enough advisors from all of the branches did fill in the questionnaire. In total, 89 advisors were sent a questionnaire, from which at least six to every specific branch. From the 89 advisors, 67 advisors filled in the questionnaire. The reason why the response is that high is because only advisors that wanted to cooperate to the research were sent a questionnaire. The advisors that were sent a questionnaire but that eventually did not cooperate were advisors that were too busy or advisors that believed that they did not possess the knowledge to cooperate after they saw the questionnaire. From the 67 advisors that did cooperate, 55 filled in the questionnaire for the norm profiles of the branches that currently exist within the E-Scan. For each of these current branches, at least four advisors filled in the questionnaire, and a maximum of seven advisors for a specific branch. For each of the two new branches, six advisors filled in the questionnaire. It was considered that more respondents were not necessary for updating and creating the norm profiles, because strong diverse opinions were not expected. Furthermore, the current eleven norm profiles of the E-Scan are created with help of 48 advisors, which is less than the number of advisors that is used in this research (Driessen, 2005).
5.4 Reliability and validity
5.4.1 Reliability
5.4.2 Validity
Chapter 6: Results
In this chapter, there are four sub-questions answered with help of the questionnaire that is used for this research. In paragraph 6.1 there is an answer to the question which traits and/or capabilities of the current E-Scan are less important for entrepreneurial success and which missing traits are important for entrepreneurial success and should possibly be added to the E-Scan. In paragraph 6.2, the new norm profiles are shown and compared to the old norm profiles. In paragraph 6.3, the usefulness of the E-Scan for the healthcare branch and the construction branch is elaborated, and missing traits in the E-Scan for the healthcare branch and the construction branch are mentioned. Finally, in paragraph 6.4 the norm profiles of the healthcare branch and construction branch are shown.
6.1 Important traits and capabilities for the E-Scan
6.1.1 Traits and capabilities that are used in the E-Scan
The current E-Scan knows seven traits and three capabilities. From the research resulted that most of these traits and capabilities are very important for an entrepreneur within the different branches of the E-Scan. In the research, 55 questionnaires are answered for the current eleven branches of the E-Scan. In table 6.1, the average scores on the seven traits and three capabilities are outlined.
Trait/capability Average score
Need for Achievement 8,0
Need for Autonomy 8,2
Need for Power 5,1
Social Orientation 7,7 Self-Belief 8,2 Endurance 8,7 Market Awareness 9,0 Creativity 8,4 Flexibility 8,3
Risk Taking Propensity 7,5
Table 6.1: Average score on the traits of the E-Scan
which means that need for power is not really important for entrepreneurial success according to the cooperating advisors of the different branches. The trait need for power scores sufficient in only four branches. In the branch personal services the trait need for power scores a 6.3 on average, in the branch repair businesses need for power scores a 6.0 on average. The highest score on the trait need for power is in the branches wholesale business and remaining services, where need for power respectively scores a 6.4 and a 6.5 on average. The lowest score is in the branch retail food, where need for power scores a 3.5 on average. The other traits and capabilities that are used by the E-Scan score at least a 7.5, which means that they are important for entrepreneurial success according to the cooperating advisors of the different branches. The most important competencies according to the advisors are endurance and market awareness. The trait endurance and the capability market awareness score respectively an 8.7 and a 9.0 on average. This means that it is important for an entrepreneur to have the drive to succeed and never give up, even in times that things are not going well, as well as the drive to know the market where the entrepreneur is in. The highest score for the trait endurance is in the branch retail fashion, where the trait scores a 9.4 on average. The highest score for the capability market awareness is in the branch remaining retail, where the capability scores a 9.7 on average.
The differences of the scores on traits and capabilities between the different branches are most of the time minimal. In paragraph 6.2, where the new norm scores for the branches are shown, there is a summary of all the scores on the traits and capabilities for each specific branch.
6.1.2 Traits mentioned in literature
Trait % of advisors that think that the trait is important Optimism 81,8 % Tolerance of Ambiguity 30,9 % Self-Efficacy 70,9 % Self-Discipline 89,1 % Aggression 56,4 % Innovativeness 76,4 % Self-Criticism 76,4 %
Table 6.2: Importance of traits mentioned in literature according to cooperating advisors
Table 6.2 shows that most of the traits that are mentioned in the literature are important for an entrepreneur according to the questioned advisors. The trait tolerance of ambiguity is the only trait whereby less than half of the questioned advisors believe that it is important for entrepreneurial success. Nearly sixty percent of the questioned advisors think that the trait aggression is important for an entrepreneur to become successful. The other traits score a percentage of at least 70 %, which means that it is very important for the success of an entrepreneur to have these traits according to the questioned advisors. The most important trait that is mentioned by literature in chapter 3 is self-discipline. Almost 90 % of the advisors think that self-discipline is important for an entrepreneur to become successful in the business they are in.
6.1.3 Other traits mentioned by questioned advisors
Important traits according to advisors (n=) Winners Mentality ( 5 ) Steady towards Stress ( 3 ) Reflection ( 4 ) Integrity ( 4 ) Enthusiasm ( 4 ) Initiative ( 7 ) Empathy ( 8 ) Open-Mindedness ( 4 ) Resilience ( 3 )
Table 6.3:Important traits that are missing in the E-Scan and literature
Table 6.3 shows that there are some traits mentioned by the cooperating advisors that are important for an entrepreneur but which are not mentioned before. The first trait is Winners Mentality, which means the drive to become the best in the business and getting the maximum out of the business. Steady towards stress implies that it is important for an entrepreneur to stay calm, even in busy and difficult times. Reflection is about the ability to think in situations where the entrepreneur is under pressure, and to take some distance from this situation to be able to see the situation in another perspective. Integrity is about containing the common social and ethical norms and values that are applicable when the business is practiced. The trait enthusiasm is about the passion that the entrepreneur has towards his business. Initiative is about taking action and rather starting something yourself than wait till others do. Empathy is about respect to your personnel and customers and about understanding for their opinion. Open-mindedness is about being open for new things and the desire of following trends within the business. At last resilience is about being able to handle criticism and misfortune.
with innovativeness, because both are about being open for new things. The other five traits that are mentioned by the cooperating advisors do not show a direct connection with the traits from the E-Scan and literature from chapter 3.
6.1.4 Conclusion
The results in this paragraph show some remarkable outcomes. According to this research, the traits and capabilities that are used in the E-Scan seem to be important for the success of an entrepreneur, only need for power is less important than in the results of earlier research. With a score of 5.1 on average, it is the only trait or capability that scores insufficient. This research did not examine why need for power scores insufficiently, therefore further research would be necessary. In the present literature, there are several authors like Hornaday & Bunker (1970) and Winter (1973), who assume that need for power is an important trait for a successful entrepreneur, which makes the outcomes of this research remarkable. The other traits and capabilities show high average scores, which is in accordance to the expectations due to the results from earlier research.
The results of this research also show that, according to the cooperating advisors, there are other traits mentioned in theliterature that have influence in the success of an entrepreneur. Besides the traits and capabilities of the E-Scan, five of the seven different traits that are mentioned in the literature seem to be very important for the entrepreneurial success. No less than 89.1 % of the questioned advisors believe that self-discipline is very important for an entrepreneur. Also optimism (81.8 %), innovativeness and self-criticism (both 76.4 %), and self-efficacy ( 70.9 %) score high percentages. This means that according to this research this are missing traits in the E-Scan and that these traits could be included in the E-E-Scan to make the test more complete. The traits tolerance of ambiguity and aggression score lower percentages, respectively 30.9 % and 56.4 %. This means that according to this research these traits are less important than is shown in results of other researches (DeCarlo & Lyons; 1979, Low & MacMillan; 1988, Cunningham & Lischeron; 1991) and that it is not necessary to include these traits in the E-Scan.
of an entrepreneur. Other mentioned traits like steady towards stress, reflection, integrity, empathy, and resilience do not show a link with the traits from the E-Scan. To find out what the importance is of these traits for the success of an entrepreneur, further explicit research is necessary.
6.2 New norm profiles of the E-Scan
In this paragraph the current norm scores and the new norm scores are outlined and the differences between the currently used and the new norm scores are summarized.
6.2.1 Norm scores of the currently used and new norm profiles
