T h esis submitted f o r th e degree o f Doctor o f Philosophy o f th e U n iv e r s it y o f London
by
Nigel Godfrey P h i l l i p s
All rights r e se r v e d INFORMATION TO ALL USERS
The q u a lity of this r e p r o d u c tio n is d e p e n d e n t u p o n the q u a lity of the c o p y s u b m itte d . In the unlikely e v e n t that the a u th o r did not sen d a c o m p l e t e m a n u scrip t and there are m issing p a g e s , th e se will be n o t e d . Also, if m a teria l had to be r e m o v e d ,
a n o t e will in d ic a te the d e le t io n .
uest
P ro Q u est 10731666
Published by ProQ uest LLC(2017). C o p y rig h t of the Dissertation is held by the Author.
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c e n t l y t h a t s t u d e n t s o f o r a l n a r r a t i v e s h a v e p a i d a t t e n t i o n t o t h e i r c h a r a c t e r as o r a l p e r f o r m a n c e s , and t h i s t h e s i s i s t h e f i r s t s tu d y o f a W est S u m a tra n m e t r i c a l n a r r a t i v e t o t a k e t h a t a s p e c t o f i t i n t o a c c o u n t.
V e r s io n s o f t h e s t o r y o f Anggun Nan T ungga e x i s t i n m a n u s c r ip t and p r i n t e d fo rm , and a r e p e rf o r m e d as dram as and su n g n a r r a t i v e s i n two p a r t s o f W est S u m a tra : t h e c o a s t a l r e g i o n o f T ik u and P a ria m a n and t h e i n l a n d a r e a a ro u n d Payakum buh. S tg o b a n g i s t h e s u n g n a r r a t i v e fo rm h e a r d i n t h e Payakum buh a r e a . I t i s p e rfo rm e d on f e s t i v e o c c a s io n s by p a i d s t o r y - t e l l e r s c a l l e d tu k a n g s'ig o b a n g ,, who l e a r n t h e s t o r y m a in ly fro m o r a l s o u r c e s .
The s t o r y i s u s u a l l y su n g i n p a r t , n o t i n f u l l . H ow ever, a r e c i t a l o f t h e c o m p le te s t o r y by one tu k a n g s tg o b a n g was r e c o r d e d , and a f u l l sum m ary, a b o u t 4 0 ,0 0 0 w o rd s i n l e n g t h , i s g iv e n i n c h a p t e r I I . The p l o t d i f f e r s som ew hat fro m one s t o r y - t e l l e r t o a n o t h e r , t h e g r e a t e s t d i f f e r e n c e s b e i n g i n t h e l e a s t - p e r f o r m e d p a r t s .
C h a p te r I I I c o n t a i n s t r a n s c r i p t i o n s , a b o u t 1200 l i n e s i n l e n g t h , o f two su n g p e r f o r m a n c e s o f s tg o b a n g , w i t h t r a n s l a t i o n s and n o t e s . T h is i s p r e c e d e d by a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e v a r i o u s tu n e s and t h e i r u s e s ; m e tr e ; p h o n e t i c d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n t h e Payakumbuh d i a l e c t and s t a n d a r d
M in an g k ab au ; l i t e r a r y f e a t u r e s su c h as f o r m u la e , th e m e s , p a r a l l e l i s m and r e p e t i t i o n ; and t h e fo rm s and u s e s o f p a n tu n i n S 'ig o b a n g .
C h a p te r IV e x a m in e s t h e ways i n w h ic h a tu k a n g S 'ig o b a n g 's p e rfo rm a n c e o f a s c e n e v a r i e s fro m one o c c a s i o n t o a n o t h e r . An o u t l i n e c o m p a ris o n o f t h r e e p a i r s o f s c e n e s shows t h a t a s c e n e re m a in s l a r g e l y s t a b l e i n s t r u c t u r e ( i . e . num ber and o r d e r o f s p e e c h e s and s e c t i o n s ) and i n c o n t e n t fro m one p e r fo rm a n ce t o a n o t h e r . A m ore d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s o f two p a i r s o f t r a n s -
s c r i p t i o n s ( a b o u t 360 l i n e s ) shows t h a t s p e e c h e s , l i k e s c e n e s , a r e b a s i c a l l y s t a b l e i n s t r u c t u r e and c o n t e n t , b u t t h a t d e t a i l s o f e x p r e s s i o n a r e f l u i d . The e v id e n c e a l s o s u g g e s t s t h a t , com pared w i t h a n o v i c e , an
e x p e r i e n c e d tu k a n g S'igobang r e l i e s l e s s on th e r e p e t i t i o n o f s t o c k p h r a s e s and m ore on s u b s t i t u t i o n w i t h i n f o r m u la i c p a t t e r n s .
B e in g i n some r e s p e c t s e x p l o r a t o r y r a t h e r t h a n e x h a u s t i v e , t h e t h e s i s p o i n t s t h e way t o a num ber o f p o t e n t i a l l y f r u i t f u l f i e l d s f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h .
Chapter I S'ig o b a n g and o th e r forms o f th e s t o r y o f
Anggun Nan Tungga 1
Manuscripts and p r in te d v e r s io n s Oral forms
Tiku and Pariaman The Payakumbuh area
Chapter II The s t o r y o f Anggun Nan Tungga in Lima Puluh Kota today 18 I n tr o d u ctio n
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the s to r y Obtaining a v e r s io n o f th e s t o r y A u t h e n t ic it y o f Munin's v ersio n D iv is io n s o f the s t o r y
Nature o f the summary Summary
D if f e r i n g v e r s io n s
Local a t t i t u d e s to s'ig o b a n g Chapter III Two performances o f s'ig o b a n g
I n tr o d u ctio n Musi c Metre D i a l e c t
L it e r a r y language Recurrent elem ents P a r a l l e l i s m
R e p e titio n P a n tu n
T r a n s c r ip tio n s T r a n sc rip tio n A T r a n sc rip tio n B
Chapter IV V a ria tio n between performances
139
242 O u tlin e comparison
D e ta ile d comparison
T r a n s c r ip tio n s C and D T r a n s c r ip tio n s E and F S t a b i l i t y o f s t r u c t u r e F l u i d i t y o f e x p r e ssio n V a ria tio n in language
Reasons f o r v a r i a t i o n between performances Glossary o f Minangkabau words
Works c i t e d
285 294
Maps 1 West Sumatra
2 Area around Payakumbuh Photographs
C a ss e tte ( in pocket i n s i d e back cover)
b e e n p u b l i s h e d d u r in g t h e p a s t 100 y e a r s , t h e e d i t o r s h a v e n o t i n g e n e r a l p a i d much a t t e n t i o n t o t h e f a c t t h a t s u c h s t o r i e s w e re and a r e p e rf o r m e d o r a l l y . C o n s e q u e n tly v e r y l i t t l e h a s b e e n w r i t t e n on su ch t o p i c s as t h e s t o r y - t e l l e r s who p e r f o r m th em , t h e c ir c u m s ta n c e s i n w h ic h th e y a r e s u n g , and t h e m u s i c a l a s p e c t o f t h e i r p e r f o r m a n c e . The
o n ly e x c e p t i o n I know o f i s t h e b r i e f d i s c u s s i o n i n t h e fo re w o rd t o v a n d e r T o o rn Ts e d i t i o n o f Mang'au A r i (v a n d e r T o o rn , 1 8 9 1 a , pp 3 - 4 ) , w h ere t h e s t y l e o f s i n g i n g , i m p r o v i s a t i o n , t h e v a r i a b i l i t y o f t h e s t o r y , and t h e a u d i e n c e ’ s r e a c t i o n s a r e a l l to u c h e d u p o n . V a r i a b i l i t y , a
common f e a t u r e o f o r a l l i t e r a t u r e , i s a l s o m e n tio n e d i n t h e same a u t h o r 's e d i t i o n o f Kaba S u ta n M anangkevang (v a n d e r T o o rn , 1 8 8 5 , p 2 6 7 , f o o t n o t e 1) , b u t n o t d i s c u s s e d a t any l e n g t h - t h e e q u ip m e n t n e e d e d f o r a th o ro u g h
s tu d y ( t a p e - r e c o r d e r s and s o on) was anyway n o n - e x i s t e n t i n t h o s e d a y s . T hese and o t h e r t o p i c s , w h ic h h a v e become comm onplace i n t h e s tu d y o f o r a l l i t e r a t u r e i n o t h e r c o u n t r i e s , and w e re f i r s t s e r i o u s l y i n v e s t i g a t e d i n th e f i e l d o f M alay l i t e r a t u r e by Sweeney ( 1 9 7 2 , 1 9 7 3 , 1 9 7 6 ) , a r e i n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f M inangkabau kaba i n t h i s t h e s i s .
A lth o u g h e a r l i e r w r i t e r s l a r g e l y d i s r e g a r d e d t h e o r a l a s p e c t s o f M inangkabau l i t e r a t u r e , t h e y d id a t l e a s t p ro d u c e e d i t i o n s o f c o m p le te s t o r i e s , and i n t h a t r e s p e c t t h i s t h e s i s may b e th o u g h t d e f i c i e n t .
H ow ever, t h e s t o r y o f Anggun Nan T u n g g a, a s t o l d by tu k a n g S 'ig o b a n g , i s f a r to o lo n g f o r a c o m p le te e d i t i o n t o b e p r e s e n t e d h e r e . I n s t e a d , t h e t h e s i s i n c l u d e s a f u l l summary - t h e f i r s t i n E n g l i s h - o f t h e e n t i r e s t o r y as n a r r a t e d by a tu k a n g s'ig o b a n g , f o llo w e d b y t r a n s c r i p t i o n s and t r a n s l a t i o n s o f s'ig o b a n g p e r f o r m a n c e s t o t a l l i n g a b o u t 1 ,5 6 0 l i n e s .
J u s t as my aim i n r e c o r d i n g t h e f u l l s t o r y was t o a c q u i r e some o f t h e b a c k g ro u n d k n o w le d g e n e e d e d f o r an u n d e r s t a n d in g o f S 'igobang, s o t h e summary o f t h e s t o r y i n c h a p t e r I I w i l l , I t h i n k , h e l p t h e r e a d e r t o a p p r e c i a t e t h e s'ig o b a n g p e r f o r m a n c e s t r a n s c r i b e d and t r a n s l a t e d i n c h a p t e r s I I I and IV ,
a s w e l l a s b e i n g o f i n t e r e s t on i t s own a c c o u n t.
I h o p e t h a t t h e p r e l i m i n a r y s t e p s t a k e n i n t h i s t h e s i s w i l l b e f o llo w e d by f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h i n t o q u e s t i o n s o f m u s ic , m e t r e , t h e l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s , t h e t o l e o f f o rm u la e i n c o m p o s itio n , and many o t h e r a s p e c t s o f s'ig o b a n g and o t h e r fo rm s o f M inangkabau l i t e r a t u r e .
g r a n t i n g t h e r e s e a r c h l e a v e , and t o t h e C e n t r a l R e s e a rc h Eund o f London U n i v e r s i t y f o r t h e s u p p le m e n ta r y f u n d s , w h ic h made my r e s e a r c h i n W est S u m a tra p o s s i b l e . I am i n d e b t e d , t o o , t o t h e Lem baga Ilm u P e n g e ta h u a n I n d o n e s i a ( I n d o n e s ia n I n s t i t u t e o f S c ie n c e s ) f o r i t s p e r m i s s i o n t o do r e s e a r c h i n I n d o n e s i a , and f o r i t s e f f o r t s t o f a c i l i t a t e my w c rk w h i l e I was t h e r e . To t h e s t a f f o f t h e Lembaga B a h a sa N a s i o n a l ( N a ti o n a l L anguage
I n s t i t u t e ) now t h e P u s a t P em binaan dan P en g em b an g an B ah asa ( N a t i o n a l C e n tre f o r L anguage D ev elo p m en t) - I a l s o owe my t h a n k s , e s p e c i a l l y to D ra
R u j i a t i M u ly a d i, D rs Lukman A l i , and D rs J u l i u s H a b ib .
My r e s e a r c h i n W est S u m a tra was made e a s i e r by t h e h e l p f u l
a t t i t u d e o f many g o v e rn m e n t o f f i c i a l s , e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e i n t h e G o v e r n o r 's O f f ic e i n P a d a n g , t h e o f f i c e s o f th e W a li k o ta , B u p a ti and P o l i c e i n Payakum buh, and o f f i c e s o f t h e D e p a rtm e n t o f E d u c a tio n and C u l t u r e i n v a r i o u s p a r t s o f W est S u m a tra , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n Payakum buh, and I am m o st g r a t e f u l t o th em .
Many p e o p le i n d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f W est S u m a tra , b u t e s p e c i a l l y i n and a ro u n d Payakum buh, gave me v a r i o u s k i n d s o f h e l p f o r w h ic h I am v e ry th a n k f u l . F o r r e a s o n s o f s p a c e I can m e n tio n o n ly a few o f th em h e r e : Dr Yakub Ism a n , D rs T am sin M edan, Drs R iz a n u r G a n i, D ra Y u sna Y u s u f , D rs B o e s ta n o e l A r i f i n Adam and h i s s t a f f a t ASKI, P a d a n g P a n ja n g , R M D t R a jo P a n g h u lu ,
Dr M o c h ta r N aim and I b u Asma, S d r M A r i f i n , S d r A D a m h o e ri, D ra E l l y z a N o e rh a n , S dr N a s p i R u s l i and h i s s t a f f i n t h e K a b in K e b u d a y a a n , Payakum buh, and
t h e f o l l o w i n g t u k a n g s 'ig o b a n g : A s, B a k a r u d d in , B u y u en g , J a s a , J u r a n , th e l a t e M ins a h , N urm an, R u stam , S a b i r i n , S u h i r , S u ta n and S y a f . I owe an e s p e c i a l l y l a r g e d e b t o f g r a t i t u d e t o H a j i M Sawi Z .A . and H a j i A rm ain i Z.A .
and t h e i r f a m i l i e s f o r t h e i r g e n e ro u s h o s p i t a l i t y ; t o S d r S y a m su h ir B urhan o f th e Payakum buh o f f i c e o f t h e D e p a rtm e n t o f E d u c a tio n and C u l t u r e , f o r h i s u n f l a g g i n g h e l p i n th e w ork o f r e c o r d i n g and t r a n s c r i p t i o n ; and t o t h e tu k a n g s'ig o b a n g M unin, f o r h i s p a t i e n c e and k i n d n e s s to w a rd s h i s o u t l a n d i s h p u p i l .
O u ts id e W est S u m a tra I h a v e b e n e f i t t e d much fro m a d v ic e and h e l p o f v a r i o u s k in d s fro m P r o f e s s o r S t u a r t Simmonds ( t h e Head o f my D e p a r tm e n t) , R uth E in n e g a n , Amin Sweeney and B i l l W atso n . I n p a r t i c u l a r , my th a n k s a r e
c u l t u r e h a s b e e n o f t h e u tm o s t v a l u e .
F i n a l l y , I th a n k my w i f e and c h i l d r e n f o r t h e i r p a t i e n c e and e n c o u ra g e m e n t d u r in g t h e p a s t f o u r y e a r s .
S IJO B A N G AN D O T H E R FORMS OF THE S T O R Y OF AN GGUN NAN TUNGGA
The p u r p o s e o f t h i s c h a p t e r i s f i r s t t o p l a c e s'ig o b a n g i n th e con
t e x t o f o t h e r f o r m s , w r i t t e n and o r a l , o f t h e s t o r y o f Anggun Nan T u n g g a, and t h e n t o d e s c r i b e i n o u t l i n e t h e b a c k g ro u n d and t r a i n i n g o f t h e tu k a n g S 'ig o b a n g .
MANUSCRIPTS AND PRINTED VERSIONS
T h re e m a n u s c r ip t s o f a Kaba S'i T oengga a r e m e n tio n e d i n v an R o n k e l’ s 1909 c a t a l o g u e o f M alay MSS i n t h e museum o f t h e B a t a v i a a s c h G e n o o tsch a p v an K u n s te n e n W e te n sch a p p e n (v a n R o n k el 1 9 0 9 , pp 4 7 6 - 4 7 7 ) , and n i n e MSS
(o n e d a te d 1855) o f Kaba Nan Toengga^ o r Kaba Toewan Nan T oengga, a r e l i s t e d i n t h e same a u t h o r 's s u p p le m e n ta ry c a t a l o g u e o f M alay and M inangkabau MSS i n t h e l i b r a r y o f L e id e n U n i v e r s i t y (v a n R onkel 1 9 2 1 , pp 2 0 0 - 2 0 4 ) . N o t o n ly th e t i t l e s o f t h e s e MSS, b u t a l s o t h e e x t r a c t s q u o te d i n t h e c a t a l o g u e s , s u g g e s t t h a t th e y a r e v e r s i o n s , o r p a r t s o f v e r s i o n s , o f t h e s t o r y w h ic h i s p e r f o r m e d i n W est S u m a tra t o d a y . A manu
s c r i p t o f p a r t o f t h e s t o r y , d a te d 1 9 1 8 , was a c q u ir e d by J u l i u s H abib i n 1964 (H abib 1 9 6 9 , p 7 ) .
The s t o r y o f Anggun Nan Tungga f i r s t a p p e a r e d i n p r i n t i n 1 9 1 4 , when W in s te d t p u b l i s h e d a v e r s i o n , t h e E 'ik a y a t Anggun Che r T u n g g a ij w h ic h h a d b e e n " ta k e n down by t h e e d i t o r fro m th e l i p s o f Pawang Ana" ( t h e P e r a k
s t o r y - t e l l e r ) and t h e n " p u t i n t o g r a m m a tic a l p r o s e b y R a ja H a j i Y ahya"
( W in s te d t 1 9 1 4 , p i ) . W h a te v e r c u r r e n c y t h e s t o r y e n jo y e d i n P e r a k a t t h a t t im e , i t do es n o t seem t o b e p e rf o r m e d by p r o f e s s i o n a l s t o r y - t e l l e r s i n W est M a la y s ia now adays (Sw eeney 1 9 7 3 ). O th e r p r i n t e d v e r s i o n s h a v e a p p e a r e d i n I n d o n e s i a . The f i r s t was a c o m p i la t io n i n two volum es ( i n A r a b ic s c r i p t ) b y D a to e e 1 B a g in d o K a jo , e n t i t l e d R iw a g a t Nan T oengga M age’
Dgabang, and p u b l i s h e d i n 1925 i n P o r t de Koclc (now B u k i t t i n g g i ) . Then i n 1934 t h e B a l a i P u s t a k a p u b l i s h e d a S g a ^ i 3 Anggoen Tg-i* T o e n g g a i by D jam in and T as.at S t B a g in d o and r e p r i n t e d i t a f t e r t h e s e c o n d w o r ld w a r . I n 1962 a v e r s i o n i n M in angkabau e n t i t l e d Anggun Nan Tungga Magek Dgabang, c o m p ile d b y Ambas M ahkota and amended by A D a m h o e ri, was p u b l i s h e d i n B u k i t t i n g g i ,
and i n 1968 a s e r i a l s t o r y by A D a m h o e ri, b a s e d on Airibas M ahlcota’ s book and w r i t t e n i n I n d o n e s i a n , a p p e a r e d i n th e P ad an g d a i l y n e w s p a p e r A n g k a ta n B e r s e n d g 'a ta . ^
ORAL FORMS T ik u and P a ria m a n
One o f th e two a r e a s o f W est S u m a tra w h e re t h e s t o r y o f Anggun Nan
Tungga i s p e rf o r m e d now i s t h e l o w - l y i n g c o a s t a l r e g i o n o f T ik u and P a r ia m a n , w h e re many o f t h e e v e n ts i n t h e s t o r y s u p p o s e d ly to o k p l a c e . I n t h i s a r e a t h e s t o r y o f Kan T ungga Magek J a b a n g , as t h e h e r o i s known l o c a l l y , i s p e rf o r m e d m a in ly as a r a n d a 'i (known i n t h e T ik u a r e a as
s im a r a n ta n g ) . I n i t s l o c a l fo rm , t h i s i s a dram a i n w h ic h t h e s t o r y i s n a r r a t e d by a s i n g e r , and t h e a c t i o n s d a n c ed and mimed by 1 5 -2 0 m ale
^ 2
a c t o r s , w i t h m u s ic a l accom panim ent on pu p u 'ik and o a lem p o n g . I n T ik u t h e s t o r y i s so m e tim e s s im p ly n a r r a t e d by a s i n g e r , b u t t h i s i s s a i d t o b e l e s s p o p u l a r t h a n S 'im a ra n ta n g and t o be done l e s s o f t e n . I n r a n d a 'i/
s'im a ra n ta n g fo rm t h e e n t i r e s t o r y can a p p a r e n t l y b e p r e s e n t e d i n two n i g h t s , b u t when su n g b y a s t o r y t e l l e r t a k e s o n ly one n i g h t . I n th e d i s t r i c t a ro u n d P a ria m a n ra n d a 'i p e r f o r m a n c e s o f t h e s t o r y a r e , I was
t o l d , f a i r l y i n f r e q u e n t , b u t i n t h e T ik u a r e a th e y a r e s a i d to h a p p e n more o f t e n : B u ja n g K h a tib C an, who i s o ne o f p e rh a p s 10 s i n g e r s i n t h e T ik u d i s t r i c t , i s r e p o r t e d t o p e r f o r m som ew here b e tw e e n f i v e and 20 tim e s a y e a r .3
N e a r ly a l l t h e l o c a l p e o p le t o whom I sp o k e b e l i e v e d t h e s t o r y o f Nan T ungga Magek J a b a n g t o b e t r u e . I t was t h o u g h t , f o r e x a m p le , t h a t h e was b o r n i n P a d u s u n a n , n e a r P a r ia m a n , and t h a t h i s f i a n c e e G a n d o ria h came
fro m C acan g , n e a r T ik u . P e o p le now l i v i n g w e re s a i d t o b e t h e i r
d e s c e n d a n t s , 4 and l o c a l p l a c e s w ere i d e n t i f i e d w i t h s c e n e s i n th e s t o r y . S u g g e s te d d a t e s f o r e v e n ts i n th e s t o r y v a r i e d fro m t h e t e n t h c e n tu r y AD t o t h e e i g h t e e n t h . A n o th e r b e l i e f was t h a t p e rf o r m a n c e o f t h e s t o r y o f Nan T ungga Magek J a b a n g ( i n p a r t i c u l a r an e p is o d e i n w h ic h h e summons
th e w in d s t o p r o p e l h i s s h i p ) c an c a u se a s to r m , and I was t o l d o f a r e c e n t ex am p le o f t h i s phenom enon.
The Payakumbuh^ a r e a
The a r e a o f W est S u m a tra w h e re t h e s t o r y o f Anggun Nan Tungga i s m o st o f t e n p e r f o r m e d , and p r o b a b ly b e s t know n, i s t h e d i s t r i c t s u r r o u n d i n g Payakum buh, a s m a ll tow n a b o u t 80 m ile s e a s t o f T ik u and 1 ,5 0 0 f e e t up i n
£ t h e m o u n ta in s . Payakumbuh i s th e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e c e n t r e o f t h e k a b u p a te n o f Lima P u lu h K o ta , w h ic h h a s a p o p u l a t i o n o f a b o u t 2 3 0 ,0 0 0 , m o s tly
p e a s a n t f a r m e r s g ro w in g p a d i 3 m a iz e , t o b a c c o , c lo v e s and o t h e r c r o p s . The m o st p o p u lo u s p a r t o f Lima P u lu h K o ta i s t h e a r e a a ro u n d Payakum buh.
I n t h i s a r e a , as on t h e c o a s t , t h e s t o r y o f Anggun Nan T ungga i s p e rf o r m e d b o t h as a dram a and as a su n g n a r r a t i v e . The two form s a r e c a l l e d ,
r e s p e c t i v e l y , ra n d a 'i and s'ig o b a n g . ^
1 . R a n d a i
T h is ty p e o f dram a e x i s t s i n many p a r t s o f W est S u m a tra , b u t f l o u r i s h e s p a r t i c u l a r l y i n Lima P u lu h K o ta , w h e re r e g i s t e r e d t r o u p e s a lo n e num ber 4 4 . E ach t r o u p e p e rf o r in s one s t o r y , o r e p i s o d e , and a t p r e s e n t e l e v e n o f t h e 44 tr o u p e s u s e e p is o d e s fro m t h e s t o r y o f Anggun Nan T ungga. The s t o r y i s s u f f i c i e n t l y l o n g , and c o n t a i n s enough f i g h t
i n g and rom ance (w h ic h , t o g e t h e r w i t h comedy, a r e c o n s i d e r e d t h e e s s e n t i a l e le m e n ts o f a r a n d a i p l o t ) , f o r e i g h t o f th e e l e v e n t r o u p e s t o u se a d i f f e r e n t e p is o d e e a c h . E ach tr o u p e i s named a f t e r t h e e p is o d e w h ic h i t p e r f o r m s . S o , f o r e x a m p le , a t r o u p e w h ic h p e rf o r m s t h e e p is o d e i n w h ic h Anggun Nan T ungga d e f e a t s s e v e n s h i p s i s named KumpuZan T a r i R a n d a i
M aatah Kapa Nan T ugueh.
The p e r f o r m a n c e : R a n d a i i s p e rf o r m e d o u t o f d o o rs on a c i r c l e o f b a r e e a r t h a b o u t 30 f e e t w i d e , a ro u n d w h ic h th e a u d ie n c e s i t s o r s t a n d s . P e r
fo rm a n c e s b e g in a t a b o u t 9 o r 10 p .m . and l a s t a b o u t f o u r h o u r s . The dram a c o n s i s t s o f n a r r a t i v e s e c t i o n s a l t e r n a t i n g w i t h a c t e d s c e n e s . In t h e n a r r a t i v e s e c t i o n s , n i n e p l a y e r s move i n a c i r c l e a n t i - c l o c k w i s e ,
s 8
e x e c u t i n g s i t e k m ovem ents i n u n i s o n , w h ile some o f th em t a k e i t i n t u r n s t o s i n g th e n a r r a t i v e . F o r th e a c t e d s c e n e s th e p l a y e r s s q u a t i n a w id e c i r c l e , i n t o w h ic h two o r t h r e e o f them s t e p t o t a k e t h e p a r t s o f i n d i v i d u a l c h a r a c t e r s . T h ese s c e n e s c o n s i s t m a in ly o f d i a l o g u e a c c o m p a n ie d b y a
l i m i t e d r a n g e o f g e s t u r e s , b u t t h e r e a r e a l s o more a c t i v e e p is o d e s o f b u f f o o n e r y and s i t e k f i g h t i n g .
The la n g u a g e u s e d i s s t a n d a r d M inangkabau. As i n s ig o b a n g i t i s l i t e r a r y i n s t y l e and i s d i v i d e d i n t o p h r a s e s a b o u t n i n e s y l l a b l e s i n l e n g t h . (S ig o b a n g la n g u a g e and m e tr e a r e d i s c u s s e d i n C h a p te r I I I . ) H ow ever, i n th e com ic and f i g h t i n g s e q u e n c e s t h e r e i s a good d e a l o f e x t e m p o r i s a t i o n i n c o l l o q u i a l and n o n - m e t r i c a l la n g u a g e . Fem ale r o l e s a r e c u s to m a r i ly p l a y e d b y m en, s u i t a b l y d r e s s e d , p a d d e d and m ade-up and u s u a l l y w e a r in g d a rk g l a s s e s . I n a few r a n d a i tr o u p e s women a c t t h e s e p a r t s , b u t t h i s i s s a i d t o b e a d e p a r t u r e fro m t r a d i t i o n . The fe m a le
c h a r a c t e r s p a r t i c i p a t e o n ly i n th e a c t e d s c e n e s , and do n o t j o i n t h e r i n g o f men p e r f o r m in g s i t e k m ovem ents. B e f o re t h e p e rf o r m a n c e
eatem pong and p u p u i k a r e p l a y e d t o a t t r a c t an a u d ie n c e , and o c c a s i o n a l l y d u r in g th e dram a s i n g i n g i s a c co m p a n ie d on s a tu e n g o r r o b a b . 10
F in a n c e : R a n d a i p e r f o r m a n c e s a r e so m etim es p u t on t o r a i s e money f o r d e v e lo p m e n t p r o j e c t s , so m etim es s im p ly f o r e n t e r t a i n m e n t . S in c e t h e c o s t s o f t r a n s p o r t , c o stu m e s e t c . make them q u i t e e x p e n s i v e t o m o u n t, p e r f o r m a n c e s a r e u s u a l l y s p o n s o r e d by l a r g i s h o r g a n i z a t i o n s i n v i l l a g e s
o r to w n s . A c e r t a i n am ount o f s u p p o r t i s p r o v id e d b y t h e Payakumbuh o f f i c e o f t h e D e p a rtm e n t o f E d u c a tio n and C u l t u r e . R a n d a i tr o u p e s w h ic h r e g i s t e r w i t h t h e o f f i c e can r e c e i v e g o v e rn m e n t g r a n t s t o h e l p
c o v e r t h e i r c o s t s . The o f f i c e a l s o t r i e s t o s t i m u l a t e im p ro v e m e n t by c l a s s i f y i n g r a n d a i co m p an ies i n t o two g r a d e s , a c c o r d in g t o m e r i t , and r e g u l a t i n g th e f e e s th e y c h a rg e f o r p e r f o r m i n g : Rp 1 5 ,0 0 0 f o r t h e f i r s t g r a d e , Rp 1 0 ,0 0 0 f o r t h e s e c o n d . Only t r o u p e s i n t h e s e two g r a d e s a r e a llo w e d t o p e r f o r m o u t s i d e Lim a P u lu h K o ta . O f f i c i a l s o f th e
D e p a rtm e n t r e g u l a r l y t r a v e l a b o u t w a tc h in g r a n d a i co m p a n ies r e h e a r s e and p e r f o r m , and g i v i n g th em a d v i c e . Some o f f i c i a l s h o p e t h a t r a n d a i w i l l e v e n t u a l l y d e v e lo p i n t o a t o u r i s t a t t r a c t i o n .
R e l ig i o u s o b j e c t i o n s : R a n d a i i n c u r s c r i t i c i s m fro m some M uslim s o f t h e s t r i c t e r , r e f o r m i s t t y p e , who a r e num erous i n W est S u m a tra .
S p e c i f i c a l l y , w h a t t h e c r i t i c s o f r a n d a i o b j e c t t o -is t h e p l a y i n g o f f e m ale r o l e s by m en, b e c a u s e I s l a m f o r b i d s w e a r in g t h e c l o t h e s o f th e o p p o s i t e s e x . 11 They a r e e q u a l l y o p p o se d t o women a c t i n g fe m a le r o l e s , some b e c a u s e i t i s c o n t r a r y t o I s l a m t o make women a p u b l i c s p e c t a c l e , 12 o t h e r s on t h e g ro u n d s t h a t t h e c ir c u m s ta n c e s o f t h e p e r f o r m a n c e ( o u t o f d o o rs and l a t e a t n i g h t ) p u t r a n d a i a c t r e s s e s i n m o ra l d a n g e r . The l a t t e r o b j e c t i o n i s p e r h a p s t h e s t r o n g e r o n e , s i n c e few p e o p le d i s a p p r o v e o f women a c t i n g i n p l a y s s t a g e d i n d o o r s . As an ex am p le o f t h e b a d
r e p u t a t i o n o f r a n d a i i n some c i r c l e s , I was once t o l d t h a t i t h a d b e e n b a n n e d fro m a c e r t a i n v i l l a g e i n Agam b e c a u s e some p e o p le h a d t a k e n
a d v a n ta g e o f t h e d a r k n e s s and l a c k o f s u p e r v i s i o n t o b e h a v e im m o ra lly . H ow ever, a t a l l t h e r a n d a i p e r f o r m a n c e s I saw i n Lim a P u lu h K o ta , th e a r e a was k e p t b r i g h t l y l i t w i t h p a r a f f i n la m p s . I n m ore g e n e r a l t e r m s , r a n d a i I s fro w n ed upon b y some M uslim s b e c a u s e i t i s an a c t i v i t y t y p i c a l o f t h e par'ewa, a c l a s s o f young men who w e re t r a d i t i o n a l l y , and t o some e x t e n t s t i l l a r e , a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s i t e k j g a m b lin g , c o c k f i g h t i n g and o t h e r p a s tim e s c o n s id e r e d f r i v o l o u s by t h e m ore s e r i o u s M u slim s. 13 T h is
a t t i t u d e t o p a re w a may b e s u s t a i n e d by m em ories o f th e p e r i o d o f Communist a s c e n d a n c y i n I n d o n e s i a i n t h e e a r l y 1 9 6 0 s , when t h e par'ewa a r e s a i d t o h a v e j o i n e d i n th e h a r r a s s m e n t o f M u slim s, and r a n d a i was so m etim es u s e d as a medium o f Communist p r o p a g a n d a . F u r th e r m o r e , i t i s
s a i d t h a t d u r in g t h e PRRI r e v o l t o f 1 9 58-61 t h e p a re w a t e n d e d t o s u p p o r t t h e c e n t r a l g o v e rn m e n t, w h i l e M uslim a c t i v i s t s fo rm ed t h e c o r e o f th e r e b e l f o r c e s .14
I so m etim es h e a r d o f f i c i a l s o f t h e D e p a rtm e n t o f E d u c a tio n and C u l t u r e r e f e r t o t h e r e l i g i o u s o b j e c t i o n s t o r a n d a i when m aking s p e e c h e s a t r a n d a i p e r f o r m a n c e s . I n d e f e n c e o f r a n d a i , t h e y s a i d t h a t t h e r e was a h a d i t h t o t h e e f f e c t t h a t th e P r o p h e t was once a s k e d t o condemn some p e o p le who w e re s i n g i n g and d a n c in g , b u t r e f u s e d . 15 On o ne o c c a s i o n I h e a r d an o f f i c i a l c r i t i c i s e v i l l a g e r s b e c a u s e th e y h a d b lam e d t h e l o c a l r a n d a i company f o r t h e p r e s e n c e o f r a t s i n t h e p a d i f i e l d s . H ow ever, he w e n t on t o w arn t h e r a n d a i a c t o r s t h a t th e y m u st d i s a r m r e l i g i o u s
o p p o s i t i o n b y r e g u l a r l y a t t e n d i n g F r id a y p r a y e r s ; i f n o t , h e w o u ld s e e t o i t t h a t th e y w e re a r r e s t e d f o r c o m p l i c i t y i n G e sta p u , t h e a tt e m p t e d Commun
i s t coup o f 1 9 6 5 .
2 . S ijo b a n g
The s e c o n d fo rm i n w h ic h t h e Anggun Nan T ungga le g e n d i s t o l d i n Lima'. P u lu h K o ta - t h a t o f a n a r r a t i v e poem su n g b y a s t o r y t e l l e r - i s known as s ig o b a n g ^ b e c a u s e i n t h e l o c a l v e r s i o n o f th e s t o r y one o f th e h e r o 's names i s S i J o b a n g S a t i .
O c c a s io n s : The s t o r y t e l l e r s , c a l l e d tu k a n g s ig o b a n g , a r e h i r e d t o s i n g t h e s t o r y a s a fo rm o f e n t e r t a i n m e n t on v a r i o u s f e s t i v e o c c a s i o n s - m o s tly a t w e d d in g s , b u t a l s o , I was t o l d , a t c i r c u m c i s i o n s , h o u s e - b u i l d i n g
c e re m o n ie s and i n s t a l l a t i o n s o f p a n g u lu ( l i n e a g e h e a d s ) . They a l s o p e r f o r m a t f u n d - r a i s i n g e v e n t s , f o r t h e e n t e r t a i n m e n t o f c u s to m e rs i n io p a u
( c o f f e e s h o p s ) , and so m etim es n o n - p r o f e s s i o n a l l y i n t h e h o u s e s o f f r i e n d s . T ukang s ig o b a n g s a y t h a t th e y p e r f o r m m a in ly i n Lim a P u lu h K o ta , so m etim es i n T anah D a t a r , b u t r a r e l y i n Agam. T h is i s p r o b a b l y b e c a u s e t h e Lim a P u lu h K o ta d i a l e c t u s e d b y t h e s t o r y t e l l e r s i s much m ore s i m i l a r t o t h e d i a l e c t o f T anah D a ta r t h a n t o t h e Agam d i a l e c t . V ery o c c a s i o n a l l y tu k a n g s ig o b a n g a r e i n v i t e d t o p e r f o r m f o r Lima P u lu h K o ta e m ig r a n ts i n J a k a r t a . Some
tim e s i f a tu k a n g s ig o b a n g c a n n o t b e h i r e d f o r a l o c a l o c c a s i o n , c a s s e t t e r e c o r d i n g s o f s ig o b a n g a r e s a i d t o b e p l a y e d i n s t e a d . Such c a s s e t t e s a r e q u i t e w i d e ly a v a i l a b l e , f o r s e v e r a l tu k a n g s ig o b a n g h a v e made r e c o r d i n g s p r o f e s s i o n a l l y f o r s h o p s i n Payakum buh, and members o f t h e a u d ie n c e o f t e n r e c o r d th em when th e y p e r f o r m . G a s s e t t e s o f s ig o b a n g a r e a l s o p l a y e d by v e n d o rs o f f o llc - m e d ic in e s t o a t t r a c t c u s to m e r s .
The p e r f o r m a n c e : P e rfo rm a n c e s o f s'ig o b a n g a t w e d d in g s u s u a l l y b e g in a t a b o u t 9 .0 0 p .m . and go on a l l n i g h t . 16 The tu k a n g s'ig o b a n g s i t s e i t h e r i n s i d e t h e h o u s e o r on a te m p o ra ry wooden p l a t f o r m ( b d la .'i-b a ia 'i) b u i l t a g a i n s t th e f r o n t o f i t . Som etim es h e p l a y s t h e p u p w ik f o r a
few m in u te s t o g iv e n o t i c e t h a t t h e p e rf o r m a n c e i s so o n t o b e g i n . As so o n as th e h o s t and g u e s ts n e a r him h a v e c h o s e n w h ic h p a r t o f t h e s t o r y i s t o b e s u n g f i r s t , ^ t h e s t o r y t e l l e r b e g in s t o s i n g . B e f o re s t a r t i n g on t h e n a r r a t i v e , h e s p e n d s q u a r t e r o r h a l f an h o u r s i n g i n g v a r i o u s i n t r o d u c t o r y p a n tu n 18 ( p a n tu n p a so m b a h a n ). Some o f t h e s e e x p r e s s th e tu k a n g s'igobang* s h u m i l i t y and h i s r e s p e c t f o r t h o s e who h a v e i n v i t e d h im t o s i n g ; o t h e r s a r e i n t e n d e d t o r a i s e a la u g h (p a n tim
m a n g g o ta k )
j,
o r walce t h e a u d ie n c e up (u b e k k a n tu e k,
'c u r e f o r s l e e p i n e s s ' ) . Many a r e l o v e p a n tu n (p a n tu n m udo)j some r e f e r r i n g (th o u g h n o t e x p l i c i t l y ) t o p a r t i c u l a r members o f t h e a u d ie n c e , o t h e r s b e i n g d e l i b e r a t e l y l e f t open19 . .
t o i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . I t i s s a i d t h a t w ed d in g s t r a d i t i o n a l l y p r o v id e o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r m a r r i a g e a b l e y o u n g p e o p le t o o b s e r v e one a n o t h e r d i s c r e e t l y , and t h a t on su c h o c c a s i o n s tu k a n g S'igobang a r e o f t e n a s k e d t o s i n g a p p r o p r i a t e p a n tu n mudo. 20 A c c o rd in g to o ne s t o r y t e l l e r , tu k a n g s'ig o b a n g and t u k a n g s a lu e n g ( s i n g e r s acco m p a n ie d on t h e s a t u e n g ) p o s s e s s , so t o s p e a k , a s p e c i a l l i c e n c e (v e b e w e s ) w h ic h e n t i t l e s them t o a l l u d e t o r o m a n tic m a t t e r s i n p u b l i c . T h e se p r e l i m i n a r y p a n tu n a r e a p o p u l a r p a r t o f th e p e r f o r m a n c e , and I s e v e r a l tim e s h e a r d p e o p le i n th e a u d ie n c e a s k t h e tu k a n g S 'igobang t o s i n g a few m o re.
As h e b r i n g s t h e p a n tim pasom bahan t o a c l o s e , t h e s i n g e r c h a n g e s t o a tu n e w i t h a s t e a d y rh y th m and la u n c h e s i n t o t h e c h o s e n s e c t i o n o f t h e s t o r y . As h e s i n g s , h e t a p s o u t t h e rh y th m on th e f l o o r - m a t w i t h a h a l f - f u l l b o x o f m a tc h e s ( th o u g h a s m a ll m i n o r i t y o f s i n g e r s accom pany
th e m s e lv e s on t h e kuoap-i .21 i n s t e a d ) . He s i t s w i t h one k n e e draw n u p ,
l e a n i n g an arm on i t and c u p p in g h i s e a r i n h i s h a n d . M ost o f th e tim e t h e t u k a n g S'ig o b a n g k e e p s h i s e y e s s h u t , t h e b e t t e r t o c o n c e n t r a t e on h i s p e r fo rm a n c e . From tim e t o tim e h e s w i tc h e s to a d i f f e r e n t t u n e , b u t th e flo w o f w ords c o n ti n u e s u n b ro k e n . O nly a f t e r an h o u r o r so do es t h e s i n g e r b r e a k o f f t h e n a r r a t i v e w i t h an a p p r o p r i a t e p a n tu n and p a u s e f o r a few m i n u t e s ' r e s t and r e f r e s h m e n t . Then w i t h a n o th e r p a n tim h e resu m e s t h e s t o r y and c o n t i n u e s t o s i n g f o r a n o th e r h o u r o r m ore u n t i l h i s n e x t b r e a k . A t s u c h p o i n t s t h e tu k a n g s'ig o b a n g may b e a s k e d t o s w i tc h t o a d i f f e r e n t e p i s o d e , and s o m e tim e s , i f h e h a s b r o u g h t a p u p i l w i t h h im , t h e p u p i l may t a k e o v e r t h e s i n g i n g f o r a w h i l e . The p e r f o r m a n c e c o n tin u e s i n t h i s way th r o u g h o u t t h e n i g h t , u s u a l l y e n d in g a t a b o u t 5 .0 0 a.m .
S o m etim es, o ne tu k a n g s i j o b a n g t o l d me, t h e a u d ie n c e a s k s t h e s t o r y t e l l e r t o r e c i t e (cur'itokan) p a r t o f t h e s t o r y i n s t e a d o f s i n g i n g i t ( tagukan) , a r e q u e s t s a i d t o b e made by o l d p e o p l e , so t h a t th e y can e n jo y t h e s t o r y b e t t e r . I t i s a l s o p e r m i s s i b l e , h e s a i d , f o r a tu k a n g S'igobang t o r e c i t e f o r a w h ile i n o r d e r t o r e s t h i s v o i c e .
A p e rf o r m a n c e u s u a l l y l a s t s o n ly one n i g h t , th o u g h o c c a s i o n a l l y a tu k a n g s'ig o b a n g i s e n g a g ed t o s i n g f o r s e v e r a l n i g h t s i n s u c c e s s i o n . The c o m p le te s t o r y w o u ld t a k e a b o u t s e v e n n i g h t s to p e r f o r m , so t h a t a o n e - n i g h t p e rf o r m a n c e c a n c o v e r o n ly p a r t o f i t . The p a r t s a i d t o b e m ost o f t e n r e q u e s t e d a t w e d d in g s i s t h e one known as Ka Tanau, i n w h ic h Anggun Nan Tungga becom es r o m a n t i c a l l y in v o lv e d w i t h two p r i n c e s s e s , and d e l i c a t e l y f l i r t a t i o u s p a n tu n a r e h e a r d .
The a u d i e n c e : M ost o f t h o s e p r e s e n t seem t o p ay l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n t o t h e tu k a n g S 'ig o b a n g 's p e r f o r m a n c e : t h o s e i n s i d e t h e h o u s e c h a t , e a t o r p l a y c a r d s , o u t s i d e i t p e o p le s q u a t o r s t a n d a ro u n d t a l k i n g , and c h i l d r e n r u n a b o u t, and b y a b o u t 2 .0 0 a .m . many o f t h e g u e s ts h a v e gone home o r a r e a s l e e p . B ut t h r o u g h o u t t h e n i g h t t h e r e a r e u s u a l l y t e n o r a d o zen men l i s t e n i n g a t t e n t i v e l y and o c c a s i o n a l l y r e s p o n d in g t o t h e s t o r y w i t h l a u g h t e r o r a p p r e c i a t i v e com m ents. I n a to p a u t h e a u d ie n c e i s s m a l l e r , a l m ost e n t i r e l y m a le , and m ore a t t e n t i v e . One tu k a n g S'igobang t o l d me t h a t h e p r e f e r r e d a t t e n t i v e a u d ie n c e s and p e rfo rm e d b e t t e r f o r th em . I t i s
a l s o b e t t e r , a p p a r e n t l y , t o p e r f o r m away fro m o n e ’ s own v i l l a g e , p a r t l y b e c a u s e a s t o r y t e l l e r ’ s own r e l a t i v e s may b e l e s s w i l l i n g t o p a y h im a
f e e , b u t a l s o b e c a u s e tu k a n g s'igobang f e e l e m b a r r a s s e d (m a iu ) a b o u t s i n g in g am orous p a n tu n i n f r o n t o f t h e i r f a m i l i e s : one tu k a n g s'igobang s a i d t h a t i f h e s a n g i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f h i s f a m ily t h e s t o r y w o u ld ’ c l o s e u p ’
( k u c u k ) , b u t away fro m home i t w o u ld 'o p e n o u t ' (kom ban g). T h i s , t o
g e t h e r w i t h n o v e l t y - v a l u e , h e l p s t o e x p l a i n why a u d ie n c e s a r e s a i d t o p r e f e r h e a r i n g 'tukang S'igobang who h a v e come fro m some d i s t a n c e .
3 . Tukang s i j o b a n g
B ack g ro u n d and e a r n i n g s : T h e re a r e 15 p r a c t i s i n g tu k a n g s'ig o b a n g i n t h e Payakum buh a r e a ( s e e t a b l e on p a g e 16 f o r d e t a i l s ) . I was o f t e n t o l d t h a t th e y u s e d t o b e m ore n u m e ro u s, b u t i t i s i m p o s s ib l e t o b e c e r t a i n . S in g e r s o f s t o r i e s o t h e r th a n S'igobang a r e a l s o s a i d t o h a v e p r a c t i s e d i n t h e a r e a f o r m e r l y : a t A ra u , f o r e x a m p le , a p e r f o r m e r o f Maii-n Demon d ie d i n t h e r e c e n t p a s t , and a t S i c i n c i n I was t o l d t h a t t h e r e u s e d t o be tu k a n g k a y e k ( t e l l e r s o f h i k a y a t ) , who sa n g s t o r i e s o t h e r t h a n s'ig o b a n g .
T oday, h o w e v e r, s ig o b a n g a p p e a r s t o b e a lm o s t t h e o n ly s t o r y su n g p r o f e s s i o n a l l y by l o c a l s t o r y t e l l e r s . 22 A ll t h e p r e s e n t tu k a n g S'igobang a r e m en, th o u g h t h e r e w e re two women u n t i l q u i t e r e c e n t l y . 23 The r e a s o n why s o few women a r e tu k a n g s ig o b a n g , I was t o l d , i s t h a t t h e t r a v e l l i n g and l a t e n i g h t s i n v o lv e d i n t h e w ork a r e h a r d t o com bine w i t h a womanTs d o m e s tic d u t i e s . I n age t h e tu k a n g s ig o b a n g ra n g e fro m t h e e a r l y t w e n t i e s t o t h e m i d - f i f t i e s . The f o u r b e s t- k n o w n (B uyueng, M unin, Nurman a n d S u h ir ) a r e a l l aged b e tw e e n 38 and 4 8 .
N e a r ly a l l t h e tu k a n g s ig o b a n g a r e f a r m e r s , g e t t i n g t h e i r l i v e l i ho o d m a in ly fro m r i c e , m aiz e and o t h e r c r o p s . T h r e e , h o w e v e r, a r e
d i s a b l e d , and th u s p re s u m a b ly m ore d e p e n d e n t on s t o r y t e l l i n g f o r a
. . 24
l i v i n g . The f e e f o r one n i g h t Ts p e rfo rm a n c e i s u s u a l l y a b o u t
Rp 3 ,0 0 0 ( e q u i v a l e n t i n 1975 t o a b o u t £ 3 ) , b u t how o f t e n a tu k a n g s ig o b a n g can e a r n t h a t much d e p e n d s on h i s p o p u l a r i t y , and may a l s o v a r y a c c o r d in g t o t h e tim e o f y e a r , as many w e d d in g s a r e s a i d t o t a k e p l a c e i n t h e two m onths o r s o p r e c e d i n g "Ramadan. As f a r as I c o u ld t e l l , m o st tu k a n g s ig o b a n g p e r f o r m b e tw e e n one and t e n tim e s a m o n th . Money i s , p r e s u m a b ly , one good r e a s o n f o r b e c o m in g a tu k a n g s ig o b a n g , a lt h o u g h t h e e x p l a n a t i o n w h ic h m o st o f th em g a v e i s t h a t t h e y w e re a t t r a c t e d t o t h e s t o r y when y o u n g . A n o th e r f a c t o r may b e te m p e ra m e n t - n e a r l y a l l t h e tu k a n g s ig o b a n g I m et seem ed t o b e s o c i a b l e and e x t r o v e r t by n a t u r e .
T e a c h e r s : M ost o f t h e p r e s e n t tu k a n g s ig o b a n g s a i d t h a t th e y b e g a n t o l e a r n b e tw e e n t h e a g e s o f 17 and 2 2 , th o u g h B a k a ru d d in and Nurman s a i d th e y s t a r t e d a t n i n e and 13 r e s p e c t i v e l y , and Buyueng a p p a r e n t l y b e g a n o n ly i n h i s l a t e t w e n t i e s . N e a r ly a l l o f them named a n o t h e r , u s u a l l y o l d e r , tu k a n g s ig o b a n g a s t h e i r g u r u ( t e a c h e r ) . O nly t h r e e w ere t a u g h t by r e l a t i v e s : Munin by h i s f a t h e r , S u ta n b y h i s u n c l e , and B a k a ru d d in by a g r a n d p a r e n t . A r e a s o n why so few l e a r n w i t h i n t h e f a m i ly may b e t h e f e e l i n g s o f e m b a rra s s m e n t, a l r e a d y m e n tio n e d , a b o u t s i n g i n g am orous p a n tu n i n f r o n t o f o n e 's f a m i l y . One man named a s a s o u r c e b y s e v e r a l tu k a n g s ig o b a n g o f t h e p r e s e n t g e n e r a t i o n i s t h e l a t e R a s y id o f S u n g a i T a la n g , who seem s t o h a v e b e e n e s p e c i a l l y p o p u l a r i n t h e a r e a n o r t h o f Payakum buh. 25 B uyueng, M unin, R ustam and S u h ir a l l s a i d t h a t th e y , h a d l e a r n e d e i t h e r t h e s t o r y o r tu n e s fro m R a s y id o r h i s t e a c h e r .
T u i t i o n : The p r o c e s s o f l e a r n i n g i s u s u a l l y o r a l . M ost o f t h e tu k a n g s ig o b a n g p r a c t i s i n g to d a y s a y th e y l e a r n e d by l i s t e n i n g t o t h e i r
t e a c h e r r e c i t e a s e c t i o n o f t h e s t o r y , and th e n s i n g i n g i t b a c k t o h im , e i t h e r a t o nce o r on a l a t e r o c c a s i o n . T h is m e th o d , o r one w h ic h com bines r e c i t a t i o n ( c u r i t o ) w i t h s i n g i n g ( l a g u ) , i s t h a t u s e d f o r t e a c h i n g b y s i x o u t o f t h e s e v e n tu k a n g S'igobang who h a v e h a d p u p i l s . The one e x c e p t i o n , S u h i r , s a i d h e r e c i t e d t h e s t o r y t o a f r i e n d , who w r o te i t down V e r b a tim ( S u h ir h i m s e l f i s i l l i t e r a t e ) and gave i t t o
S u h ir * s p u p i l . H ow ever, s u c h t u i t i o n by one*s g u r u i s o n l y p a r t o f t h e p r o c e s s o f l e a r n i n g . A boy who i s i n t e r e s t e d i n s'ig o b a n g w i l l h a v e h e a r d many p e r f o r m a n c e s and l e a r n e d some o f t h e s t o r y l o n g b e f o r e he o f f i c i a l l y e n r o l s as a p u p i l . F u r th e r m o r e , o n ce e n r o l l e d a p u p i l i s e x p e c t e d t o accom pany h i s g u r u when h e goes anyw here t o s i n g , w a tc h in g and l i s t e n i n g t o h i s p e r f o r m a n c e , and th u s l e a r n i n g t u n e s and bungo ( 'f l o w e r s * i . e . p a n tu n i n t h e s t o r y ) . M o re o v e r, a lth o u g h a p u p i l i s e x p e c t e d t o k e e p t o t h e b a s i c p l o t (b a ta n g o u r i t o , * t r u n k o f th e s t o r y ' ) t o l d by h i s gurU j i t i s assum ed t h a t h e w i l l a l s o l i s t e n t o p e rf o r m a n c e s (an d
c a s s e t t e s ) by o t h e r tu k a n g s ig o b a n g , and so l e a r n s m a ll v a r i a t i o n s o f p l o t and add t o h i s s t o r e o f b u n g o . I t i s a l s o c o n s i d e r e d good t o i n v e n t bungo o f o n e 's own.
W r i t t e n s o u r c e s : A lth o u g h t u i t i o n i s p r e d o m in a n tly o r a l , f i v e tu k a n g s ig o b a n g h a v e , i n d i f f e r e n t d e g r e e s , made u s e o f w r i t t e n s o u r c e s o r a id s when l e a r n i n g . A t one e x tr e m e , Buyueng s a i d t h a t h e h a d h a d no g u r u b u t h a d l e a r n e d t h e s t o r y fro m a . v e r y l a r g e , o l d book w r i t t e n i n A r a b ic
s c r i p t , w h ic h h a d l a t e r b e e n d e s t r o y e d d u r in g t h e PKR.I r e b e l l i o n .
(M unin, h o w e v e r, a l l e g e d t h a t B uyueng h a d l e a r n e d m ore fro m l i s t e n i n g t o o t h e r tu k a n g s ig o b a n g . ) J a s a , now r e t i r e d ', a p p a r e n t l y l e a r n e d b o t h by l i s t e n i n g to h i s t e a c h e r and by r e a d i n g p a s s a g e s fro m a b o o k , w h ic h h i s t e a c h e r w o u ld t h e n h e a r him s i n g . S u ta n , a so n o f t h e l a t e R a s y id , i s b e i n g t a u g h t by h i s u n c le Sawi ( n o t a tu k a n g s ig o b a n g b u t an e x p e r i e n c e d w r i t e r and d i r e c t o r o f r a n d a i ) by m eans o f w r i t t e n v e r s i o n s o f e a c h
e p i s o d e , w h ic h S u ta n i s s u p p o s e d t o l e a r n by h e a r t . H ow ever, s i n c e Sawi i s n o t a tu k a n g s ig o b a n g and i s r a t h e r d e a f , h e c a n n o t t e a c h S u ta n e i t h e r by s i n g i n g h i m s e l f o r by l i s t e n i n g c r i t i c a l l y to S u ta n * s p e r f o r m a n c e s . F u r th e r m o r e , S u ta n s a i d h e fo u n d i t h a r d t o m em o rise h i s u n c l e 's s c r i p t s . F o r a l l t h e s e r e a s o n s , a lth o u g h h e i s o f f i c i a l l y l e a r n i n g fro m w r i t t e n s o u r c e s , i t i s l i k e l y t h a t S u ta n l e a r n s m uch, p e r h a p s m o s t, by l i s t e n i n g t o o t h e r tu k a n g s ig o b a n g , e s p e c i a l l y (h e s a i d ) M unin, S u h i r and B uyueng.
C e r t a i n l y a p e rfo rm a n o a b y S u ta n w h ic h I r e c o r d e d c o n ta i n e d p r a c t i c a l l y n o t h i n g fro m S a w i 's w r i t t e n v e r s i o n o f t h a t e p i s o d e . A f o u r t h tu k a n g s ig o b a n g ^ S y a f , t o l d me t h a t when l e a r n i n g t h e f i r s t e p is o d e s h e h a d made
f u l l n o t e s fro m h i s t e a c h e r ’ s r e c i t a t i o n , and h a d k e p t th em f o r a y e a r o r s o , b u t f o r t h e r e m a in d e r o f t h e s t o r y h a d s w itc h e d o v e r t o o r a l l e a r n i n g b e c a u s e h e fo u n d i t e a s i e r . The f i f t h , A s, l e a r n s a lm o s t e n t i r e l y fro m h i s g u r u s M unin, and b y l i s t e n i n g t o o t h e r tu k a n g s ijo b a n g ^ b u t m akes a few n o t e s t o a s s i s t h i s memory. B uy u en g ’ s p u p i l s (n o n e o f whom becam e p r a c t i s i n g tu k a n g s i j o b a n g ) a l s o a p p a r e n t l y made w r i t t e n n o t e s w h i l e l e a r n i n g .
A lth o u g h some p r e s t i g e seem ed t o a t t a c h t o t h e l i t e r a r y s o u r c e u s e d b y B uyueng, t h i s may h a v e b e e n due m ore t o i t s ag e t h a n t o t h e f a c t t h a t i t was w r i t t e n , f o r m odern w r i t t e n s o u r c e s d id n o t a p p e a r t o command any s p e c i a l r e s p e c t . F o r e x a m p le , I saw no s i g n t h a t S u t a n ’ s u s e o f s c r i p t s w r i t t e n b y Sawi t o l e a r n fro m was c o n s id e r e d s u p e r i o r t o t h e o r a l m ethod
o f l e a r n i n g ( e x c e p t by Sawi h i m s e l f ) . M o re o v e r, o n l y o n e tu k a n g s i j o b a n g (3yaf) s a i d t h a t h e h a d r e a d Ambas M a h k o ta ’ s v e r s i o n o f t h e s t o r y ,
p r i n t e d i n 1 9 6 2 , and h e c la im e d n o t t o h a v e b e e n i n f l u e n c e d b y i t . T h i s , h o w e v e r, may i n p a r t b e b e c a u s e t h e p l o t o f th e book d i f f e r s c o n s i d e r a b l y fro m t h a t f o llo w e d by tu k a n g s i j o b a n g .
L e n g th o f t r a i n i n g : M ost tu k a n g s i j o b a n g s a i d i t h a d t a k e n them a b o u t t h r e e y e a r s t o l e a r n t o p e r f o r m t h e e n t i r e s t o r y . A lth o u g h -:it* i s ', a p p a r e n t l y , some tim e b e f o r e a s t o r y t e l l e r i s a s k e d t o g iv e a w h o le n i g h t ’ s
p r o f e s s i o n a l p e r f o r m a n c e , h e may b e a s k e d a f t e r o n ly a few m onths o f l e a r n i n g t o g iv e b r i e f , i n f o r m a l , and u n p a id p e r f o r m a n c e s i n a l o c a l to p a u ( S u ta n was a t t h i s s t a g e i n 1 9 7 5 ). M o re o v e r, a p u p i l who
a c c o m p a n ie s h i s g u r u to p e r f o r m a n c e s w i l l b e a s k e d , q u i t e e a r l y i n h i s t r a i n i n g , t o s i n g f o r b r i e f p e r i o d s w h ile h i s t e a c h e r r e s t s , and as h e p r o g r e s s e s h e w i l l b e e x p e c t e d t o do i n c r e a s i n g l y l o n g e r s t i n t s . M unin’ s p u p i l , A s, s a i d t h a t i t was o n ly a f t e r a m o n th ’ s t u i t i o n and p r a c t i c e
t h a t h e h a d f e l t c o n f i d e n t eno u g h to s i n g any o f t h e s t o r y b a c k to h i s t e a c h e r , b u t a f t e r a n o th e r two o r t h r e e m onths o f t e a c h i n g h e h a d b e e n c a l l e d upon t o t a k e o v e r fro m M unin f o r 15 m in u te s a t a w e d d in g f e a s t . By 1 9 75, As h a d a p p a r e n t l y b e e n l e a r n i n g f o r a b o u t two y e a r s , and u s u a l l y s h a r e d t h e n i g h t ’ s s i n g i n g w i t h M unin. I n f a c t h e was w e l l a b le t o g iv e a w h o le n i g h t ’ s p e rf o r m a n c e on h i s own, h a v in g b y t h e n m a s te r e d a b o u t h a l f t h e s t o r y .
Tukang s i j o b a n g u s u a l l y s a i d t h a t th e y h a d b e g u n b y l e a r n i n g t h e m o st f r e q u e n t l y r e q u e s t e d s e c t i o n , Ka Tan.au^ and a f t e r t h a t t h e o t h e r e p is o d e s i n o r d e r o f p o p u l a r i t y , n o t o f n a r r a t i v e s e q u e n c e . Even a f t e r
t h e w h o le s t o r y h a s b e e n l e a r n e d , t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o r i n v e n t i o n o f bungo and o t h e r a d d i t i o n s and v a r i a t i o n s i s s a i d t o c o n ti n u e f o r many y e a r s . Buyueng c la im e d t o h a v e ex p a n d ed h i s p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e
c o m p le te s t o r y fro m s e v e n n i g h t s , a t t h e tim e when h e f i r s t l e a r n e d i t , t o a t o t a l o f 26 n i g h t s . O th e r tu k a n g s'ig o b a n g s a i d t h a t th e y h a d g r a d u a l l y ad d e d m ore bungo o v e r t h e y e a r s .
S y a r a t b a g u r u : A t t h e b e g in n i n g o f h i s t r a i n i n g , a p u p i l p r e s e n t s h i s t e a c h e r w i t h c e r t a i n t r a d i t i o n a l g i f t s ( s y a r a t b a g u r u ) , w h ic h con
s i s t o f some o r a l l o f t h e f o l l o w i n g : a cock w i t h r e d plu m ag e (ayarn b i r t e n g ) , a k n i f e , a g a n ta n g o f r i c e , a kabueng 26 o f b l a c k o r w h i t e
c l o t h , and one r u p i a h (now adays - o r i n my c a s e a t l e a s t - i n t e r p r e t e d as Rp 1 ,0 0 0 ) . I f t h e s y a r a t are, n o t g i v e n , some e v i l c o n s e q u e n c e may, i t i s t h o u g h t , b e f a l l . W h ile h e i s l e a r n i n g , a p u p i l o c c a s i o n a l l y b r i n g s h i s t e a c h e r g i f t s o f r i c e and so o n , and t h e end o f t h e a p p r e n t i c e s h i p i s s a i d t o b e m arked by a n o t h e r cere m o n y , a t w h ic h a b l a c k co ck i s p r e s e n t e d by t h e p u p i l t o h i s t e a c h e r .
R i v a l r y : T h e re a r e s i g n s o f a c e r t a i n am ount o f r i v a l r y among
tukang S'igobang
. They a r e ru m o u red t o u s e p o i s o n and w i t c h c r a f t a g a i n s t e a c h o t h e r , and t h e y th e m s e lv e s c la im t o s u f f e r s u c h a t t a c k s fro m r i v a l s , so t h a t t h e y a r e o b l i g e d t o p r o t e c t th e m s e lv e s w i t h p r a y e r s and a m u le ts . P r o f e s s i o n a l a n ta g o n is m i s a l s o e x p r e s s e d i n j o k e s and c r i t i c a l com m ents, i n h i n t s t h a t a r i v a l i s i l l o r d e a d o r no l o n g e r p e r f o r m s , o r s im p ly by f a i l u r e t o m e n tio n h i s e x i s t e n c e . A c o m p e t it iv e s p i r i t a l s o seem s t o m a n i f e s t i t s e l f i n t h e c la im s made by sometukang S'igobang
a b o u t how f r e q u e n t l y th e y a r e a s k e d t o p e r f o r m , how many n i g h t s th e y t a k e t o t e l l t h e e n t i r e s t o r y , how many p u p i l s t h e y h a v e , how p r e s t i g i o u s w e re t h e s o u r c e s fro m w h ich t h e y l e a r n e d , and how o f t e n th e y a r e a t t a c k e d by r i v a l s . T h e re i s a l s o some c o m p e t i t i v e u s e o f gim m ick s. Nurm an, f o r e x a m p le , s a i d t h a t h e p u r p o s e l y d e v e lo p e d a s p e c i a l q u a v e ry v o i c e - q u a l i t y i n o r d e r t o make h i m s e l f i n i m i t a b l e ; and i t may b e w i t h s i m i l a r m o tiv e s t h a t S y a f s i n g s one tu n e a t e x c e p t i o n a l l y h i g h s p e e d - a t any r a t e h e s a i d t h a t a u d ie n c e s l i k e d t h i s f e a t u r e o f h i s p e r f o r m a n c e . H ow ever, u n l i k e t h e r i v a l r yw h ic h , a c c o r d in g t o S w eeney, 2 7 e x i s t s b e tw e e n K e la n ta n s h a d o w -p la y d a ta n g and t h e i r p u p i l s , t h e r e w as n o s i g n o f c o m p e t it io n i n t h e o n ly t e a c h e r - p u p i l r e l a t i o n s h i p w h ic h I o b s e r v e d , t h a t b e tw e e n M unin and A s. On t h e c o n t r a r y , when th e y w e re b o t h p e r f o r m in g a t t h e same p l a c e , Munin s e l f - e f f a c i n g l y made s u r e t h a t As e n jo y e d t h e maximum l i m e l i g h t . I n g e n e r a l
M unin1s b e h a v io u r to w a rd s As was p a t e r n a l , and As i n t u r n t r e a t e d M unin w i t h f i l i a l r e s p e c t .28
C o n n e c tio n s w i t h r a n d a i : T ukang s i j o b a n g a r e l i n k e d i n s e v e r a l ways t o t h e w o r ld o f randa'i* N urm an, f o r e x a m p le , w r i t e s s c r i p t s
and p r o v i d e s a d v ic e f o r a l o c a l ra n d a 'i com pany, M unin was f o r m e r ly an an a k ra n d a 'i (r a n d a 'i a c t o r ) and now d i r e c t s t h e t r o u p e i n h i s v i l l a g e ,
and S a b i r i n h a s b e e n a s k e d t o a d v is e a n e a r b y t r o u p e . A s, S u ta n and S y a f , a l l y o u n g tu k a n g s i jo b a n g , a r e a l s o an a k r a n d a i , and a fo rm e r tu k a n g s i j o b a n g , S y a m s ik a r, i s now t h e l e a d e r o f a s u c c e s s f u l r a n d a i com pany. S a w i, S u t a n 1 s t e a c h e r , u s e d t o a c t i n r a n d a i and h a s w r i t t e n many r a n d a i s c r i p t s , b a s e d b o th on t h e Anggun Nan T ungga s t o r y and on o t h e r M inangkabau l e g e n d s . Tukang s i j o b a n g a r e w e l l q u a l i f i e d t o w r i t e r a n d a i s c r i p t s , n o t o n ly b e c a u s e th e y know t h e s t o r y , b u t b e c a u s e i n
la n g u a g e and m e tr e r a n d a i d i a l o g u e i s v e r y s i m i l a r t o s i j o b a n g . The m o st n o t i c e a b l e d i f f e r e n c e i s t h a t r a n d a i i s u s u a l l y p e rf o r m e d i n s t a n d a r d M in a n g k a b a u , w h e re a s t u k a n g s i j o b a n g s i n g i n t h e Payakumbuh d i a l e c t w i t h some i n f l u e n c e fro m t h e i r l o c a l s u b —d i a l e c t s . I t was a l s o p o i n t e d o u t t o me b y tu k a n g s i j o b a n g t h a t s i j o b a n g i s m ore r a p e k ( c l o s e l y - woven) , i . e . i t c o n t a i n s m ore d e t a i l , w h ile r a n d a i i s c o m p a r a tiv e ly
j a r a n g ( l o o s e l y - w o v e n ) - a d i f f e r e n c e one m ig h t i n d e e d e x p e c t b e tw e e n a p u r e l y v e r b a l fo rm and one i n w h ic h w ords a r e a c c o m p a n ie d by a c t i o n s . M a g ic a l p o w e r s ; I n k e e p in g w i t h t h e i r n o n - I s l a m i c im a g e , tu k a n g s i j o b a n g a r e r e p u t e d t o h a v e c e r t a i n s u p e r n a t u r a l p o w ers - a r e p u t a t i o n w h ic h th e y do n o t t r y t o p l a y down. Some a c t a s d u k u n , p r o v i d i n g s e m i- m a g ic a l t r e a t m e n t f o r i l l n e s s e s . I n a d d i t i o n t o b e w i tc h i n g t h e i r r i v a l s , tu k a n g s i j o b a n g a r e th o u g h t t o u s e s p e c i a l m y s t i c a l k n o w le d g e (u ie m u ) t o l e a r n t h e s t o r y , and i t i s b e l i e v e d t h a t a p e rf o r m a n c e o f t h e l a s t p a r t o f t h e s t o r y c a n c a u s e a s to r m , u n l e s s t h e tu k a n g s i j o b a n g t a k e s th e p r o p e r o c c u l t m e a s u re s t o p r e v e n t i t . I t i s s a i d , t o o , t h a t tu k a n g s i j o b a n g u s e m a g ic a l k n o w led g e (w h ich th e y p a s s on t o t h e i r p u p i l s ) t o im p ro v e t h e i r v o i c e s , t o overcom e s t a g e - f r i g h t , and i n p a r t i c u l a r t o f a s c i n a t e women by t h e i r s i n g i n g . S e v e r a l tu k a n g s i j o b a n g t o l d me t h a t t h e y b o t h c o u ld and d id a t t r a c t women t o them by a s u p e r n a t u r a l p o w e r, c a l l e d p i tu n a n g j w h ic h r e s i d e s i n t h e v o i c e and i s a c q u i r e d by m eans o f a charm ( d u 'a p i t u n a n g s .u a r o ) . The e f f e c t o f t h e p i t u n a n g i s t o make women a p p ro a c h c l o s e r and c l o s e r t o t h e s i n g e r as t h e n i g h t w e a rs on.
H ow ever, M unin t o l d me t h a t tu k a n g s i j o b a n g w e re d a n g e ro u s t o women,
