CORPUS CHRISTI AND SAINT JO H N TH E BA PTIST
A H istory o f Art in an African-Venezuelan com m unity
b y
Carm en Elena ALEMAN-FERNANDEZ
Thesis presented in fulfilment of requirem ents for the degree
of PhD, History of Art
November 1990
ProQuest Number: 10752636
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
DEDICATED TO TH E PEOPLE OF CHUAO
T hese y e a rs of c o n ta c t w ith th e C huaenos hav e b e e n a tim e of g reat le a r n in g of t h e ir g e n e ro s ity a n d th e ir k n o w le d g e of life. An e x p e rie n c e b e y o n d im a g in a tio n . T h ro u g h th e m a d isc o v ery of a n o th e r V enezuela h a s b een m ade, one of sin cerity a n d a u th e n tic ity , w h ich h a s b e e n lo st in th e h u stle an d b u stle of th e cities.
I sh o u ld also like to th a n k p a rtic u la rly , M igdalia R odriguez, w ho a cco m p an ied m e on several trip s to C huao, a n d h elp ed m e w ith th e tra n s c rip tio n of th e ta p e s.
My g ra te fu l t h a n k s to J o h n a n d S u s a n P icto n , K rista H yer, Ally B eldford, Phyllis T om s, E lin o r C allaro tti, V irginia Nieto, A lejandro Ayala, A lonso Ayala a n d R ita D u ah -S ak y i for all h elp a n d s u p p o rt in th e p re p a ra tio n of th is th esis.
ABSTRACT
F o r th e p a s t te n y e a rs I h av e c o n d u c te d r e s e a rc h in th e tow n of C h u a o (A ragua State), a n a re a se ttle d in th e 16th C e n tu ry , site of th e o ld est a n d m o st ren o w n ed cocoa p la n ta tio n of V enezuela. By th e m id-17th c e n tu ry , th e ow ner tu r n e d co n tro l of th e e n te rp ris e over to th e R om an C atholic C h u rc h , w h ich a d m in iste re d it th ro u g h th e In te r-d io c e sa n S e m in a ry u n til 1827, a t w h ich tim e, b y d irec t o rd er of S im o n B olivar, th e p la n ta tio n b e c a m e th e p r o p e r ty of th e U niversity of C a ra c a s (today th e U niversidad C e n tra l de V enezuela) u n til 1883. From th e n it cam e u n d e r th e d irect co n tro l of th e S tate.
T he in h a b ita n ts a re d e sc e n d e d from A frican slav e p o p u la tio n s b ro u g h t in b y S p a n ish colonists; a n d th e a re a c a n only be rea ch e d b y se a. T he relativ e iso latio n of C h u ao m ak e s it a sp e cia l p lace in w h ic h one c a n s tu d y th e ev o lu tio n of a rtis tic a n d r itu a ls form s.
C h u ao a p p e a rs to b e one of th e few A frican c o m m u n ities in m o d e m V en ezu ela w h ic h h a s actively m a in ta in e d lin k s w ith its p a s t. T he C h u a o tra d itio n h a s evolved in th e local in te g ra tio n of official (S p a n ish C ath o licism ) a n d p o p u la r (slave A frican e lem en ts). T h is m ay well exem plify th e evolution of a rtistic a l r itu a l form s in o th e r c o a sta l c o m m u n itie s of n o rth -c e n tra l V en ezu ela from th e tim e of S p a n ish Colonialism .
T h e t h e s is is c e n tr e d a r o u n d th e p rin c ip a l fe s tiv itie s of th e c o m m u n ity of C huao: C o rp u s C h risti (featuring "devil" m asq u era d e) a n d th e festive cycle of S a in t J o h n th e B a p tist (featu rin g im ag es of th e S a in t a n d h is m is tre s s ). B o th festiv itie s a re o rg an iz ed b y societies, th e C o rp u s C h risti society led b y m en a n d th e S a in t J o h n society, b y w om en. T hese societies a re th u s re sp o n sib le for all th e d ifferen t a s p e c ts of th e c e le b ra tio n s, s u c h a s th e p re p a ra tio n for th e festival, re h e a rs a ls , sta g e s of th e festivities, m a s k s , c o stu m e s, im ages, d a n ce s, m u sic, so n g s, sp eech es a n d poem s.
T h ese festivities are p laced w ith in th e h isto ric a l b a c k g ro u n d of th e com m u n ity , a n d p la n ta tio n of C h u ao in clu d in g th e p o ssib le origin of th e A fricans arriv ed in S p a n is h A m erica d u rin g th e p erio d of th e slav e tra d e . M oreover, th e im p o rta n c e of th e relig io u s tra d itio n of C h u a o for a n u n d e rs ta n d in g of th e s e festivities is p rovided by th e D o ctrin e of M aria T ecla.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...2
ABSTRACT... 3
INTRODUCTION The beginning of Afro-American S tu d ies... 10
The choice of C h u a o ...15
Corpus Christi and Saint J o h n th e B a p tist... 18
Objectives and M ethodology... 21
Religious and cultural life of the area... 23
Cycle of festivities in C huao...24
N o tes... 34
CHAPTER ONE I. Chuao: Som e H istorical Data The economy of Venezuela in Colonial tim e s ... 45
Chuao: an overview... 45
Chuao in 1979: The journey there, arrival and first im pressions...51
D ona C atalina an d h er p la n ta tio n ... 57
Problems and u n r e s t...61
More rules an d regu latio ns...65
The role of th e University of C arac as...67
The abolition of slavery... 68
Government actions and a ttitu d e s ... 68
N o tes...72
n . The origin o f th e Slaves in Chuao In tro d u c tio n ... ...85
The Slaves of C h u ao ... 90
Oral tradition an d S lav e s... 98
N o tes... 103
HI. The C atholic Church and its relationship w ith Chuao The C hurch in V enezuela ... 108
The M issio n arie s...109
E uropean attitu d es tow ards the In d ia n s ... 110
The S ynods... I l l The Guizpuzcoana Company...112
Conflicts w ithin the C h u rc h ... 113
Chuao and the C hurch... ...117
The Catholic obligation... 118
Doha Catalina and th e Church of C huao... 118
M ariano M arti’s visit to C h u a o ... 119
The treasu res of Chuao C hurch... ...121
P riest p ro b lem s...122
The oral trad ition versu s th e official C h u rc h ... 123
N o tes... 132
IV. The D octrine Of Maria Tecla The teaching of the Doctrine in th e Spanish America... 136
The D octrine in C h u ao ... 137
The learning of the Doctrine...138
The resurrection of J e s u s and its relation with C orpus C hristi festivity... 139
The Holy T rin ity ... 140
E aster an d a fte r...141
The third of May... 142
The A scension of J e s u s ... 143
J e s u s Christ and St. Jo h n the B aptist... 143
The tem ptation of S atan. J e s u s and the C orpus Christi festivity in C huao...144
The origin of the Corpus Christi Eve and the fall of the devils...144
The origin of the m ask, the m eaning of the colours and in s tru m e n ts ...145
The C orpus day: Thursday, its im p o rtan ce... 146
The im portance of the E u c h a ris t... 147
Corpus Christi and its relation with the B aptism ... 148
A ugusta Chavez an d the D octrine... 148
Maria Tecla further com m ents... 149
N o tes... 150
CHAPTER TWO
Corpus C h risti
Origin of the festival in Europe and development of popular devotion 153
Corpus C hristi in S p a in ... 154
The festival in V enezuela...158
The Corpus Christi S o ciety in Chuao Origin...166
Conditions of m em bership of the Corpus Christi society...171
The ruling g ro u p ... 173
The Corpus Christi festival Synopsis of th e Corpus Christi festival at C h u a o ...179
The Eve o f Corpus Christi Protective ritu als of th e Corpus C h ris ti... 181
The public appearance and fall of the devils...186
The House of the Most Blessed Sacram ent, the Holy H o u se...196
Visiting the hom es of the m em bers of Corpus C h risti...209
The caimito t r e e ...211
The reading of the Edicts... 213
The Velorio, Vigil of th e devils, the night before Corpus C h risti... 217
The day o f Corpus C h risti... 2 2 3 The preparatio n of the a l ta r ... 227
The p ro cessio n ...229
The farewell to Corpus Christi... 236
Prohibitions The s p a c e ...238
Time of th e performance...240
The re lic s...241
Relics and s e x ...241
The prayers... 242
The prayers an d the call of S a ta n ...243
The prayers and th e apparition of S a ta n ... 244
The apparition of the Blessed S a c ra m e n t... 245
The im portance of th e captain's d an ce... ... 245
The role of the w om en...246
The m ask tr a d itio n ... 2 4 7
A fu rth er com m entary on the m asking tradition
The m aterial artefacts of th e C orpus Christi celebration ...258
The s u it... 258
The r a ttle ... 260
The w h ip ...261
Sum m ary an d conclusion... 266
N o tes... CHAPTER THREE Saint J o h n th e B aptist The traditio n of S aint J o h n the B a p tist... 278
The festival in Spain...279
The celebration in Latin A m erica...283
The celebration in Venezuela...284
The Saint J o h n the B aptist festival in Chuao The origin... 289
The cycle of Saint J o h n the B aptist festival... 292
The Saint Jo h n Society...292
P reparation of th e a ltar for the festiv ital... 296
The image of S aint J o h n ... 298
The m usical stru ctu re of the cycle of Saint Jo h n th e B a p tis t... 301
The S a n g u eo... 301
Cantos de Sirena, the songs to Saint J o h n ... 305
Golpe, Golpes de tambor, dances to the d r u m ... 307
S y n o p sis ... 309
Description of th e cycle of Saint J o h n the B aptist... 309
The first of J u n e ... 309
23rd Ju n e: The Eve of the feast of Saint Jo h n the B aptist... 314
The m orning celeb ratio n ... 314
The prep aratio n of th e a l ta r ...323
Night performance: The Velorio...323
In th e house of Saint J o h n the B a p tis t...328
Late night: The continuation of the Velorio...331
The Lyrics... 332
J u n e 24th, S aint J o h n the B aptist d a y ... 341
Economic fa c to rs ...349
The 25th or the 26th J u n e ...350
The celebration of J u a n a M anuela... 350
The image of J u a n a M anuela... 352
J u a n a M anuela's day...352
The 28th and 29th J u n e ...354
The festival of S aint P e te r...354
The 15th and 16th J u ly ... 358
The festival of th e Virgin of The M ount Carm el... 358
Favours an d pu n ish m en ts of Saint Jo h n the B ap tist... 363
The end ing of 1984 celebration... 367
Conclusions...368
N o tes... 370
CHAPTER FOUR The q u est for Africa in th e A m ericas ... 3 8 3 Sociological ... ... 384
Socialization and education... 386
The d ram atisation of gender ro le s ... 391
H isto rica l...394
R eligious...399
N otes... 404
BIBLIOGRAPHY...405
APPENDICES...414
PHOTOGRAPHIC CREDITS...428
Sunset in Chuao. 1987
I n t r o d u c t io n
T he beginn in gs o f Afro-American S tu d ies
T h e p re s e n c e of A frican c u ltu re in th e New W orld se em s a t f ir s t g la n c e a n o b v io u s s u b je c t for stu d y , b e c a u s e o f th e h u g e c o n tin g e n t of A frican s b r o u g h t to th e A m ericas d u r in g th e tim e of th e slave tra d e , a p erio d w h ich la ste d m ore th a n th re e c e n tu rie s. (1)
P aradoxically, u n til re c e n t y e a rs, s c h o la rs gave relativ ely little reco g n itio n to th e c u ltu ra l b a ck g ro u n d of th e A frican s b ro u g h t to th e A m ericas. T h is co u ld be d u e p a rtly to th e h is to ric a l feeling of racial s u p e r io r ity b y p e o p le in volved in th e sla v e t r a d e a n d in th e c o lo n izatio n of th e A m ericas exem plified in th e w o rd s of F e rn a n d o VII, in th e a p p e n d ix N9 75, (1817) to th e T re a ty sig n e d b e tw ee n th e Kings of E n g la n d a n d S pain, on th e abolition of th e slave trad e:
'T he introduction of b lack slaves in America w as one of th e first dispositions m ade by m y predecessors to develop th e richness of those wide dom ains. The Indians were w eak , so they could not be u sed in the exploitation of th e m ines which needed strong arm s. The decision of having blacks in America did not create slavery because th a t in stitu tio n w as already com mon betw een the savage Africans. So. th e traffic of Africans to America w as done as a favour to them , because in th is way they obtained benefits, su ch as being in structed in th e knowledge of th e tru e God, th e Catholicism, th e u n iq u e tru e religion an d civilization. Obviously th e ir life a s slaves in America h a d been m uch b etter th a n being free in their own countries. B u t b ecause of th e care given by th e owners to th e ir slaves in Latin America, the black population h a s grown up , so it is not necessary to continue the Slave trade, and also o u r m oral obligation to civilize th e Africans does not exist any more, because so illu strio u s n atio n as Great B ritain h a s decided to take in h er h a n d s th e glorious ta s k of educating the Africans in its own land... Signed on M adrid th e 22 day of November 1817, on behalf of th e two Kings: H enry Wellesley and Jose Pizarro (2)
T h u s A fro-A m erican s tu d ie s a re relatively new . In 1945 Melville H erk o v its sa id : "Today, th e scien tific im p o rta n c e of A fro-A m erican s tu d ie s a s a field for re s e a rc h is firm ly e sta b lis h e d . Two d ecad es ago s tu d ie s in th is a re a w ere n o t av ailab le."(3)
In B razil th e first stu d ie s b eg an w ith R a im u n d o N ina R odriguez in 1896. T he first A fro-B razilian C o n g ress w a s o rg an ized b y G ilberto F rey re, in Recife (1934) a seco n d , b y E d iso n C a rn e iro (1938) a n d a th ird b y A rth u r R am os in 1941.
B e tw ee n 1920-1950 th e r e w a s in c r e a s in g a w a r e n e s s of th e s u b je c t. M elville H e rsk o v its w a s c o n s id e re d th e f a th e r o f Afro- A m erican s tu d ie s in U n ited S ta te s. H is own re s e a r c h covered Haiti, D u tc h G u y a n a , T rin id a d Is la n d B razil a n d A frica, a n d h e in sp ire d aca d em ic s s u c h a s Octavio D a C osta, R uy Coelho a n d R ene Ribeiro to w o rk in th e field. As a r e s u lt, in 1941, th e B u r e a u d 'E th n o lo g ie, d irected b y J a c q u e s R o u m ain w as fo unded in H aiti.
F e rn a n d o O rtiz, w ho s ta r te d th e A fro -A m erican S tu d ie s in C u b a , h e a d e d T h e I n s t i t u t o I n t e r n a c i o n a l d e E s t u d i o s A fr o a m e r ic a n o s , w h ich w as fo u n d ed a s a d ire c t r e s u lt of th e Prim er C ongreso D em ogrdfico Interamerica.no, celeb ra te d in Mexico in 1943.
Several a tte m p ts to p u b lis h jo u r n a ls w ere m ad e a t th is tim e, b u t th e m ajority d isa p p e a re d w ith th e exception of E stu d io s A frocubanos.
D u rin g th e 19th C o n g ress of A m erican ist, New York in 1949, a s e c tio n d ev o ted to A fro-A m erican S tu d ie s w a s e s ta b lis h e d . R oger B a stid e , a n e m in e n t sc h o la r a n d sp e c ia list in th e a re a , (4) trie d to revive th e In te rn a tio n a l in s titu te a n d its review in 1954, d u rin g th e 2 1 s t. C o n g re s s of A m e ric a n is ts . H ow ever, a c a d e m ic d iffe re n c e s b etw een F e rn a n d o O rtiz a n d Melville H erskovits did n o t p e rm it it.
A c h a n g e o f p e rsp ectiv e in th e s tu d y of Afro- L atin A m erican c u ltu r e d ev elo p ed d u rin g th is p erio d . O riginally, s tu d ie s o f b la c k c u ltu re w ere ta k e n p u re ly from th e exotic p o in t of view, se g reg atin g c u ltu re a n d religion, b u t a s fu rth e r stu d ie s w ere m ad e, a n in te g ratio n b e tw ee n th e s e two w ith in th e socio-political c o n te x t w a s m ade.
H ersk o v its in itiated o th e r a p p ro a c h e s to th e su b ject:
-th e g e o g ra p h ic a l p e rs p e c tiv e : (m an y s c h o la r s w e re s e n t to r e s e a r c h in c o u n tr ie s w h e re th e b la c k p o p u la tio n w a s n o t y e t s tu d ie d ).
-th e sc ien tific view: re s e a rc h e rs s ta r te d to look a t th e eth n o - h isto ric a n d p sy c h o -e th n o g ra p h ic p ersp ec tiv e s. Also th e im p o rtan c e o f c o m p a ra tiv e A frica n -L a tin -A m e ric an s tu d ie s , th e vodoo c u lt in D a h o m ey a n d H a iti, fo r ex am p le, P ierre V e rg er h a s m a d e som e in te re s tin g co m p arativ e stu d ie s , in th e m a k e -u p of th e A fro-B rasilian society.
T h e e s ta b lis h m e n t of L a tin A m e ric an S tu d ie s w ith in som e h ig h e r i n s titu tio n s p a ra d o x ic a lly d id n o t in c r e a s e th e n u m b e r of r e s e a r c h p u b lic a tio n s. It is also in te re s tin g to n o te t h a t d u rin g th e p e rio d of 1961-65, in th e U n ited S ta te s a n d C a n a d a , only 16 of th e 8 4 2 PhD th e s e s p ro d u c e d on L atin A m erica d e a lt w ith b la c k s. In
E u ro p e th e s a m e s m a ll p r o p o rtio n e x iste d w ith 6 o u t of 502 in v estig atio n s re la tin g specifically to b la c k s in L atin A m erica.(5)
T h e r e a s o n s fo r t h is a re c o m p le x b u t r a n g e fro m th e c o n sid e re d level of im p o rta n c e , to th e econom ic rea lity . Few g ra n ts a re given for s u c h re s e a rc h a n d w rite rs s u c h a s th is one h av e h a d p ro b le m s in fin a n c in g s u c h p ro jec ts. W ith th e d e a r th of m a te ria ls, m a n y of th e b a s ic to o ls for c o n v en tio n a l re s e a r c h a re u n a v a ila b le , s u c h a s organized arch iv es, a n d sy ste m atic c o m m u n ic a tio n s betw een c o u n trie s a n d in stitu tio n s .
W o rk s t h a t a re a v a ila b le in c lu d e P a u lo C a rv a lh o -N e to on E cu a d o r, P a ra g u a y a n d U ruguay; G onzalo B e ltra n A guirre on Mexico;
George W ash in g to n W este rm a n on P an am a, R olando M ellafe on Chile;
Ildefonso Perez on U ruguay, L.M. D iaz Soler on P u e rto Rico a n d th e A ntilles, J a im e Ja ra m illo U ribe on C olom bia, b u t in C e n tra l A m erica a n d A rg e n tin a p u b lic a tio n s a re very scarce. More d o c u m e n ta tio n h a s b e e n m ad e obviously on C u b a a n d B razil w ith v a lu a b le c o n trib u tio n s from F e rn a n d o O rtiz a n d Lydia C a b rera. T he p ro m in e n t sc h o la rs in B razil, in c lu d e a m o n g o th e rs , A r th u r R a m o s, M a n u e l Q u e rin o , G ilberto F rey re, E d iso n C arneiro. (6)
In sp ite of th e re s e a rc h efforts w h ich h a v e sin c e b e e n m ad e, H erskovits' o b serv atio n re m a in s valid:
"Then, th e A fro-American field is replete w ith com plex a n d challenging problem s. More d o cu m en taiy an d field research w hich will give a s u re r b a sis for generalization is a continuing requisite. B u t beyond th is, b e tte r integration of d ata will not only yield m ore p en etratin g form ulation of concept an d theory for basic research, b u t will also afford approaches of m ajor u sefulness to tho se concerned with th e solution of practical problem s arising out of the ever-increasing con tacts over the world betw een peoples having different ways of life." (7)
In V en ez u ela th e s e s tu d ie s b e g a n w ith J u a n Liscano,(8) w ho re p re s e n te d th e c o u n try in th e first m eetin g of th e Afro- A m erican ist in 1943. H e also w a s th e fo u n d e r of th e N atio n al In s titu te of Folklore in 1948.
J u a n Pablo Sojo p ro d u ced th e first w ork on folklore in T em as y a p u n t e s A fr o -V e n e z o la n o s (1943). H ow ever, th e firs t sig n ific a n t a p p ro a c h to th e A fro-V enezuelan su b je c t w as m ad e b y J u a n Liscano, in h is b o o k F olk lore y C ultura (1950). S y stem atic w o rk d ealin g w ith th e role of A frican slav es in V en ezu elan so ciety s ta r te d in 1960, Two sp e c ia lists M iguel A co sta S aig n es (9) a n d F ederico B rito F ig u ero a (10) h av e p u b lis h e d b o o k s, s u c h a s, La Vida de lo s e s c la v o s n eg ro s en V e n e z u e la (1967) a n d El p rob lem a d e la tie r r a y e s c la v o s e n la
Venezuela In South America
1 4
h is t o r ia d e V e n e z u e la (1972) re sp e c tiv e ly a s w ell a s n u m e ro u s article s.
T h ere a re w o rk s in th e a re a of m u sic, s u c h a s La m u s ic a Afro- V e n e z o la n a (1971) b y Luis Felipe R am o n y R ivera. O th e r sc h o la rs in c lu d e E rm ila V e rac o ec h ea : D o c u m e n to s para e l e s tu d io de lo s e s c la v o s n e g r o s e n V e n e z u e la (1969). A ngelina Pollak-E ltz: C u lto s a fro a m e rica n o s (1977), A ngelina C larac de B riceno, D a ria H ern an d ez a n d C ecilia F u e n te s .( ll) B u t th e re is n o t y e t a g e n e ra l c o n s e n s u s a b o u t th e im p o rta n c e of th e s e s tu d ie s . People w o rk in d iv id u ally . T h e re is y e t to b e a c o h e re n t g ro u p , w h ic h s h a r e a n d ex ch an g e p o in ts of view to e s ta b lis h a b a s is for th is type of s tu d y a n d m ak e it re le v a n t to th e social c u ltu ra l co n tex t of V enezuela.
The ch o ice o f Chuao
In th e y e a r 1979, w h ils t te a c h in g a t th e S im o n B o liv ar U niversity, in th e D e p a rtm e n t of L anguage a n d L ite ra tu re , th e w riter b e c a m e in te r e s te d in w o rk in g in th e a r e a o f A fro -V e n e z u e la n tra d itio n , a s a w ay of le a rn in g m ore a b o u t h e r n a tiv e V enezuela. S h e th e re fo re s ta r te d lo o k in g for a s u ita b le lo c a tio n fo r th is ty p e of re s e a rc h . In V en ezu ela slav es h a d b e e n m o stly c o n c e n tra te d in th e s ta te s o f A ra g u a , M ira n d a , C a rab o b o , C o jed es, Y a ra c u y a n d D to.
F e d e ra l (see m a p . 6, p. ). A t t h a t tim e th e C e n tra l U n iv e rsity of V e n ez u ela w a s b e g in n in g a r a th e r a m b itio u s p ro je c t in C h u a o , in A ra g u a S ta te (12) w h ic h did n o t, how ever, in clu d e co llectin g th e oral tra d itio n . T h u s b e g a n th e p la n n in g a n d o rg a n is in g of v isits to th e to w n , in o rd e r to a s c e r ta in w h e th e r it w as w o rth p u r s u in g fu rth er, s tu d ie s th e re . In itial c o n ta c ts w ith C h u ao w ere conv in cin g th a t it w as in d e e d a n e x c e lle n t ch o ice for f u r th e r s tu d ie s fo r th e follow ing rea so n s:
-The tow n of C h u a o w a s a s e ttle m e n t e s ta b lis h e d in th e 16th c e n tu ry , a n d on th e site of th e o ld e s t a n d m o s t re n o w n e d cocoa p la n ta tio n of V enezuela. (13)
-T he d e v elo p m e n t of C h u a o a n d th e eco n o m ic im p o rta n c e it a ch iev ed from th e la tte r h a lf of th e XVII to th e m id d le of th e XX c e n tu ry , w a s d u e to th e p ro d u c tio n of cocoa, th e m o s t im p o rta n t p ro d u c t o f th e V e n e z u e la n eco n o m y d u rin g c o lo n ial tim e s. By th e m id 17th C e n tu ry , th e o w n e r of C h u a o t u r n e d c o n tro l of th e e n te rp ris e over to th e R om an C atholic C h u rc h , a n d th e p la n ta tio n of C h u a o b e ca m e a n Obra P\a . (14) A ccording to th e c o n d itio n s of th e w ill im p o se d b y th e o w n e r C a ta lin a M exia de A vila, th e C h u rc h
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a d m in is te re d th e p la n ta tio n th ro u g h th e D e a n of th e C a th e d ra l of C a ra c a s, th e F ra n c is c a n O rd er a n d th e In te rd io c e sa n S e m in a ry u n til 1827, a t w h ich tim e, by d irec t o rd er of Sim on B olivar, th e p la n ta tio n b e ca m e th e p ro p e rty of th e U niversity of C a ra c a s (today, T he C en tral U n iv e rsity o f V en ezu ela) u n til 1883. F ro m th e n it cam e u n d e r th e d ire c t co n tro l of th e S tate.
-T he m a jo rity of th e in h a b ita n ts a re d e s c e n d a n ts of form er A frican slaves, w ho arrived th e re from th e 17th C e n tu ry on w ard s.
-T he im p o r ta n c e of th e lo ca lity , w h o se w r itte n h is to r ic a l a n te c e d e n ts go b a c k to th e y e a r 1 5 0 2 (15), a n d w h ic h in 1592, a s a n e n c o m ie n d a (16), a lre a d y rev ealed t h a t th e A m e rin d ia n h a d b e e n c u ltiv atin g cocoa a n d o th e r fru its, even before th e S p a n is h co n q u est.
-Its relative iso latio n ( in th e p a st and p r e s e n t) from th e re s t of th e c o u n tr y , d u e to th e d iffic u lty of g a in in g a c c e s s to th e to w n , c o n v en ien t only b y sea. It is also p o ssib le to re a c h th e p lace cro ssin g th e m o u n ta in s from C horoni o r from T u rm e ro to w n s, a w alk w h ich ta k e s m ore o r less, th re e d ay s. Today, th is is still a difficult ro u te to a tte m p t especially d u rin g th e w in ter ra in y se aso n .
-T he ric h c u ltu r a l tr a d itio n of th e tow n, w h ic h n e v e rth e le s s h a s n o t b e e n th e su b je c t of p u b lis h e d sy ste m a tic s tu d ie s . T he first re p o rts of th e festivities of C h u a o w ere only o b ta in e d in 1970, w h en th e N atio n al In s titu te of Folklore v isited th e p lac e for th e first tim e.
T h is l it e r a tu r e c o n ta in s o n ly so m e g e n e ra l d e s c r ip tio n s of th e festivities of S a in t J o h n a n d C o rp u s C hristi, a s well a s a n o ccasio n al article a b o u t th e h isto ry of th e locality. (17)
Corpus Christi and St. J o h n The Baptist.
T he s tu d y of th e two ritu a l m a n ife s ta tio n s b e ca m e th e fo cu s of th e re s e a rc h : C o rp u s C h risti (featu rin g ’devil' m a s q u e ra d e s) a n d th e festive cycle of S a in t J o h n th e B a p tist (featu rin g im ag es of th e S a in t a n d h is m is tre ss ) w ere c h o s e n b e c a u s e of th e privileged p lace th e p eo p le of C h u a o gave th e m in th e a n n u a l cycle of festiv ities, a n d b e c a u s e of th e c e le b ra tio n of th e s e fe s tiv itie s in o th e r p a r t s of V enezuela, also p erform ed b y A fricans . T his re s e a rc h th u s serves th e
d u a l p u r p o s e of giving fre s h in fo rm a tio n o n V e n e z u e la n p o p u la r c u ltu re a n d p ro v id in g a so u rc e for c o m p a rativ e s tu d y in V enezuela a n d m o re w idely in th e A m ericas.
In C h u a o , b o th festiv itie s a re o rg a n iz e d b y so c ie tie s, th e C o rp u s C h risti led b y m en, th e St. J o h n th e B a p tist, b y w om en. They hav e a c o n sid era b le n u m b e r of m em bers: m ore th a n two h u n d re d in
I. Hilar t-ranco crossing the Chuao river, carrying wood to cook. In the background women washing. 1984
M
2. The plantation, a cocoa tree. 1982
e a c h o n e, w h ic h a m o u n ts to a p p ro x im a te ly 20 % o f th e to ta l p o p u la tio n , (in clu d in g th e children.)
T h ese so c ietie s a re re sp o n sib le for all th e d ifferen t a sp e c ts of th e c e le b ra tio n s, s u c h a s th e p re p a ra tio n of th e festival, re h e a rs a ls, o rg an izin g th e sta g e s of th e c eleb ra tio n , m a s k s , c o s tu m e s , im ages, d a n c e s, m u sic, so n g sp e e c h e s a n d poem s. T h ese festiv ities preserve a n d m a in ta in tra d itio n s w h ic h com e from th e tim e of slavery, an d o b v io u sly h a v e th e ir o rig in s in th e S p a n is h co lo n ial e ra . T hey are s o u rc e s of energy, v itality a n d m errim e n t. However, th e m em b ers of th e s e societies, a n d especially th o se w ho a re in p o sitio n s of direction w ith in th e m , a r e h ig h ly r e s p e c te d a n d a p p r e c i a te d in th e
co m m u n ity .
T he two societies in C h u ao p re su m a b ly h av e th e ir origins in th e relig io u s c o n fra te rn itie s e sta b lish e d in C a ra c a s in th e 17th a n d 18th c e n tu r ie s , w h ic h w o u ld h a v e p ro v id e d th e m o d e ls fo r s im ila r o rg an iz atio n s th ro u g h o u t V enezuela. (18)
D o c u m e n ta ry p ro o f of th e long tra d itio n of th e s e festiv ities, begins in A m erica w ith th e S p a n is h c o lo n isa tio n . R eco rd s in d ic a te t h a t c o n fra te rn itie s w ere fo u n d ed for e ac h festival, in C a ra c a s, a n d th e y o c cu rred in th e c h u rc h of St. M aurice (19). In th e y e a r 1611 th e c o n fr a te r n ity of S t. J o h n th e B a p tis t (20) w a s fo u n d e d b y th e M orenos Tari, (free B lacks) (21) b u t e cclesiastic a p p ro v a l w a s given in 1646 b y Pope In n o c e n t X. F rom 1677 it w a s lo cated a t th e C h u rc h of S t M aurice. In 1751 th ey su b s e q u e n tly fo u n d ed th e c o n fra tern ity of th e M o st B lesse d S a c ra m e n t. (22) S ig n ifican tly , th e s e tw o g ro u p s, to g e th e r w ith a th ird c o n fra tern ity d ed icated to th e Virgen d e la Guia c o n s titu te d th e m o st im p o rta n t b ro th e rh o o d s of A frican s in C aracas.
T he o rg an iz atio n al u n ity of th e M orenos Tari gave th e m a feeling of so lid arity a n d a c e rta in social su p e rio rity v is-a-v is th e o th e r B lacks.
(Free blacks and slave blacks belonged to other naciones or brotherhoods)
T he festivities a t t h a t tim e w ere celeb ra te d w ith g ala m arch es, a n d d a n c e s to d ru m s . T h is is n o ted w ith p a rtic u la r referen ce to th e p ro c e ssio n s of St. J o h n th e B a p tist a n d th e V irgin. However, in tim e th e v ig o u r of th e d ru m m in g a n d d a n c in g w ere c o n s id e re d to have c h a n g e d th e d e v o u t p u rp o s e of th e c e le b ra tio n s. C o n se q u e n tly in 1793 th e C a p ta in G eneral, Civil M ayor of th e City, fo rb ad e th e dancing to th e d ru m s . In a le tte r of 8 th of J u n e 1793, th e M ajordom o (23) of th e b ro th e rs of th e c o n fra tern ity of S t J o h n th e B a p tist, th e M orenos Tari, a sk e d th e E cclesiastic M ayor of th e City:
"to control th e d iso rd er of som e N egros lib res (Free Blacks) an d N eg ro s esclavos (Black slaves), who did not belong to th is confraternity, they celebrated the S a in t J o h n ’s day w ith d ru m s, lascivious d ances, rid icu lo u s cerem onies , noisy in stru m e n ts, producing m an y im m oral a c ts an d it h a s becom e m ore serio us if we con sider th e inclu sio n of people from o th er c a s ta s (social-racial class) who took advantage of these disorders. B ecause of th a t the sacred im ages were also carried w ithout seriou sness, th e ecclesiastic M inisters and th e devotes did n o t w ant to go in th is crowd, b u t we ( a s m em bers of the confraternity) were obliged according to our ru les to assist. We cried painfully thinking of the gossip of foreigners, the dissension of good p erso n s an d th e attrib u tio n of all this b ad n ess to usVwho are th e guides in charge of th e C hurch and th e cu lt of th e sacred images. We beg you to forward our petition to th e C aptain General, Mayor of th e City , so, he can forbid th e Blacks to play d ru m s an d give u s perm ission to inform people and p riests th a t th e dance to th e d ru m s an d any o th e r acts not connected w ith th e sacred p ro cessio n s have been forbidden by y o u r Excellency. In th is form th e owners of slaves c a n prohibit th e ir slaves and th e slaves' sons to go to the procession wearing ridiculous dresses and w arn them th a t they have to behave in the sam e way as they do in o th er processions w hich are held in th e city. As a resu lt of th is letter th e Mayor published a n Edict bringing to a n end the dance to the drum s in the city of Caracas. (24)
O bjectives and M ethodology
T he objectives in w ritin g th is th e s is are:
-To d o c u m e n t th e festivities of C o rp u s C h risti a n d St, J o h n th e B aptist,
- To s e t th e p e rfo rm a n c e s in th e ir socio c u ltu r a l h is to ric a l c o n te x ts:
Africa, S pain, L atin A m erica, V enezuela a n d th e c h u rc h .
- To in v e stig a te th e so c ial p u rp o s e of th e festiv a ls, a n d th e r e la tio n b e tw e e n th e so c ie tie s a n d th e n e e d s o f in d iv id u a ls a n d fam ilies.
- To c o n sid e r th e p o ssib le role played b y th e A frican origins of C h u a o people in th e d ev elopm ent of th e c eleb ra tio n s.
-To d e s c r ib e th e ro le of th e C h u r c h in r e la tio n to th e d ev elo p m en t of C h ristia n ity in C h u ao a n d provide a n in te g ra te d view o f p eo p le's social a n d sp iritu a l roles.
T he m ethodology for th is in clu d ed :
-P a rtic ip a tio n in th e life a n d festivities of C h u a o over a period of 10 y ears.
- C lo se s t u d y of r e le v a n t p u b lis h e d a n d u n p u b lis h e d d o c u m e n ta ry so u rces, p a rticu la rly The Obra Pia. \r > ^
„ z . A -
- Interview s w ith key p a rtic ip a n ts . - P h o to g rap h ic d o c u m e n ta tio n
- T a p e -re c o rd ^ tof m u sic, so n g s, sto rie s , a n d th e D o ctrin e of M aria Tecla.
In t h i s r e s e a r c h , w r itte n s o u r c e s b o t h p u b l is h e d a n d u n p u b lis h e d w ere u tilized to s u p p o rt th e field d o c u m e n ta tio n of th e fe stiv itie s u p o n w h ic h th is s tu d y is b a se d : i.e. o b se rv a tio n s, an d in te rv ie w s w ith p a r tic ip a n ts in th e fe s tiv itie s. T h e m a jo rity of in te r v ie w s w e re w ith th o s e w h o c o u ld p ro v id e a h is to r ic a l p e rsp e c tiv e a n d h a d sp e c ia l know ledge c o n c e rn in g C o rp u s C h risti a n d St. J o h n th e B a p tist by v irtu e of th e ir sen io rity a n d p articip atio n . T o p ics covered in c lu d e d th e h isto ry of th e festiv ities w h ic h b elongs to th e c u ltu r a l b a c k g ro u n d of C huao, beliefs a sso c ia te d w ith C o rp u s C h risti a n d S t. J o h n T he B a p tist, d e sc rip tio n s of th e p e rfo rm an c e s, a s of th e p re s e n t tim e a n d if possible, in th e p a s t.
T he re s e a rc h w as m ad e b y p a rticip a tin g in a s m a n y a s possible of th e fe stiv a ls a n d co llectin g in fo rm a tio n from p a rtic ip a n ts . T h is in c lu d e d re c o rd in g th e ir d e s c rip tio n s of th e e v e n ts d u r in g th e C o rp u s C h risti a n d St. J o h n th e B a p tist festivals, a n d th e ir views an d in te r p r e ta tio n s of d ifferen t a s p e c ts of th e p e rfo rm a n c e s. O ver th e y e a r s n u m e r o u s C o rp u s C h r is ti a n d S t. J o h n T h e B a p tis t p e rfo rm a n c e s w ere s e e n a n d a p h o to g ra p h ic re c o rd of th e m a s k s, c o stu m e s, d a n c e s , d ifferen t sta g e s of th e p e rfo rm a n c e s w ere m ad e a lo n g w ith ta p e s of s o n g s a n d d ru m m in g s. T h e s e in te rv ie w s a n d . festiv al a tte n d a n c e s , e n a b le d a collection of th e D o c trin e of M aria
: ' U y
J T e c la , (25) w h ic h c o n s t i t u t e d th e r e lig io u s b a s i s of th e p e rfo rm a n c e s. S to ries a b o u t beliefs a n d fe a rs fo u n d in th e S t J o h n th e B a p tis t so n g s w ere tra n s c r ib e d in S p a n is h , a n d a co llo q u ial tra n s la tio n in to E n g lish w as m ad e. P articip atio n a t o th e r celeb ratio n s of C h u a o , s u c h a s, th e S h e p h e rd s , th e th re e M agi K ings a n d Holy W eek w ere also m ad e for th e p u rp o se of a co m p arativ e an aly sis.
D a ta on th e h isto ry of C h u ao , a n d th e role of th e C h u rc h w as s u p p le m e n te d b y d o c u m e n ta ry so u rc e s w ere d eriv ed from w ritte n so u rc es, in p a rtic u la r th e Obra Pia to g eth er w ith o ral trad itio n .
A n in itia l p erio d of interview s w as followed b y p a rtic ip a tio n in th e d aily life of th e tow n, so t h a t b y th e th ir d p e rio d of re se a rc h , t r u s t a n d frie n d sh ip h a d b e en e sta b lish e d a n d th e people w ere m ore s p o n ta n e o u s in th e ir re sp o n se to q u estio n s.
It w a s no lo n g er th e re s e a rc h e r w ho w a s going to p ry into th eir lives, b u t r a th e r a p e rs o n lin k e d to th e c o m m u n ity , a n d inevitably
th is b e c a m e m ore p ro d u ctiv e in h elp in g to w a rd s th e u n d e rs ta n d in g of e v en ts a n d a ttitu d e s . M em b ersh ip to th e S o ciety of St. J o h n th e B a p tis t w a s offered a n d approved b y c o n se n su s. T he to w n 's t r u s t an d c o n fid e n ce h a s b e e n f u r th e r e x h ib ited b y b e in g a s k e d to becom e g o d m o th e r to two ch ild ren of C huao.
R eligious and cultural life o f th e area.
As a R o m an C atholic co u n try , V e n e z u e la 's festiv als a re closely re la te d to th e c h u rc h . O ne se t form s th e festive cycle of C h ristm a s or of th e w in te r so lstice, a n d th e o th e r th e festive cycle of St. J o h n th e B a p tis t, o r th e s u m m e r so lstice . C h ris tm a s is in th e s o la r cycle.
E a s te r , h ow ever, is lo c a te d in th e lu n a r cycle a s is th e f e a s t of A scension, P en teco st, T rinity S u n d a y a n d C o rp u s C hristi.
A d a s d e l C abildo d e C a ra ca s re fe rs to r i tu a l d a n c e s a n d c o m m u n a l festivities b ein g c eleb rated in th e city o f S an tia g o de Leon de C a ra c a s to w ard s th e en d of th e XVI C en tu ry . As C atholic religious p ra c tic e s s p re a d th ro u g h o u t th e c o u n try d u rin g th e XVII c e n tu ry so did th e c eleb ra tio n s. However, j u s t a s th e d o m in a n t c u ltu re im posed th e ir p ra c tic e s on th e in d ig e n o u s p eo p les a n d th o s e from A frica, it c a n b e a rg u e d t h a t th e y w ere n o t p assiv e re c ip ie n ts a n d t h a t th e y in t u r n in c o rp o ra te d e le m e n ts of th e ir o rig in al c u ltu r e . T h e form of th e s e fe stiv a ls, w ith th e c o s tu m e s , d a n c e , m u s ic , etc, se rv ed to develop a s e n s e of id en tity a n d c o h esiv en ess w ith in , a n d am o n g th e p a rtic ip a n ts of a n y given com m unity.
In a d d itio n to th e R o m an C ath o lic festiv als, th e re a re o th e rs w h ic h h av e th e ir origin in th e in d ig e n o u s c u ltu re s , s u c h a s T u ra s, w h ic h o n 2 4 th of S e p te m b e r, w h e re in L a ra a n d F a lc o n S ta te s d a n c e rs , m im in g a n im a ls, p erform in fro n t of a n a lta r b e a rin g fru its of its h a rv e s t. A n o th er, D iv e r s io n e s , of u n c e r ta in d eriv atio n , also in c lu d e s d a n c e s im ita tin g a n im a ls, o r p e rfo rm in g d a n c e s of d e a th a n d re s u rre c tio n , a n d d a n c e s w eaving rib b o n s a ro u n d a stick . S h o rt d ra m a s a re also perfo rm ed . C erem onies m u s t in c lu d e th o s e h eld on I n d e p e n d e n c e d a y , in v o lv in g m ilita r y p a r a d e s a n d p a tr io tic p ro g ra m m e s .
T he catalo g u e is b y n o m e a n s a n e x h au stiv e one, a n d is su b je ct to c h an g e a s n ew festivities are develop*' a n d o th e rs die o u t. T his is a field of re s e a rc h in V en ezu ela t h a t h a s scarcely b e g u n to be explored.
23
Cycle o f festiv ities in Chuao
A cco rd in g to th e in fo rm a tio n su p p lie d b y M a ria Tecla, B e rta A che, A u g u s ta C havez a n d o th e r m em b ers of th e C h u a o com m unity, th e p a tr o n s a in t is given firs t p lace in th e cycle of fe a sts. F ie s ta s P a tro n a les a re celeb rated in j u s t a b o u t every V en ezu elan com m unity.
C h u a o 's p a tr o n is th e V irgin of th e Im m a c u la te C o n cep tio n , w hose f e a s t d a y is c e le b r a te d o n D e c e m b e r 8. T h is p a tr o n a g e w as e s ta b lis h e d b y th e c h u rc h , in th e 17th. c e n tu ry , a c c o rd in g to th e w ish e s of th e ow n er of th e p la n ta tio n D o h a C a ta lin a M exia de Avila, w h o se first devotion w a s to th e Im m acu late C o n cep tio n . T he festivity is c e le b ra te d w ith th e M ass a n d a P ro cessio n a ro u n d th e tow n w ith re lig io u s so n g s. (26) T he f e a s t of th e Im m a c u la te C o n c e p tio n is p reced ed b y th e c eleb ratio n of th e festivity of S a in t N icholas of B ari, w h ic h h a s also b e e n c e le b ra te d in C h u a o from co lo n ial tim e s. H is fe a s t d ay is c e le b ra te d o n D e ce m b er 7, a n d th e e x p e n se s of th is festivity a re provided b y th e G u zm an Fam ily, w h ich h a s in h erite d th is d u ty a s a m a tte r of a n c e stra l trad itio n .
S a in t J o h n th e B a p tist is ta k e n o u t of th e c h u rc h in p ro cessio n o n D e ce m b er 9, even th o u g h h is fe a s t d ay is in J u n e . T h e re a s o n b e h in d th is a p p e a rs to be qu ite sim ple, t h a t people ta k e a d v an tag e of th e a n n u a l v isit of a p riest, w ho alw ays com es to C h u a o in D ecem ber for th e festiv al of th e p a tr o n s a in t, b u t h a rd ly ever co m es on th e a c tu a l fe a st d a y of S a in t J o h n . T h u s, th e Society of St. J o h n celeb rates a co m m em o rativ e m a s s for its p a tro n on th e 9 th of D ecem b er. The im age of St. J o h n is ta k e n in p ro cessio n , c a rrie d b y fo u r y o u n g boys a n d lead b y th e w om en w ho are m em b ers of St. J o h n 's Society. It is im p o rta n t to p o in t o u t t h a t d u rin g th is p a ra d e th e re is n o S a n g u e o , ca n to s d e S iren a a n d G olpes d e tambor, a s on h is p ro p e r fe a st day.
(27) O nly relig io u s c h a n ts of th e S p a n is h C ath o lic official litu rg y are h e a rd . T he p ro c e ssio n a n d M ass for St. J o h n th e B a p tis t have ta k e n p lace on th is d ay from colonial tim es u n til th e p re s e n t.
T h e festiv a l of th e S h e p h e rd s is c e le b ra te d a t m id n ig h t on D ecem b er 24, b u t is n o t p a r t of th e C h u ao o ld er tra d itio n . A ccording to A u g u sta C havez, it w as b ro u g h t by a m a n w ho h a d originally come from a n o th e r to w n of V en ezu ela, M ariara. A fter se ttlin g in C h u ao , a b o u t s ix ty y e a r s ago, h e h im s e lf e s ta b lis h e d th e tra d itio n . T he c e le b ra tio n c o n s is ts of th e a d o ra tio n b y th e S h e p h e rd to J e s u s . (28) A t m id n ig h t th e ca ch ero w ho is in ch arg e of 'crow d co n tro l’, m ask e d a n d c o s tu m e d w ith n e w sp a p e r, le a d s p a ir s of d a n c in g s h e p h e rd s fro m th e s tr e e t th r o u g h th e c h u rc h y a rd a n d in to th e c h u r c h to
P l a t e 2
. I he procession of the Immaculate Conception. Patron s Saint of Chuao. 8th December 1989
P l a t e j
1. St. John the Baptist In the church before the procession.
9th. December 1989.
2 .The children carryinq St. John the Baptist in procession.
December 9th. 1989
p ro s tra te th em se lv e s in fro n t of th e crib. A lth o u g h all th e sh e p h e rd s a re m en , e a c h p a rtn e r is d re sse d a s a w om an. A fterw ards, e ac h one, in th e p re s e n c e of M aria T ecla a n d A u g u sta a n sw e rs q u e stio n s posed by M aria T ecla a n d recite a v erse com posed for th e o ccasio n . W hen a ll th e s h e p h e r d s h a v e p re s e n te d th e ir v e rs e s to J e s u s , tw o m ore m a sk e d m en S a n P ascual Bailon a n d P&jaro negro (Black Bird) ap p ea r d an cin g . W hen th e y finish, b o th p ro s tra te th e m se lv e s in fro n t of th e c rib . E v e ry o n e th e n , d e p a r t s fro m th e c h u r c h to w a tc h th e s h e p h e r d s d a n c e in th e c h u rc h y a rd . A fterw ard s m a s k e d d a n c e rs perfo rm th e ir sp ecial d a n ce s, S a n P ascual B aildn a s a d ru n k a rd , an d th e P&jaro N egro (B lack B ird) p e rfo rm d a n c e w h e re th e y m im ic an im als, c a u s in g fear to th e c h ild ren a n d la u g h te r to th e a d u lts. After th e s e d a n c e s , th e im age of ch ild J e s u s is c a rrie d in p ro c e s s io n to a n o th e r crib, w h ic h is in a h o u s e b esid e th e c h u rc h y a rd . T here, th e c o m m u n ity s p e n d s th e w h o le n ig h t in vigil (29) c e le b r a tin g C h r is tm a s b y s in g in g S p a n is h a n d V e n e z u e la n c a r o ls c a lle d a g u in a ld o s , a s well a s p a r r a n d a s , w h ich a re C h ris tm a s so n g s w ith irrev e re n t, s e c u la r th em es.
O n D ecem b er 31 C h u ao people bid farew ell to th e old y e ar w ith a p lay t h a t involves two p rin cip al c h a ra c te rs: th e old y e a r d isg u ised a s a n old m a n , a n d th e new, d re sse d a s a new born child.
Next com es th e Magi, or T hree Kings, c e le b ra te d o n J a n u a r y 5, eve of th e E p ip h a n y w ith a th e a tric a l p re s e n ta tio n in th e c h u rc h y a rd in fro n t of th e c h u rc h . A pparently, th is is a u n iq u e su rv iv al of a n au to s a c r a m e n ta l (p o p u la r relig io u s p lay s in S p a in d u rin g th e M iddle Ages) in V e n ez u ela . T h e p la y s t a r ts w ith th e a p p e a r a n c e of t h e cachero, w ho e sta b lis h e s th e open sp a ce for th e play. He is h elped by a n o th e r m a n w ho h a s a w hip. It c o n tin u e s w ith th e m e e tin g of th e th r e e M agi w ho h a v e b e e n follow ing th e s ta r . T h e y d ecid e to go to g e th e r to H e ro d 's p a la ce to v isit h im a n d o b ta in in fo rm a tio n a b o u t th e N ativity of th e S aviour. T hey arrive b u t h a v e a n a rg u m e n t w ith H erod, w ho d o e s n o t w a n t to recognize th e m a s K ings like him self.
H e ro d e x p e ls th e th r e e M agi from th e p a la c e a n d o r d e r s th e M a ssa c re of th e In n o c e n ts, b u t he h im se lf h a s to e sc a p e from th e c h u rc h y a rd p u r s u e d b y c h ild re n of th e tow n, w h o in s u lt him . T he p la y c o n tin u e s w ith th e e n try of th e T h ree M arias, (m en d re sse d a s w om en) th e s ta r a n d a g ro u p of sin g e rs, w ho a c c o m p a n y th e th re e M agi to th e crib in th e c h u rc h to re n d e r h o m ag e to J e s u s , a n d give th e ir gifts. T he p e rfo rm an c e ends w ith th e sin g in g of a g u in a ld o s b y th e p lay e rs a n d th e r e s t of th e com m unity. (30)
rendertm
3. San Pascual P l a t e 4
2 The cachero 1 In the church the Black Bird
and St. Pascual Ba!l6n homage to Jesus child. 1989
Bail6n .
5- The Shepherds ‘ dancing .
. Festival of the Shepherds.
Midnight.
24th December.
1989 4 I he Black Bird c ar ry i ng a b ac ini ll a ( chamber pot)
P l a t e b
I he Magi Kings
1. Two Magi Kings Manuel Ladera at left
2. t h e Magi K ings v i s i t i n g Herod
3 The St»r
Pldte / VI I
1. The Magi Kings following the Star to the crib of baby Jesus . 1900
2, The three Mag! King going to the church to give their offerings to baby J e s u s The r a r h e r o w a t c h i n g th em . 1 9 8 0
C arn iv al is celeb ra te d on M onday a n d T u e sd a y b efo re th e A sh W e d n e sd a y , w ith th e e le c tio n of a q u e e n , p e o p le w ith d ifferen t c o stu m e s, d a n c e s, p a ra d e s , a n d th e ju e g o d e a g u a o r p lay in g w ith w a ter.
Holy W eek is a n im p o rta n t festivity in C h u a o . Its c eleb ra tio n follows all th e s te p s of th e e sta b lish e d ritu a l. A d ifferen t p ro cessio n is h e ld e a c h day, d ire c te d b y th e fam ily in c h a rg e o f t h a t p a rtic u la r p ro cessio n . S on g s a re s u n g in L atin, a n d in S p a n is h ; th e re is a book w h ic h se rv es a s a gu id e for th e c eleb ra tio n s, w h ic h h a s b e e n h a n d - copied b y P ro sp e ro S e q u e ra . (M aria T ecla’s b ro th e r). It is a m o st in te re s tin g c e le b ra tio n , n o t only for th e ferv o u r o b serv ed , b u t also b e c a u s e it is re m in is c e n t of a n A n d a lu sia n p a s t a n d th e Holy W eek festiv ities in Seville. M any so n g s re m in d u s of th e c a n te jo n d o , th e p o p u la r A n d a lu sia n gypsy style of sin g in g also k n o w n a s fla m e n c o ; a n d in d eed th e o ral tra d itio n say s th a t a C atholic p rie s t of A n d a lu sian o rig in s ta u g h t th e s e so n g s to th e tow nspeople. A p r ie s t occasionally c o m e s for H oly w e ek a n d E a s te r, b u t n e v e r fo r C h r is tm a s a n d E p ip h a n y . The c e le b ra tio n s a re n e v e rth e le s s p erfo rm ed irresp e ctiv e of h is p re se n c e or a b sen ce.
Next in th e cycle of th e festivals a re T he Velorios o f th e C ro ss of M ay (31); a n d C o rp u s C h risti, a m oveable fe a s t w h ic h c a n fall e ith e r in M ay o r J u n e a n d is th e final p a r t of th e lu n a r cycle of E aste r.
A fterw ard s co m es th e cycle of S a in t J o h n th e B a p tis t. T his c o n s is ts of th e eve (Ju n e 23), th e fe a st of S a in t J o h n p ro p e r (Ju n e 24), th e c eleb ra tio n of J u a n a M an u ela (St. J o h n 's m istre ss) (Ju n e 25 o r d u rin g th e festiv ities of S a in t Peter), S a in t P e te r (J u n e 2 9 a n d p re c e d e d by th e eve), a n d to en d th e cycle of S t. J o h n th e B a p tist, th e fe a st of th e Virgin of M o u n t C arm el (July 16 a n d th e eve).
O n A u g u st 12th, th e re is a n ew ritu a l c eleb ra tio n , w h ic h only b e g a n in 1988, in h o n o u r of th e V irgin w ho h a s b e e n n a m e d p a tro n of th e fish e rm e n of C h u a o . T he d a te co in c id e s w ith th e s e a s o n of m o st a b u n d a n t fishing.
O n N ovem ber 2 n d ., All S ouls' D ay is o bserved, b u t it does n o t c a rry w ith it th e ritu a l im p o rtan c e th e co m m em o ratio n d oes in o th e r c o u n trie s (for in sta n c e , Mexico). A u g u sta sa id t h a t in th e p a s t it w as c e le b ra te d in fro n t of th e C ro ss of F o rg iv e n ess, w h e re people lit c a n d le s to th e so u ls of th e d ead a n d played sp ecial g am es. (32)
32
V i l l
*> , a t e S . Holy W e e k .1 9 0 5
I he meeting of ta Dolorosa with the Holy Sepulcher
2 - The I m m a c u la te Conception m e etin g her Son
T h e fe stiv a ls a re c e le b ra te d in a r e a s w h e re d a ily life ta k e s place: th e c h u rc h y a rd (where th e cocoa is also dried) th e c h u rc h , th e s tr e e ts , th e h o m e s. T he new A u g u st festivity is h e ld a t th e b e ac h , ad d in g a new ritu a l sp a ce to th e C h u ao trad itio n .
T h ese festiv ities c o n s titu te a p a re n th e s is w h ic h in te r r u p ts th e se q u e n c e of d ay s, in c o n tr a s t to th e daily ro u tin e . T h e c eleb ra tio n s serve to s tr u c tu r e tim e, b u t n o t in th e a u to m a tic m a n n e r of a clock:
r a th e r , th e y give s h a p e a n d form to tim e, w h ic h t h u s a c q u ire s d is tin c t m ea n in g s. F or one of th e c h a ra c te ristic s of C h u a o is t h a t one d ay is m u c h th e sa m e a s a n y o th e r w ith o u t a n y d ifferen tiatio n of days of th e w eek. F o r ex am p le, th e y d o n 't h av e a n y M a ss o r a n o th e r sp ecial religious a c t o n S u n d a y s. It is in th is m a n n e r t h a t d a te s come to h av e se n se a n d m ea n in g a t all, a n d th e ir sig n ifican ce re sid e s only in re la tio n to th e c e leb ra tio n t h a t is b ein g aw aited . As a p a rtic u la r fe a s t d a y co m es n e a r, food a n d d rin k a re a c c u m u la te d b ey o n d th e n o rm a l level e x p ec te d in th e to w n , a s th e fe s tiv itie s p ro v id e a n o ccasio n for c o m m u n ic a tio n ,lib e ra tio n of en erg y a n d e x p re ssio n s of jo y . N e v e rth e le s s ,th e g ro u p is m a in ta in e d a n d c o n tro lle d b y th e
d irec to rs of e ac h festivity.
E a c h of th e s e c e le b ra tio n s h a s so c ia l (p a r tic u la r fam ilies) h is to r ic a l (o rig in s,d ev elo p m en t) a n d m e ta p h y s ic a l (h e a lth ,h e a lin g , ren ew al) d im e n sio n s. T h ese in te r r e la te a n d se rv e to d efin e th e ir sig n ifican ce for C h u ao a n d to s tr u c tu r e C h u a o c u ltu re a n d society.
T h ey fin ally define a d is tin c t C h u a o id e n tity w ith in a V e n ez u ela n n a tio n a l identity.
N o tes
1. A ccording to C urtin, Palm er an d o th er scholars, th e n u m b e r of slaves who were introduced into S panish America an d Brazil d uring th e whole period of th e tra d e sh o u ld be estim ated aro u n d 4,2 million of th e 9,5 million souls tran sp o rted in the trade.
3 4
Tratado d efin itiv o de paz con cluido entre e l R ey N uestro Seiior y S.M.
Christianisima por una parte y S.M. Britdnica por otra en Paris a 10 de febrero de 1763, con su s articulos prelim inares y la accesidn de S.M. Fidelisim a a ellos, y al m ism o tratado com o tambten las R atificaciones, Plenipotencias y dem&s a cto s de las p oten cias interesadas, de orden de su Majestad. Ado MDCLX3II. M adrid.
A p relim in aiy analysis of bibliographic sou rces in d icate s th a t w ork in the area of Afro- A m erican stu d ie s h a s been advancing. As exam ples, it could be said th a t: th e C u b an F ernan do O rtiz founded th e Society of A fro-Cuban S tudies in 1936; before he established the Society of C uban Folklore (1924). He h a s w ritten several w orks in the area among them : Contrapunto cubano del tabaco y el azucar; Los instrumentos de la mdsica afrocubana, Historia de una pelea cubana contra los dem onios, los bailes y el teatro de los negros en el folklore de Cuba, an d Nina Rodriguez in Brazil, h is m o st know n w ork is Los africanos en Brasil. Fernando Ortiz and Nina Rodriguez b egan th e first studies in th is field, arousing in terest in the subject, w hen they showed the existence of 'Yoruba -style religion' in th o se co u n tries. O th er im p o rta n t B razilian researchers have been A rthur Ramos, au th o r of several w orks in the area, such as O negro brasileiro, O Folk-lore Negro do Brasil and as Culturas Negras no N ovo Mundo and Gilberto Freyre, w ith h is im p o rtan t book Casa Grande y Senzala.
In addition, following Fernando Ortiz and Nina Rodriguez, th ere seem s to be a considerable am ount of recent literature in S panish America, according to th e bibliographic inform ation found in th e following publications: A prelim inary Bibliography o f African Cultures and Black peoples in th e Caribbean and L atin A m erican, com piled by Robert Nadel (1972), A fro-A m erican Folk Culture, Volume II, published by the Institute for th e S tudy of H um an Issues in P hiladelphia a n d also Unesco published different w orks on th e topic. One of th e p ub lications g ath er relevant m aterials u n d e r th e title Africa en America Latina. Some dictionaries appeared in 1980, th e D iction ary o f Afro-Latin American Civilization, and Race and E thnic R elations in Latin America and th e Caribbean, by Benjamin Nunez and Robert Levine, respectively.
Roger B astide (1898-1974). F rench Sociologist, P h iloso ph er an d writer. He w orked in th e University of Sao Paulo,in th e F aculty of Philosophy between 1938-1958, an d in Paris, in th e Sorbonne an d th e Ecole P ractique de H aute E tudes . Among h is publications: Les problemes de la vie m ystique, Elem ents de Sociologie religieuse (1936), Sociologie et Psycoanalyse(1950), Le Candombl6
