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A research on the effects of Anthropomorphism on Brand Love

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Amber de Vries

Student number: s2143429

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Love at first sight? Stop dreaming; start

building that relationship.

A research on the effects of Anthropomorphism on Brand love.

Amber Nicole de Vries

3 This research is about consumer-brand relationships. In this research the relationship between Anthropomorphism, brand love and purchase intention and the extent to which this effect is influenced by self-congruity and self-expressiveness is investigated. In the past, no research on this relationship has been conducted. With the current technologies brand managers can easily anthropomorphize brands; the main goal of this research was to gather more information about, and more understanding of the effectiveness of using anthropomorphism when branding a product. The main goal was to test if consumer can form the most intense consumer-brand relationship that is comparable with interpersonal relationships with a brand, when they can look at the brand like it is a person. Further, the goal was to broaden the field of research on anthropomorphism by taking a look at the role of self-expressiveness and self-congruity on the Brand-Love relationship and on purchase intention.

In order to test the effect of an anthropomorphized brand on brand love and purchase intention and the extent to which this effect is influenced by self-congruity and self-expressiveness, an experiment has been conducted. All respondents were randomly assigned to one of the four conditions; the conditions were made up of the combination of an Anthropomorphized versus a Non-Anthropomorphized branded car and a High self-congruity versus Low self-congruity group. After having being assigned to a condition, respondents were confronted with a fictive anthropomorphized branded car or a non-anthropomorphized branded car. After being confronted with the car, they were confronted with the typical user of the new (fictive) brand. Finally, respondents were asked questions in order to measure their self-expressiveness, their future purchase intention and their level of brand love. After having gathered all data, statistical analysis was conducted in order to test the hypotheses.

Results coming from the tests were not in line with theory about these relationships; unfortunately nothing that was expected upfront is proved in this experiment. Using an anthropomorphized branded product does not create more brand love. Also there is no significant proof that using an anthropomorphized branded product increases purchase intention. For the expectation that the interaction between self-congruity and anthropomorphism together would create a differential significant effect on brand love and purchase intention, no significant proof is found. For the expectation that self-expressiveness and anthropomorphism together would create a significant effect on brand love and purchase intention, no significant proof is found either.

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1. Introduction

2. Theoretical Review

2.2 Brand Love concept 17

2.3 Anthropomorphism 21

2.4 Self-Congruity 27

2.5 Self-expressiveness. 29

3. Methodology

3.1 Participants and Sample. 33

3.2 Variables 33

3.3 Questionnaire and procedure 37

3.4 Validity 38

4 Results

4.1 Pre-test 39

4.2 Manipulation check: 41

4.3 Data set and sample characteristics 42 4.4 Reliability of the scale. 43

4.5 Hypotheses tests 44

4.6 Hypotheses outcomes 47

5. Conclusions and recommendations

5.1 Summary 49

5.2 Discussion 50

5.3 General Conclusion 52

5.4 Recommendations 52

5.5 Limitations and further research. 53

References

5 How often do you hear people say that they love their favorite brand? Sometimes they almost talk about their brand as if it is a person; they seem to have warm feelings toward a brand, while it’s just an object or a name. But how does a brand achieve a position where it is seen as a real person, and if a consumer can look at a brand like it’s a person, is it possible that the consumer feels a friendship bond with the brand? And will this friendship bond be interesting for a brand manager in terms of increased sales? This will be answered in this research.

1.1 Background

Why do people talk about their brands and objects as if it is a person? The answer is that people have a need to anthropomorphize objects in order to facilitate interactions with the non-material world (Aggarwal and Mcgill 2012). Many research on human’s perceptions of pets proved that humans easily attribute humanlike qualities and attributions to nonhuman entities. Consumers also assign personality qualities to inanimate brand objects, they think about brands as if they are human characters. Products can even be perceived to have a soul like humans do.

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1.2 Problem analysis

This short introduction already shows that brand relationships and anthropomorphism are important marketing topics, especially when it comes to branding a product. To get more insight into these variables, they will be described more extensively.

1.2.1 Anthropomorphism

As mentioned earlier anthropomorphism can be an important phenomenon in branding a product and in building relationships with customers. Anthropomorphism is the attribution of uniquely human characteristics to nonhuman creatures and beings, natural and supernatural phenomena, material states or objects, and abstract concepts. Anthropomorphized brands can be defined as “Brands perceived by consumers as actual human beings with various emotional states, mind, soul, and conscious behaviors that can act as prominent members of social ties”(Puzakova and colleagues, 2009) Brand managers and marketers transfer human qualities to brands, they mimic the human form in products, logo’s and they sometimes even use non-human endorsers for their products in order to encourage the anthropomorphism phenomenon.

An important question is when people anthropomorphize brands and objects. Chandler and Schwarz (2008) state that objects, thoughts, visible entities and purely symbolic concepts can become anthropomorphized. They mention that people are particularly likely to spontaneously anthropomorphize objects that have human-like physical features. According to Aggarwal and Mcgill (2012) people have a need to anthropomorphize objects in order to facilitate interactions with the non-material world. They found that people do not anthropomorphize all objects, and that they are not able to anthropomorphize different objects with equal ease. The ability to anthropomorphize depends on the presence of specific features. Movement in an object can create the impression that it is alive. Objects that are shaped like people are more likely to be anthropomorphized. Also facial features, sounds/voices, intentionality, imitation and communication ability make it more easy to anthropomorphize objects because these features are humanness. Marketers can encourage the anthropomorphism phenomenon; they can encourage consumers to think of their products in human terms.

7 The question that remains unanswered is whether anthropomorphism also leads to purchase intention. When there is a relationship between anthropomorphism and purchase intention, this will offer great opportunities for companies when it comes to branding.

1.2.2 Brand Love

Now that it is clear that once a product is anthropomorphized, it becomes possible for consumers to enter into a relationship with it and experience Brand Love, it is interesting to go more deeply into the Brand Love topic. In the past few years more academics became interested in the topic “brand love”. From previous research it is assumed that anthropomorphism can lead to brand love. But what exactly is Brand love? Ahuvia (2005) defines Brand Love as “the degree of passionate attachment a satisfied consumer has for a trade name.” When consumers experience brand love they have passion for the brand, attachment to the brand, they evaluate the brand positively, have positive emotions in response to the brand and declarations of love for the brand. Batra and colleagues (2012) found that brand love is a higher order construct including multiple cognitions, emotions and behaviors with which consumers organize into a mental prototype.

The question is how marketers can encourage Brand love. Two important articles are published about the antecedents of brand love. Bergkvist and Bech-Larsen (2009) state that there are two actionable antecedents that lead to brand love, namely brand identification and sense of community. They state that brand identification and sense of community both have a positive influence on brand love. A consumer is more likely to love a brand when he can (strongly) identify with it. And when people feel a sense of community, they feel like they belong to a club of other users and they can identify themselves with other users, the consumer is more likely to love the brand.

Batra and colleagues (2012) conducted research on the nature and consequences of brand love. They came up with seven core elements that lead to brand love: self-brand integration, passion-driven behaviors, positive emotional connection, long term relationship, positive overall attitude, attitude certainty and confidence, and anticipated separation distress.

But how important is it for a brand to become a love brand. Research on this topic is conducted by various academics. Bergkvist and Bech-Larsen (2009) found that brand love leads to brand loyalty and active engagement. Thomson and colleagues (2005) found that brand love leads to an increased willingness to pay premium price and Batra and colleagues (2012) found a relationship between brand love and the willingness to invest recourses into the brand. According to Fournier (1998) brand love leads to positive Word Of Mouth and brand loyalty. Another important consequence of Brand Love is that consumers who experience Brand Love are more willing to forgive brand failures.

8 and brand love/purchase intention will be and the other way around. The same holds for self-expressiveness, the more a consumer can express his or her identity with the brand, the stronger the relationship between anthropomorphism and brand love/purchase intention will be. First both moderators will be explained in more detail.

1.2.3 self-congruity

Bergkvist and Bech-Larsen (2009) state that sense of community is one of the actionable antecedents that leads to Brand Love. They define sense of community as the kinship or affiliation a consumer feels with other people associated with the brand. This is comparable with self-congruity. Sirgy (1985) states that self-congruity is “congruity between the self-image of the consumer and the image of the brand”. Self-congruity theory argues that part of consumer behavior is determined by the individuals’ comparison of the image of themselves and the image of a brand, as reflected in the stereo type or

typical user of the brand. (Sirgy 1986; Sirgy et al. 1997) Self congruity theory is based on the assumption

that consumers prefer brands they associate with a set of personality traits that are congruent with their own image. Sirgy and Su (2000) define self-congruity as “the match between a brand image and an individual’s self-concept. Greaff (1996) argues that the relationship between self-image and brand image can have significant effects on consumers’ product evaluations and purchase behavior. Sirgy and colleagues (1997) found that self-congruity can explain and predict brand attitude, product use, product ownership, satisfaction, loyalty and purchase intention. In this thesis, research will be conducted on the relationship between anthropomorphism and Brand Love. But, when a consumer can perceive a brand as a person, it seems not logical to presume that he will directly love the brand. By taking the self-congruity theory into account, consumers prefer brands that are self-congruent. It could be said that, self-congruity influences the relation between anthropomorphism and Brand Love/purchase intention. Still no research has been conducted on moderating role of self-congruity on the relationship between anthropomorphism and brand love/purchase intention. For this research it is interesting to test if self-congruity has a moderating effect on the relationship between Anthropomorphism and Brand Love and Purchase intention.

1.2.4 Self-expressiveness

In consumer theory it is stated that consumers use brands to express their own identity values. Aaker (1997) states that consumers use brands to express and validate their identity. Consumer behavior is therefore motivated by the need to reaffirm the self-image. Theory states that brands are often valued to the extent that they reaffirm the principles of the consumer. This is the reason why self-expressiveness will be elaborated on in this research.

9 In consumer behavior theory consumer-identity is linked frequently to constructs related to love. Carol and Ahuiva (2006) found that more expressive brands are more loved. It is also found that self-expressive benefits of a brand can offer more potential for both increasing consumers’ brand love and encouraging post consumption behavior. (Carl and Ahuiva, 2006) From this literature it can be concluded that the relationship between anthropomorphism and brand love can be strengthened by self-expressiveness.

Still no research has been conducted on moderating role of self-expressiveness on the relationship between anthropomorphism and brand love/purchase intention. For this research it is interesting to test if self-expressiveness has a moderating effect on the relationship between Anthropomorphism and Brand Love/Purchase intention.

1.2.5 Research Question

The findings in the introduction of this research show that brand love and anthropomorphism are important marketing topics, especially when it comes to branding a product. In this research the effectiveness of anthropomorphism on brand love and purchase intention will be investigated. In this research the expectation is that there are two variables which are of influence on the effectiveness of anthropomorphism on Brand Love and Purchase intention: Congruity (high vs. low) and Self-expressiveness (high vs. low). The following research question will be answered in this paper:

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1.2.6 Conceptual Model

In order to answer the research question: ´“What Is the effect of an anthropomorphized brand on brand

love and purchase intention and to what extent is this effect influenced by congruity and self-expressiveness?” the following conceptual framework is designed. (figure 1)

Figure 1

There are six hypotheses that can be derived from this conceptual model; H1: Anthropomorphism increases brand love

H2: Anthropomorphism increases purchase intention

H3: Compared to lower self-congruity, higher self-congruity increases the effect of anthropomorphism on brand love.

H4: Compared to lower self-congruity, higher self-congruity increases the effect of anthropomorphism on purchase intention.

H5: Compared to lower self-expressiveness, higher self-expressiveness increases the effect of anthropomorphism on brand love.

H6: Compared to lower self-expressiveness, higher self-expressiveness increases the effect of anthropomorphism on purchase intention.

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1.3 Relevance

This paper has both academic and managerial relevance. As mentioned above, little research has been done on the relationship between anthropomorphism, brand love and purchase intentions. This paper will provide insights into this undiscovered research area.

1.3.1 Academic relevance

In existing literature it is argued that self-congruity and self-expressiveness may lead to brand love. Brand love is an important topic in the literature because it leads to brand loyalty, active engagement, increased willingness to pay premium price, positive word-of-mouth and willingness to forgive brand failures. Also anthropomorphism leads to brand love because, once a product is anthropomorphized, it becomes possible for consumers to enter into a relationship with it and experience Brand Love. Interesting is that these five variables have never been combined in existing literature. Fournier did find support that anthropomorphism leads to brand love, she states that once a product is anthropomorphized, consumers can enter into a relationship with a brand and experience feelings of love for a brand. When people experience brand love, they can feel a relationship bond with a brand that is comparable with an interpersonal relationship. Also research has been conducted on the effects of Anthropomorphism on purchase intentions. Bergkvist and Bech-Larsen (2009) published an important article about the antecedents of brand love; they state that brand identification and sense of community are antecedents of brand love. They found that a consumer is more likely to love a brand when he can (strongly) identify with it. And when people feel like they belong to a club of other users and they can identify themselves with other users, the consumer is more likely to love the brand. In this research comparable variables are used, namely self-congruity and self-expressiveness. Using these variables as mediating variables is new in the field of academics and therefore contributes to the literature. Combining these five variables seems logical, if people can look at a brand as if it is a person, but cannot identify with the typical user of the brand and are not able to express their own identity with it, they are not able to really love a brand. This thesis will uncover if there is a relation between anthropomorphism, self-congruity, self-expressiveness, brand love and purchase intentions. This relation is new in the field of academic research and will therefore be contributing to the literature.

1.3.2 Managerial relevance

For marketing and brand managers this thesis will be contributing. This research is especially relevant for marketing managers and brand managers who are interested in branding and in building consumer-brand relationships.

12 And if anthropomorphism does lead to brand love, how can managers create an anthropomorphized brand? The findings of this research about this topic can be used by managers to decide if they have to invest in anthropomorphizing their brands in order to create Brand Love.

Another important question is if anthropomorphizing a brand leads to business success. By using for example social media like Facebook, a brand manager can respond to the anthropomorphizing phenomenon, he can make the brand come to life; he can make the brand behave as an active, contributing member of the dyad. If anthropomorphism leads to purchase intentions, it can offer managers new ways of branding their products and increase sales. When consumers can look at a brand like it is a real person, will this increase their purchase intentions? The findings of this research can be used by managers to make decisions about investments in anthropomorphizing their brands. This research answers the question if anthropomorphism leads to an increased purchase intention and thus to business success.

Another important question that will be answered in this research and is relevant for managers is if consumers feel more love for a brand when they can identify with the typical user of the product. What happens if consumers can identify with the typical user of the brand? Will this increase the strength of the relation between anthropomorphism, brand love and purchase intentions? If this can be proved in this research, it will have important implications for managers. It will mean that managers have to define their target group very carefully. They will also have to invest in Brand Communities so people have a sense of belonging with the brand and the community around the brand. The findings of this research can be used by managers to make decisions about defining a target group and creating brand communities in order to increase both brand love and purchase intentions.

The same holds for self-expressiveness. Is it important to design a self-expressive brand in order to create a stronger relation between anthropomorphism, brand love and increase purchase intention? Do brand managers have to invest in brands that express certain personalities, values and images? The outcomes of this research can help managers to decide if they have to invest in creating expressive brands.

1.4 Buildup thesis

13 This theoretical review goes more deeply into the concepts introduced in the previous chapter and in to the conceptual model. Every topic and relationship between the concepts will be described, supported by literature.

2.1 Customer-brand relationships

In this chapter we take a look at the literature about customer brand relationships. This information about customer-brand relationships in the marketing theory is important in order to understand what kind of relationships customers can have with brands and how customer-brand relationships form. In this chapter consumer brand relationships will be described from low to intensity. First the importance of customer-brand relationships and how they form are described, than we continue with the role of loyalty in customer-brand relationships followed by the transactional and relational bonds customers can have with a brand. The role of trust and commitment in customer-brand relationships will be described in paragraph 2.1.3.

2.1.1 Importance of customer-brand relationships.

14 These days it is not enough for marketers to only focus on satisfying customers. Brand loyalty is important especially in highly competitive markets with increasing unpredictability and reducing product differentiation (Fournier and Yao, 1997) In order to survive in the high competitive markets it is important to build relationships with customers. According to Aaker (1992) customer loyalty is one critical dimension to be a strong and successful brand. He states that customer loyalty is a core component of customer-brand relationships.

2.1.2 Loyalty and customer brand relationships.

Fournier (1998) defines loyalty as “behaviorally as a tendency to transact, resulting in sequential purchase or proportionality, measures that focus on inertia rather than relational outcomes”. In 1992 Aaker stated that a loyal customer base represents a barrier to entry, a basis for a price premium, time to respond to competitor innovations and a bulwark against deleterious price competition. In 1999 Aaker stated that a basic indicator of loyalty is the amount a customer will pay for the brand in comparison with another brand or a set of brands offering similar brand benefits. Day (2000), include evidence that loyal customers enhance profits and that competitors have trouble duplicating or displacing a committed customer’s relationship. According to Delgado-Ballester and Munuera-Alema´n (2001) a loyal customer base also increases the firms’ ability to respond to competitive threats, it provides greater sales and revenues and if a customer base is loyal, it is less sensitive to the marketing efforts of competitors.

But is brand loyalty really the core component of customer-brand relationships as Aaker stated in 1992? According to Hess and Story (2005) loyalty and relationships are not the same, although loyalty is frequently portrayed as synonymous with relationships. They argue that consumers are often loyal either to a brand just to improve their ability to reduce risk, increase information processing effectiveness and in order to gain tangible frequent user benefits or to enjoy benefits associated with relationship connections like affiliation, association, value matching. Theories of relationship marketing also propose that consumers vary in their relationships with a firm on a continuum from transactional to highly relational bonds.

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2.1.2 Transactional and relational customer-brand relationships

Because consumers vary in their relationships with brands from transactional to relational bonds Hess and Story (2005) proposed and tested a multi-dimensional model of relationship commitment defined by personal and functional connections. By the term commitment they refer to the ultimate relationship disposition, encompassing beliefs, attitudes and behaviors toward the brand and their relationship with that brand. They argue that commitment derives from a combination of personal and functional characteristics of developing consumer-brand relationships.

According to Hess and Story (2005) transactional and enduring satisfaction result in the formation of functional connections with the brand, these are shallow relationships that rely on utility and reliability. They argue that in some cases, satisfaction results in the formation of trust, which in turn promotes personal connections between customers and brands. Personal connections promote deeper relationships that go beyond utility and reliability. Hess and Story (2005) argue that the combination of personal and functional connections determines the level of customer commitment.

Hess and Story (2005) state that functional connections between customers and brands result from transactional and ongoing satisfaction. Personal connections require trust, in addition to satisfaction; many customer-brand relationships are primarily utilitarian or functional in nature. Functional relationships provide benefits to the customer, such as reduced search cost and lower perceived risk. Hess and Story (2005) state that these functional relationships may have limited value to marketers. They argue that relationships based on a personal connection are more resilient to product failure and are modified with some emotional cost. In order to build personal connections, only performance quality is not enough. When a customer uses a brand, functional connections may form first but real relationship depth and profit-inducing behaviors begin once personal connections are added. It seems logical that personal connections take longer to develop. But once a personal connection is developed, the connection is more enduring. According to them personal connections are usually accompanied by emotional investment and personal attachment to the brand.

Bhattacharya and Sen, (2003) state that customers with personal connections to a brand often identify or affiliate themselves with attributes they perceive to characterize the brand, attributes which may be self-defining for the customer

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2.1.3 Trust and commitment to build relational customer-brand relationships

The theory of partnering (Webster and Frederick, 1992) states that differences in trust and commitment are features that most distinguishes customer partners from customers with an orientation toward single or repeat transactions. Delgado-Ballester and Munuera-Alema´n (2001) confirm that brand trust has a significant effect on commitment. Hess and Story (2005) confirm the partnering theory. They state that trust is one of the factors that differentiate relationships from transactions. According to Hess and Story (2005) any personal relationship, whether interpersonal or between a person and a brand, is built on trust. Delgado-Ballester and Munuera-Alema´n (2001) define brand trust as “a feeling of security that the brand will meet consumption expectations”.

In a marketing context trust and satisfaction are highly related constructs. Hess and Story (2005) state that trust is the bridge between satisfaction and personal connection, transforming a positive transactional orientation toward a brand into an enduring and close personal – even committed – relationship with a brand. Esch and colleagues (2006) define brand satisfaction as a cognitive evaluation of whether or not the exchange relationship with the brand is rewarding. Entrenched relationships characterized by feelings of personal connection depend largely on trust, while satisfaction is primarily an indicator of functional connection. Together, trust and satisfaction provide the conditions necessary for enduring customer-brand relationships characterized by relationship commitment. Garbarino and Johnson (1999), define commitment as an enduring desire to maintain a valued relationship. Commitment is important for future business success of a brand, it guides competitive pricing strategy and customers with strong personal connections respond differently to brand extensions as well as premium pricing. Firms with mostly disconnected customers must rely heavily on competitive pricing and sales promotion.

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2.2 Brand Love concept

Now that we know that customer-brand relationships are important to be a successful brand, and that customer-brand relationships vary in intensity, it is interesting to take a look at the most intense form of customer-brand relationships; Brand Love. First we will come up with evidence that customers can experience feelings of love for a brand. Then the antecedents of Brand Love will be described, followed by the outcomes of this most intense form of customer-brand relationships. At last we will discuss if every brand can be a candidate for brand love.

2.2.1 Feelings of love for a brand

Fournier (1998) states that brands can and do serve as viable relationship partners. According to her consumer-brand relationships are valid at the level of lived experience. Fournier (1998) found that feelings of love for a brand or object ranged from warmth and affection to passion, infatuation and selfish, obsessive dependency. She found proof that close and intimate relationships, similar to interpersonal relationships, with brands may occur. Fournier argues that feeling emotionally connected to a brand is an important aspect of brand love. This statement is supported by Batra and colleagues (2012). In their research they found that such bonding and attachment was frequently evident in comments that respondents knew they loved a brand because it was irreplaceable and thus would be missed if lost. Thomson and colleagues (2005) supports the finding that consumers can have a relationship bond with a brand or object. They found evidence that consumers can come to depend on objects, feeling a sense of security when they are close and distress when they are absent. It seems that in strong consumer-brand relationships, consumers feel like “something is missing” when they have not used their brands for a while. Strongly held brands are seen by the consumer as irreplaceable and unique to the extent that separation anxiety can arise, this is much as in the interpersonal relationships. Batra and colleagues (2012) found evidence that consumers are able to really love an object or brand. In their studies they found that 96% of the respondents claimed to love something other than another person, and 72% percent viewed at least one object or activity as being loved in the most literal sense of the word. Even 100% of the respondents claimed to “love” or “sort-of-love” at least one brand. Therefore, non-interpersonal love in general, and brand love in particular, were commonly reported experiences among respondents.

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2.2.2 Antecedents brand love

Carroll and Ahuvia (2006) investigated antecedents of brand love. They define brand love as “the degree of passionate emotional attachment a satisfied consumer has for a particular trade name”. The antecedents Carroll and Ahuvia (2006) came up with are product- or brand-level variables. They argue that products with mainly hedonic benefits and brands that are self-expressive are associated with stronger brand love.

Bergkvist and Bech-Larschen (2009) tested two actionable antecedents of brand love: Brand identification and sense of community. In their study they focused on the effects of consumers’ sense of community rather than the effects of community membership and interaction. They found that brand identification and sense of community both have a positive influence on brand love. Bergkvist and Bech-Larschen (2009) suggest that managers should build a sense of community among the buyers and users of their Brand. They state that this sense of community will lead to an increase in brand love and brand loyalty. According to them a sense of community can be built by encouraging formal brand communities for example through advertising or event sponsorships that show who the users of the brand are and what they have in common. They state argue that managers should also invest in marketing activities that increase brand identification. These activities should aim to transfer a brand image congruent with the self-image of the target audience, which should increase their identification with the brand. For example, image advertising can be designed to strengthen image dimensions common to the brand and the target audience.

Batra and colleagues (1993) came up with seven core elements of brand love: self–brand integration, passion-driven behaviors, positive emotional connection, long-term relationship, positive overall attitude valence, attitude certainty and confidence (strength), and anticipated separation distress. In addition to these seven core elements of brand love, they included quality beliefs as an antecedent of brand love.

In 1998 Fournier proved that it is possible for consumers to feel a relationship bond with brands or products once a product is anthropomorphized. She argues that for a brand to serve as a legitimate relationship partner it must surpass the personification qualification and actually behave as an active, contributing member of the dyad. (Fournier 1998) The consumer must engage in frequent interactive behavior with the brand. This finding is supported by the research of Batra and colleagues (2010). They find that having frequent interactions with a brand, or thoughts about it, is an important aspect of brand love. Every respondent in their study considered how much time they spent using or thinking about a brand as a key criterion for how much they loved it. Marketing actions conducted under the rubric of interactive and addressable communications qualify the brand as a reciprocating partner.

19 anthropomorphism phenomenon, ownership may instead become a relationship and the features relevant to relational partners may become applicable to anthropomorphized objects.

In conclusion: The theory comes up with different antecedents of brand love.

First the product- or brand-level variables are antecedents of brand love. Products with mainly hedonic benefits and brands that are self-expressive are associated with stronger brand love Two actionable antecedents of brand love are Brand identification and sense of community.

Fournier suggests that it is possible for consumers to feel a relationship bond with brands or products once a product is anthropomorphized. She also states that having frequent

interactions with a brand, or thoughts about it strengthens brand love. Theory states that because of the anthropomorphism phenomenon, ownership may instead become a relationship.

2.2.3 Outcomes of Brand Love

It is clear from the theory that consumer-brand relationships can be very intense. They can be as close and intimate as interpersonal relationships. Consumers can experience feelings of love for brands. But why would a brand manager invest in this type of relationship? According to Batra and colleagues (1993) Brand love leads to brand loyalty, word of mouth, and resistance to negative information. Carroll and Ahuvia (2006) state that brand love is positively related to brand loyalty and word-of-mouth. This outcome is supported by Bergkvist and Bech-Larschen (2009), they found evidence that Brand love has a positive influence on brand loyalty but also on active engagement. They define engagement as ‘when customers are willing to invest time, energy, money, or other resources in the brand beyond those expended during purchase or consumption of the brand’. The examples they give of active engagement include word of mouth, visiting brand websites, and buying brand merchandise.

In conclusion brand love leads to brand loyalty, word-of-mouth, resistance to negative information and active engagement.

2.1.5 Can all brands be loved?

Above literature states that consumers can experience close and intimate relationships with brands. Brand Love seems to be an interesting type of consumer-brand relationship that offers different benefits for marketers. An interesting question that remains is whether consumer-brand relationships always form in every product category. Hess and Story (2005) argue that relationships with brands do not always form. They state that some product categories, by their nature, lend themselves to relationship formation. The categories that lend themselves to relationship formation are categories where product failure is costly and transactions imply long term interaction, or those categories in which brand use is relatively exclusive. But they also state that even within product categories that do not promote relationship formation some brand personalities may engender customer attachment.

20 Besides the product or brand characteristics also customer characteristics are important in order to find out if a customer-brand relationship can form. Brands with distinct traits that align with customer characteristics may promote relationships that are typical for the product category (Fournier, 1998). Even in product categories that promote relationships, like automobiles, retail clothing, and other high involvement categories, certain consumers are more sensitive towards relationship connections than others. For some customers brands are integral to their affiliations (Fournier, 1998), while other customers prefer variety and actively seek out transactions with brands other than those with which they are familiar. In addition, consumers may be sensitive for a particular category because of a professional interest, contributing to natural involvement and the likelihood of bonding to brands in that category. For instance, a chef may be devoted to specific cookware brands, but be disconnected from brands in all other categories.

In conclusion not all brands can be loved. For a brand to be able to build relationships, it has to be in a certain product category. In product categories where product failure is costly and transactions imply long term interaction or in those categories in which brand use is relatively exclusive consumer-brand bonds are more likely to form. Also products with mainly hedonic benefits are associated with stronger brand love and brands that are self-expressive, perceived as enhancing the consumer’s social or inner self, are associated with stronger brand love than brands that do not.

Conclusion Brand Love

Consumers can experience feelings of love for a brand. Similar to interpersonal relationships close and intimate relationships with brands can occur. The brand can serve as a viable relationship partner. Brand love is the most intense customer-brand relationship in the customer-brand relationship theory. Brands have to be in a certain product category in order to be able to build relationships. In product categories where product failure is costly and transactions imply long term interaction, when brand use is relatively exclusive and when the product has hedonic benefits, when brands are self-expressive, and when the brand is perceived as enhancing the consumer’s social or inner self brand love will be more likely to occur. There are several antecedents that can lead to brand love. Products with mainly hedonic benefits and brands that are self-expressive are associated with stronger brand love. The two actionable antecedents that lead to brand love are brand identification and sense of community. According to Fournier it is possible for consumers to feel a relationship bond with brands or products once a product is anthropomorphized. She also states that having frequent interactions with a brand, or thoughts about it strengthens brand love. Theory states that because of the anthropomorphism phenomenon, ownership may instead become a relationship. Brand love is an interesting consumer-brand relationship for marketers to focus on because it leads to brand loyalty, word-of-mouth, resistance to negative information and active engagement.

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2.3 Anthropomorphism

In the previous part consumer-brand relationship are analyzed from low intensity to high intensity. From the literature we can state that consumer-brand relationships can be very intense. Brands can serve as viable relationship partners. Consumers can experience real feelings of love for a brand; they can have close and intimate relationships with brands that are similar to interpersonal relationships, this is called Brand Love. Fournier (1998) stated that it is possible for consumers to feel a relationship bond with brands or products once a product is anthropomorphized. She also states that having frequent interactions with a brand, or thoughts about it strengthens brand love. Theory states that because of the anthropomorphism phenomenon, ownership may instead become a relationship.

In order to understand the relation between anthropomorphism and brand love it is important to understand the anthropomorphism phenomenon. This chapter elaborates on this topic. First we will explain the anthropomorphism phenomenon in order to get a good understanding of this topic. Then the drivers of anthropomorphism are described followed by the role of marketers in creating anthropomorphism for a brand. To understand the importance of anthropomorphism for marketers we will elaborate on the consequences of anthropomorphized brands. After discussing the consequences of anthropomorphism, we will explain the link between anthropomorphism and brand love.

2.3.1 What is anthropomorphism

The word “anthropomorphism” is derived from the Greek words “anthropos” which means human, and “morphe” which means shape or form. Various academic disciplines explored the anthropomorphism concept. In 1919 Gilmore explored the concept of anthropomorphism in a religious context, later in 1990 Cheney and Seyfarth applied the concept to pets and in 2008 Epley and colleagues applied the concept to gadgets. This paper focusses on anthropomorphizing brands.

There are several definitions of anthropomorphism given in literature. Guthrie (1993) defines anthropomorphism as the perception and recognition of humans in objects in the surrounding environment. Epley and colleauges (2007) state that the anthropomorphization of nonhuman objects means perceiving them as absolute human. In this thesis we will use the definition of anthropomorphized brands of Puzakova and colleagues (2009). Anthropomorphized brands are defined as “brands perceived by consumers as actual human beings with various emotional states, mind, soul, and conscious behaviors that can act as prominent members of social ties”. According to Epley and colleagues (2007) the anthropomorphization of nonhuman objects means perceiving them as absolute humans. They state that imbuing the imagined or real behavior of nonhuman agents with humanlike characteristics, motivations, intentions, and emotions is the essence of anthropomorphism.

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2.3.2 Drivers of anthropomorphism

Aggarwal and McGill (2007) found that people do not anthropomorphize all objects and they are not able to anthropomorphize different objects with equal ease. According to them the ability to anthropomorphize depends on the presence of specific features. One of these features is movement in an object; this movement can create the impression that the object is alive. Another feature is a human-like shape. Objects that are shaped human-like people are more human-likely to be anthropomorphized; an example of an object with a human like shape is a cola bottle. Other features mentioned by Aggarwal and McGill that signify humanness are facial features, sounds/voices, imitation and communication ability. According to Chandler and Schwarz (2010) state when objects have human like physical features, people are more likely to spontaneously anthropomorphize the objects.

In conclusion the ability to anthropomorphize objects depends on the presence of specific features. When there is movement in an object, a human like shape, facial features, sounds, imitation and communication ability people are more likely to anthropomorphize objects. When objects have human like physical features people they are strong candidates to be anthropomorphized

2.3.3 Role of marketers

Marketers have an important role in stimulating consumers to think about products in anthropomorphic terms. According to Puzakova (2009) the tendency for consumers to perceive brands as actual human beings has significant implications in the area of branding. From above literature we can assume that people can perceive brands as actual human beings that have consciousness or a soul. The fascinating thing about anthropomorphism is that although a brand may enjoy animistic properties, it is not a vital entity. The brand has no objective existence at all; it is simply a collection of perceptions held in the mind of the consumer. It is an illusion created by marketers. The brand cannot act, think or feel.

Marketers transfer human qualities to products or brands; they mimic the human form in products, logos and they sometimes even use non-human endorsers for their products in order to encourage the anthropomorphism phenomenon. A famous example of a non-human endorser is the Michelin Man. Marketers play an important role in encouraging consumers to think of their product in human terms by for example referring to them with personal pronounce “he” or “she” instead of “it”, by describing the product in the first person instead of the third or by referring to their product family instead of their product line. But whether consumers see the products as human depends on the presence or absence of features that convey a sense of humanity, as Aggarwal and McGill mentioned.

23 Some objects may be more readily seen human than others, as mentioned in the previous part. Depending on the characteristics of an object, therefore, consumers may or may not be able to see the analogy suggested by the marketer to anthropomorphize products successfully. (Aggarwal and McGill, 2007)

In conclusion marketers can stimulate consumers to think about products in anthropomorphic terms. They can mimic the human form in products and logos. They can use non-human endorsers for their products or brands and they can refer to the products or brands with personal pronounce “he” or “she” instead of “it”. They can describe the product or brand in the first person instead of the third or they can refer to the product family instead of their product line. Marketers can also use spokesperson to stimulate anthropomorphic thoughts.

2.3.4 Consequences anthropomorphism

Anthropomorphism has different consequences. In order to understand why this phenomenon is interesting for this thesis and for marketers, I will elaborate on the consequences of anthropomorphism

Sensitivity to information that figures in the interpersonal world

Chandler and Schwarz (2010) examined the consequences of anthropomorphism on the kinds of information consumers attend to when forming product replacement intentions. They found that whereas objects are primarily evaluated based on how well they function, functionality is far less important when evaluating people. They argue that the same holds for anthropomorphized objects. According to them anthropomorphic beliefs about a product shifts attention away from pragmatic considerations (functionality) and makes consumers sensitive to information that figures in the interpersonal world (the products ‘perception as warmth or cold). So when people anthropomorphize brands they are more likely to consider attributes that are important in the interpersonal domain and they will be less likely to evaluate products according to their utilitarian attributes.

Further evidence for anthropomorphic thought comes from earlier studies that observed parallels between the characteristics people attend to when they evaluate other people and the characteristics people attend to when they evaluate objects. For example it is found that people prefer computers with personalities similar to their own (Moon & Nass, 1996; Nass, Moon, Fogg & Reeves, 1995). These findings support the finding that people attend to interpersonally relevant features when they evaluate anthropomorphized objects.

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Evaluation of the brand

In 2007 Aggarwal and McGill examined the effectiveness and consequences of product anthropomorphism. They proposed schema congruity as a theoretical basis for examining the effectiveness and consequences. A schema is a stored framework of cognitive knowledge that represents information about a topic, concept or a particular stimulus, including its attributes and the relations among the attributes. They explored whether consumers’ liking of a product depends on the perceived fit between the features of the product and an activated human schema.

Aggarwal and McGill (2007) argue that when marketers encourage consumers to anthropomorphize a product, consumers bring to mind their schema for the type of person suggested and that the product is evaluated in part by how well its features fit that schema. They found evidence that the effect of presenting the product itself in human terms does not always lead to more positive evaluations and may even lead to less positive evaluations. Aggarwal and McGill (2007) found evidence that the ease with which products can be anthropomorphized by consumers depends on the schema in which products are presented and the presence or absence of product features that are human like. This ability on behalf of consumers to see the products as human in turn affects their evaluation of that product.

Products that are presented as human but which lack human features are evaluated less positively than products that are presented as human and which have human like features. They found that Anthropomorphizing a product may lead to more positive evaluations only when the type of person brought to mind is associated with positive feelings. People apply knowledge about the social world to the inanimate world when they think about objects in anthropomorphic terms. In fact they apply social schemas to objects and prefer objects that fit the schema. This leads consumers to prefer product lines that match social structures, such as Family and cars that smile rather than cars that frown (Aggarwal and McGill, 2007).

Increased attachment

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Reduced willingness to replace

Chandler and Schwarz (2010) state that anthropomorphizing a product reduces consumers’ willingness to replace it. Consumers should be less willing to replace an anthropomorphized product or brand because it reflects people’s willingness to maintain interpersonal relationships. This may increase consumers maintenance cost beyond economically defensible levels while reducing producers sales. Chandler and Schwarz (2010) state that anthropomorphizing brands rather than products may be beneficial for marketer’s perspective. Whereas loyalty to specific objects reduces consumers’ willingness to replace it, loyalty to the brand encourages replacement of the object with another exemplar from the brand. This can lead to increased purchase intention of the brand. This is the reason why this current thesis focusses on anthropomorphizing brands rather than products.

Long term business success

According to Fournier (1998) anthropomorphism is an interesting phenomenon in order to create long term business success. She states that products that can be “humanized” are often seen as stronger candidates for long term business success. This also makes sense if we look at the findings of Chandler and Schwarz who state that loyalty to a brand encourages replacement of the object with another exemplar from the brand which in fact leads to higher profits.

In conclusion anthropomorphic beliefs about a product shifts attention away from pragmatic considerations and makes consumers sensitive to information that figures in the interpersonal world. When a product is presented in human terms it does not always lead to more positive evaluations, in fact it can even lead to less positive or even negative evaluations. There is an important role for marketers, when a product is presented as human but lacks human features, it will be evaluated less positive than a product that is presented as human and also has human features. An anthropomorphized brand only leads to more positive evaluations when the type of person brought to mind is associated with positive feelings. Anthropomorphism also leads to increased attachment and it reduces the willingness of consumers to replace their brand or product. In the end anthropomorphism leads to long term business success, when people are attached and loyal to a brand it encourages replacement of the object with another exemplar from the brand, which in turn leads to a higher future purchase intention and in the end more profits.

2.3.5 Link between anthropomorphism and brand love

Now that it is clear what anthropomorphism means, what the drivers are, how marketers can create anthropomorphism and what the main consequences are it is interesting to go more deeply into the relationship between anthropomorphism and brand love.

26 Thomson and colleagues (2005) state that, much like interpersonal relationships, consumers can come to depend on objects, feeling a sense of security when they are close and distress when they are absent. From the previous chapter we know that consumers form different types of relationships with brands. According to Fournier (1998) for a brand to become an actual partner in the relationship, it must be perceived as a complete, literal human. She argues that in order for a brand to serve as a viable relationship partner and become a legitimate member of a consumer-brand bond, a brand should possess multiple qualities of a human being, embracing emotionality, thoughtful behavior, soul, and feelings. Fournier (1998) states that in accepting the behavioral significance of marketing actions, consumers accept the legitimacy of the brand as a contributing relationship partner. Once a product is anthropomorphized it becomes possible for consumers to enter into a relationship with it, changing the emotional quality of consumers’ experience with their possessions (Fournier, 1998)

The fact that consumers form strong relationships with brands suggests that individuals perceive these brands as complete humans. Theory states that people pleasure social interaction, so imbuing a product or brand with anthropomorphic cues can lead consumers to experience more positive affect when interacting with it (Fournier 1998). In 1956 Horton and Whol already found evidence that people can enter into a relationship with anthropomorphized objects that approximate human relationships. They stated that when people think about anthropomorphized possessions, information relevant to interpersonal relationships have prominence. Theory suggests that once a customer enters into a relationship with an object, the emotional quality of their experience with this object can be similar to their experience with other people.

According to Wang and colleagues (2007) imbuing a product with anthropomorphic cues leads consumers to experience more positive affect when interacting with it. They argue that when a brand is anthropomorphized ownership may instead become a relationship and the features relevant to relational partners may become applicable to anthropomorphized objects. The literature suggests that anthropomorphized brands can contribute to the most intense type of customer-brand relationship; Brand Love.

From this theory we can state that anthropomorphizing a brand leads to the most intense consumer-brand relationship bond: consumer-brand love. This leads to the following hypothesis:

H1: Anthropomorphism increases brand love

Literature also states that anthropomorphism leads to long term business success, so we can state that anthropomorphism leads to purchase intention. This leads to the following hypothesis:

H2: Anthropomorphism increases purchase intention.

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2.4 Self-Congruity

As mentioned earlier, we state that Anthropomorphism does not always lead to brand love. For a brand to be loved consumers have to evaluate the brand positively, when a brand is anthropomorphized but the consumer evaluates the brand negatively, he will not experience brand love. We believe that a self-congruity has a positive effect on brand evaluation and thus on brand love.

According to Fournier (1998) the consumer-brand relationship quality reflects the degree to which the brand delivers on important identity concerns. She suggests that strong self-connections support relationships maintenance through the cultivation of protective feelings of uniqueness and dependency. She states that consumers tend to like, prefer and maintain long-term relationships with brands that have an image that is consistent with themselves.

As mentioned earlier Bergkvist and Bech-Larschen (2009) state that one actionable antecedent of brand love is Brand identification. They define brand identification as ‘the extent to which the consumer sees his or her own self-image as overlapping the brand’s image”. Brand identification is similar to self-image congruence or self-congruity.

Batra and colleagues (2012) state that brands are more likely to be loved when they also connect to something deeper, such as self-actualization, close interpersonal relationships, existential meaning, or religious or cultural identities. They support the findings of Bergkvist and Bech-Larschen (2009) that brand identification has a positive influence on brand love. In their study they found that respondents strongly identified with the things they loved, reflecting the important function of loved brands in expressing existing identities and enacting desired identities. They also showed that respondents talked about a sense of natural fit and harmony between themselves and their loved brands. This sense of “rightness” about the relationship included a strong desire for that brand, reflecting the higher-arousal, hotter aspects of brand love frequently called passion. From this literature it can be concluded that self-congruity is an important variable that leads to brand love. To better understand the moderating role of self-congruity, I will elaborate on the self-congruity theory.

2.4.1 Self congruity theory

According to Sirgy (1985) self-congruity is congruity between the self-image of the consumer and the image of the product or brand. Self-congruity theory proposes that part of consumer behavior is determined by an individual’s comparison of the image of themselves and the image of a brand, as reflected in a stereotype of a typical user of the brand (Sirgy 1986; Sirgy et al. 1997) The self-congruity theory is based on the assumption that consumers prefer brands they associate with a set of personality traits that are congruent with their own image (Sirgy, 1982). Self-congruity can be defined as “the match between a brand image and an individuals’ self-concept” (Sirgy and Su, 2000).

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2.4.2 Self Concept

Because the self-congruity theory states that consumers prefer brands with a brand image that matches their self-concept, it is interesting to go more deeply into the self-concept. Self-concept is defined as the totality of individuals’ thoughts and feelings with reference to themselves as an object. According to Onkvisit and Shaw (1987) self-concept involves ideas and feelings that consumers have about themselves in relation to others in a socially determined frame of reference. There are two important self-concepts: the real self and the ideal self. The real self is the individuals’ perception of how he actually is and the ideal self is how the individual would like to be. According to self-concept theory, people act in ways that maintain and enhance their self-concept. People can do this through the products or brands they purchase and use.

Self-concept motives that guide self-congruity are need for self-esteem and self-consistency (Sirgy, 1982). Sirgy (1985) states that love with the brand may be driven by both self-consistency motives and self-esteem motives. The greater the match between the brand-user image with the consumers’ ideal self-image, the more likely that consumers infer that the use of the brand should meet their need for self-esteem.

In conclusion self-concept is the totality of the thoughts and feelings of an individual with reference to themselves as an object. The self-concept theory proposes that people act in ways that maintain and enhance their self-concept; they can do this through the products or brands they purchase and use. The most favored brands are consistent with the self-concept and thus reinforce the self-concept.

2.4.3 Outcomes self-congruity

According to the image congruence hypothesis, consumers’ evaluations of products and brands are a positive function of the degree of congruence between their self-image and the image of the product or brand. According to Greaff (1996) the relation between self-image and brand image can have significant effects on consumers’ product evaluations and purchase behavior. Greaff (1996) states that the greater the degree of congruence between the brand image and the self-image, the more favorable brand evaluations are. The image congruence hypothesis also states that consumers prefer brands that have images similar to their own self-image. Consumers often have a preference for, and choose products and brands that have higher levels of congruity. Consumers seek brands that fit their own image.

Sirgy and colleagues (1997) state that self-congruity can be used to explain and predict brand attitude, product use, product ownership, and purchase intention. Kressmann and colleagues (2006) state that self-congruity plays a very important role in brand loyalty. According to Sirgy (1982) self-congruity predicts brand preference, satisfaction and loyalty. In 1985 Sirgy mentioned that self-congruity also plays an important role in purchase motivation.

29 Combining above literature we argue that self-congruity moderates the effect of anthropomorphism on brand love and on purchase intention. We argue that anthropomorphism does not always immediately lead to brand love. When a person has anthropomorphized a brand, but he cannot identify with the typical user of the product it might even lead to negative feelings towards the brand. Then a brand love relationship will not occur. From above literature we can conclude that, when a person is able to identify with a brand, the more positive he evaluates the brand, the stronger the brand love relationship will be and the higher the purchase intention will be. This leads to the following hypotheses:

H3: Compared to lower self-congruity, higher self-congruity increases the effect of anthropomorphism on brand love.

H4: Compared to lower self-congruity, higher self-congruity increases the effect of anthropomorphism on purchase intention.

2.5 Self-expressiveness.

In consumer behavior theory many research has been conducted for self-identity and social identity. One of the research streams is self-congruity, which is explained in the previous chapter. The consumer behavior theory about self-identity and social identity leads to 2 general conclusions. The two general conclusions derived from the theory are that consumers prefer brands that are associated with a set of personality traits congruent with their own (self-congruity) and that consumers use brands to express their own identity and values. In this chapter the expression of the own identity by brands will be discussed.

Thorbjørnsen and colleagues (2007) define expressiveness as “The consumers’ perception of a given product’s or service’s ability to express both social and personal identity dimensions”. According to Aaker (1997) consumers use brands to express and validate their identity. Individual behavior is therefore motivated by the need to reaffirm the self-image. Brands are often valued to the extent that they reaffirm the principles or beliefs of the consumer.

2.5.1 Symbolic benefits of brands

Brand attitude and brand evaluation are not only determined by the functional aspects of the brand but also by symbolic aspects. (Park et al, 1986). Consumers often purchase brands to express their self-image (Sirgy, 1982) In 1996 Aaker stated that consumers purchase goods or brands that act as a vehicle to express their identity.

30 The signal effect of a brand is what the brand says about the consumer to the consumer self, and to others in the environment. Helgeson and Supphellen (2004 ) suggest that the signal effect of a brand can be based on the image of a generalized or typical user of the brand (self-congruity) or the personality of the brand itself. In this chapter the signal effect of a brand based on the personality of the brand itself will be elaborated on. People have a desire to signal their self-identity to others in the social environment and to themselves. Bodener and Prelec (2003) state that the self-signaling aims to reaffirm people’s perception of the type of person they are. Brands can serve to establish and maintain the self-concept and the identity of the consumer. It cans serve as a self-expressive symbol.

2.5.2 Self-expressive benefits of a brand

According to Chernev and colleagues (2011) brands can create value to the customers in two ways; they can serve as a quality signal and they can create meaningful associations that add value beyond the intrinsic product attributes. As mentioned before, when people use a specific brand they become associated with the signals. The brand symbols take on the personality of the brand. So a user of a brand can be personally associated with the brands’ particular image through usage. Aaker (1999) states that brand personality serves as a self-expressive function. The use of a brand can define a person in the eyes of others, especially in social settings where the individual is careful of what is expected. Product categories like cars and clothes provide strong personality expressions.

Dolich (1969) states that the most favored brands are consistent with the self-concept and thus reinforces the self-concept. According to Aaker (1996) self-expressive benefits of a brand provide an opportunity for consumers to communicate their self-image, the brand can provide a self-expressive benefit by providing a vehicle by which a person can express himself. For example, people can express the rugged side of themselves by wearing Levi’s jeans, express their cool side by buying clothes at Zara, successful by driving a Lexus, creative by using Apple and so on.

Belk (1989) states that consumers are precisely what they consume and that they consume what they are. He also states that consumers use possessions and brands to expand and strengthen their sense of self. In 2000 Schau supports this statement, he confirms that identity directly translates into consumption and that consumption is capable of revealing identity. Vigneron and Johnson (2004) conducted research on luxury brands. They state that consumer use luxury brands to classify or distinguish themselves in relation to relevant others, but they may also try to integrate the symbolic meaning into their own identity. According to Belk (1988) people regard their possessions as part of their identity. According to Aaker (1996) consumers use brands to create and sustain their social selves. She also states that consumer’ purchases of brands works as a vehicle for expressing a personality and lifestyle. According to Salomon (2009) consumers in today’s modern society have the freedom to choose the set of products that define themselves, they can create a social identity they wish to communicate to others