Control and Subsidiarity in the Tonga Verb.

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(1)1. CONTROL AND SUB SID IA RIT Y I N THE TONGA VERB. D a n ie l O 'B r ie n.

(2) ProQuest Number: 10672808. All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is d e p e n d e n t upon the quality of the copy subm itted. In the unlikely e v e n t that the a u thor did not send a c o m p le te m anuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if m aterial had to be rem oved, a n o te will ind ica te the deletion.. uest ProQuest 10672808 Published by ProQuest LLC(2017). C opyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States C o d e M icroform Edition © ProQuest LLC. ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 4 8 1 0 6 - 1346.

(3) 2. C o n tro l and S u b s id ia r ity. The t i t l e d e sc rib e. th e. may b e s a i d. of. th e sis. is. d iffe re n t uses of to. The s t a r t i n g of. th e. t h e T onga V erb. n am e f o r a m e t h o d d e v i s e d. te n se. fo rm s i n. have d if f e r e n t fu n c tio n s. on t h e i r p o s i t i o n. referen ce. th e. in. th e. in. th e. T ense. form s. and tim e r e f e r e n c e s. d ep e n d in g. se n te n c e o r d is c o u rs e .. p o in t fo r th e d e s c r ip tio n te n se. Tonga.. to. fo rm i s. its. use. in. o f th e. sim p le. f u n c t i o n and tim e. sta te m e n ts. and. q u e stio n s. W hen d a t a to. a llo w. a w id e r c o n t e x t w as ex a m in e d i t. a num ber o f d i f f e r e n t tim e. se v e ra l te n se In. fro m. th e. fu n c tio n ,. as an a s p e c t o f i t s. how ever,. th e re. fu n c tio n. and tim e r e f e r e n c e .. appeared to. D ependent fo rm s, th e se. are. sin c e. th e y. to th e. In. th e. to. th e se. in itia tin g. case o f th e. p o s i t i o n ?c o u l d. p o sitio n ,. form s, is. form s a r e. h ere. o th e rs,. of. S u b ju n c tiv e o r. te rm ed. p o sitio n ,. 'b r id g in g '. te rm in a te d and a n o th e r i s never used in. 'F ix e d F u n c tio n S u b s i d i a r i t y '. in. d iffe re n c e. su b sid ia ry o r n o n - in itia tin g. t h a t one a c tio n. S in c e. n o n -in itia tin g. b e an e v e n m ore r a d i c a l. w hen u s e d i n. in d ic a te. in. use in. d e sc rib e a b le as n a rra tiv e. ta k e p la c e . te rm. and fu n c tio n s. fo rm s.. som e i n s t a n c e s ,. be d e s c rib e d. references. proved n ecessary. in itia tin g. has been co in ed. to. about. p o sitio n. d e sc rib e. th e ir use. In a d d itio n , w h ich a r e. su c h form s a s n o m in o -v e rb a ls ,. th e. n o t m o r p h o lo g ic a lly m ark ed f o r p e r s o n o r t e n s e ,. so m e tim es b e i n t e r p r e t e d. as h av in g. S u b je c t and te n s e m a rk e rs, th e. e .g .,. sam e a s. th o s e o f. Tonga u se o f. th e. are,. in. a te n se th e se. c o n tro llin g. t h e many t e n s e. fu n c tio n. cases,. te n se. in. in fin itiv e s, m ust. d isc o u rse .. u n d e rsto o d. to. be. form .. form s o f th e. la n g u a g e and th e m u l t i p l e.

(4) a p p lic a tio n. o f som e p a r t i c u l a r. te n se. te rm s o f C o n tro l and S u b s i d i a r i t y . n o n -in itia tin g d isc o u rse. are. f u n c tio n on. a. or. su b sid ia ry. d e sc rib e d te n se. c o n t r o l may b e o f (1). se ttin g. as. te n se. form s h a s b e e n d e s c r i b e d. In. t h i s m eth o d o f d e s c r i p t i o n. form s w i t h i n. dependent fo r. fo rm c o n t r o l l i n g. th e. in. th e ir. a se n te n c e o r tim e r e f e r e n c e. and. se n te n c e o r d is c o u rs e .. A. tw o k i n d s : up a tim e r e f e r e n c e. re la tiv e. to. th e. sp e a k e r and. liste n e r, or (2). p ro v id in g. a fram ew o rk w i t h i n w h ich th e. fo rm o r n o m in o - v e rb a l. fu n c tio n s.. n o n -in itia tin g. te n se.

(5) 4 CONTENTS. page T itle. 1. page. A b stra c t. 2. C o n ten ts. 4. M o rp h o lo g y. 9. A b b re v ia tio n s. 12. P reface. 13. C h a p te r 1 :. In tro d u c tio n. 1 .0. S ta te m e n t o f t h e p ro b lem. 1 .1. T h e tw o s i n g l e w o rd p a s t t e n s e 1 .1 .1. 1 .1 .2. 1 .1 .3. 1 .1 .4. 1 .1 .5. P ro x im a te 1 .2 .1. 1 .3. form s o f Tonga. 21. P riv a tiv e o p p o sitio n a p p lie d tw o p a s t t e n s e f o r m s. to. 23. T est of p riv a tiv e w r i t t e n Tonga. in. o p p o sitio n. th e. 23. T est o f p r iv a tiv e o p p o sitio n in spoken n a r r a ti v e. 26. Inadequacy o f p r iv a tiv e a s d e s c r ip tiv e m odel. 29. o p p o sitio n. S u g g este d ch an g e to in v a ria b le use o f p re h o d ie rn a l p a s t re je c te d. and rem o te c o n n o ta tio n s a s m odel T im e r e f e r e n c e. o f th e -a k a - p a s t. 1 .3 .2. V a lid ity o f q u e stio n e d. la b e ls. on te n s e. 30 31 34 34. O th e r form s w ith p a s t r e f e r e n c e 1 .3 .1. 21. D i s t i n c t i o n b etw een th e p r e h o d ie r n a l and h o d ie rn a l p a s ts. 1 .1 .5 .1. 1 .2. 15. form s. The i n f i n i t i v e , th e r e s t r i c t i v e s t a b i l i s a t i o n o f th e i n f i n i t i v e and th e rem o te s u b ju n c tiv e a s p a s t te n s e form s. 36. 38.

(6) 5 1 .3 .3. 1 .4. M odel o f i n i t a t i n g 1 .4 .1. 1 .5. and n o n - i n i t i a t i n g fo rm s. Inadequacy o f i n i t i a t i n g and non i n i t i a t i n g form s a s m odel. M odel o f in d e p e n d e n t an d d e p e n d e n t fo rm s 1 .5 .1. 1 .6. In ad eq u acy o f in d e p e n d e n t and d e p e n d e n t form s a s m odel. R e q u irem e n ts o f an a d e q u a te m odel 1 .6 .1. C h a p te r. The in a d e q u a c y o f th e p ro x im a te and rem o te c o n n o ta tio n a s m odel. 2:. The. C o n tro l and s u b s i d i a r i t y. -aka-. 2 .0. In tro d u c tio n. 2 .1. R o le o f. th e -a k a - p a s t in. o f th e. 2 .1 .2. S h ift of a tte n tio n. 44. 46. 48. -aka- p a s t. 48 48 49. Change o f s u b j e c t. 49. 2 .1 .2 .2. P a re n th e sis. 54. D ra m a tic r e p e t i t i o n fro m p a t t e r n. 57 58. 2 .2 .1. Speaker 1. M w e e tw a. 59. 2 .2 .2. Speaker 2. V e n e la n d a. 61. 2 .4. Sum m ary. n a rra tiv e. P a st in. D isc o u rse. In tro d u c tio n. R o les i n 3 .1 .1. 65 66. The - a -. 3 .0 .1 3 .1. 43. 2 .1 .2 .1. The - a k a - p a s t i n w r i t t e n. 3 .0. as m odel. d isc o u rse. T im e r e f e r e n c e. Two i n d i v i d u a l v a r i a t i o n s. 3:. 42. 48. 2 .3. C h a p te r. 40. 45. D isc o u rse. 2 .1 .1. 2 .1 .3 2 .2. P a st in. 40. 68. The - a - p a s t i n. iso la tio n. 68. su b sid ia rity. 69. Im m e d iac y. 69. 3 .1 .1 .1. Im m e d iac y i n r e l a t i o n to -a k a - p a s t. 69.

(7) 6. 3 .1 .1 .2. Im m e d iac y i n r e l a t i o n o th e r te n se s. 3 .1 .1 .3. 3 .1 .2. 3 .3. Sum m ary. The - l a -. In tro d u c tio n. 4 .1. The - l a -. form i n. d isc o u rse. 82. T ense in. P a st N a rra tiv e. 87. te n se. in. iso la tio n. 87. 4 .1 .1. T im e r e f e r e n c e. <a). 87. 4 .1 .2. T im e r e f e r e n c e. (b ). 88. 4 .1 .3. T im e r e f e r e n c e. (c). 88. 4 .1 .4. H isto ric p re se n t. The - l a 4 .2 .1. C h a p te r. 77. 85. 4 .0. 4 .3. 77. D ra m a tic r e p e t i t i o n. The - a - p a s t a s c o n t r o l l i n g. 4 .2. 72. - a - su b sid ia ry in i n i t i a l se n te n c e p o s it io n. 3 .2. C h a p te r 4 :. to. te n se. in. 88. su b sid ia ry. fu n c tio n. 90. In d ete rm in ac y. 90. Sum m ary. 5:. 94. The S u b ju n c ti v e s ,. th e. -e. and - k a - - e. T enses. in. P a st N a rra tiv e 5 .0. In tro d u c tio n. 5 .1. F u n c tio n in. 5 .2. D ependent fu n c tio n s. 5 .3. 96 96. iso la tio n ,. h o rta tiv e. 96 97. 5 .2 .1. W i s h o r co m m a n d e x p r e s s e d b y s u b j u n c t i v e. 97. 5 .2 .2. The s u b ju n c tiv e. 97. The s u b ju n c tiv e 5 .3 .1. as su b sid ia ry. T em poral b r id g in g 5 .3 .1 .1. 5 .3 .2. as c o n d itio n a l form. o f th e. 97 su b ju n c tiv e. R em o te s u b j u n c t i v e a p a s t te m p o ra l. E x te n sio n s o f th e b rid g in g. 98. as. fu n c tio n. 102 103.

(8) 7 5 ,4. C h a p te r 6 ;. Sum m ary. 106. The I n f i n i t i v e s. 6 .0. In tro d u c tio n. 6 .1. U n sta b ilise d 6 .1 .1. P a st N a rra tiv e. S ta b ilise d. 6 .3. R e stric tiv e consequence. 109. 109 in fin itiv e ,id e n tific a tio n. The u n s t a b i l i s e d n a rra tiv e. 6 .2. 6 .4. in. in fin itiv e ,. in fin itiv e. in 110. a c tio n. sta b ilisa tio n. 109. 115. ofin f in itiv e , 119. Sum m ary. 124. D isc o u rse P re h o d ie r n a l P a s t 1, S e c tio n. 1. 126. D isc o u rse P re h o d ie r n a l P a s t 1, S e c tio n. 2. 130. D isc o u rse P re h o d ie r n a l P a s t 2. 133. D isc o u rse P re h o d ie rn a l P a s t 3. 138. D isc o u rse P re h o d ie r n a l P a s t 4. 141. D isc o u rse P re h o d ie r n a l P a s t 5. 143. D isc o u rse P re h o d ie r n a l P a s t 6. 145. D isc o u rse P re h o d ie rn a l P a s t 7. 152. D isc o u rse P re h o d ie r n a l P a s t 8. 156. D isc o u rse P re h o d ie r n a l P a s t 9. 159. C h a p te r 7 :. 7 .0. P re se n t N a rra tiv e. In tro d u c tio n 7 .0 .1. 7 .1. 161. 161. C u sto m ary a c t i o n. and c u r r e n ta c t i v i t y. C u sto m ary a c t i v i t y. 163. 7 .1 .1. The - l a -. 7 .1 .2. The - a - p a s t c o n t r o l l i n g 7 .1 .2 .1. 161. form c o n t r o l l i n g. The - a - p a s t i n c o n d itio n a ls. 163 168. 169.

(9) 8 7 .2. C urrent a c tiv ity 7 .2 .1. 7 .3. 172. T he - l a - p r e s e n t co m m en tin g on c u rre n ta c tiv ity. Sum m ary. 172 175. D is c o u r s e C u s to m a ry A c tio n. 1. 176. D is c o u r s e C u sto m ary A c tio n. 2. 178. D isc o u rse C u rre n t A c ti v ity. 1. 180. D isc o u rse C u r re n t A c tiv ity. 2. 182. C h a p te r 8 :. C o n tro l and S u b s id ia r ity. 8 .0. In tro d u c tio n. 8 .1. The - l a 8 .1 .1. 8 .2. 8 .3. te n se. in F u tu re N a rra tiv e. 184. 184 asfu tu re. The - l a - fo rm a s (c o n tro llin g ). The - y a k u - an d - n a. 184 'i d e a l i s e d. fu tu re ' 185. k u -form s. 186. 8 .2 .1. Speaker. 1. 188. 8 .2 .2. Speaker. 2. 189. Sum m ary. C h a p te r 9 ;. Sum m ary a n d C o n c l u s i o n. 190. 192. A p p en d ix. 1. 198. A p p en d ix. 2. 209. A p p en d ix. 3. 242. B ib lio g ra p h y. 214.

(10) 9. MORPHOLOGY.. The T e n se s. *. 1.. Im p e ra tiv e. (i). 2.. Im p e ra tiv e. (ii). 3.. ★ 4.. 3. H o rta tiv e. a ffirm a tiv e a ffirm a tiv e :. 'R - a stro n g weak. k a - DVP - R - a. a - DVP - R - e. a ffirm a tiv e. S u b ju n c tiv e. a ffirm a tiv e :. S u b ju n c tiv e /im p e ra tiv e. DVP -. stro n g weak. n e g a tiv e. R -e. DVP - t a -. R -i. 6.. R em o te S u b j u n c t i v e. a ffirm a tiv e. DVP - k a - R - e. 7.. R e m o te S u b j u n c t i v e. n e g a tiv e. DVP - t a. *. * 8.. 9. k. P resen t a ffirm a tiv e :. P re se n t n e g a tiv e :. ka. i. DVP - l a - R - a DVP - R - a. stro n g w eak. stro n g w eak. ta -. 10 .. N ear F u tu re A f f ir m a tiv e :. 11.. R em o te F u t u r e. 12.. H o d ie rn a l P a s t a f f ir m a tiv e :. 13.. H o d iern a l P a s t n e g a tiv e. 14.. P re h o d ie rn a l P a s t a ffirm a tiv e :. 15.. P re h o d ie rn a l P a st. 16. 17.. DVP -. DVP - l a -. stro n g w eak. n e g a tiv e. ta -. R -i. R -a. DVP - k a - R - i. r. C 2 DVP - a -. stro n g w eak. tii. - DVP -. R -a. R -a. r. 18.. 19.. CDVP - a k a -. R -a. n e g a tiv e. tii. CDVP -. aka- R -a. P re sen t in c e p tiv e. (i). ta -. DVP - n i n g a - R - a. P re se n t in c e p tiv e. (ii). ta -. DVP - n a - R -»a. stro n g weak. tii R -a. H o d ie rn a l P a s t in c e p tiv e. P re h o d ie rn a l P a st. ta k e n. The a b b r e v i a t i o n s. are. An a s t e r i s k. is. fro m C a r t e r ,. 1971, pp.. e x p la in e d a t th e. p la c e d b e sid e. -n in g a -. t i i - CDVP - a k a R -a. in c e p tiv e .. The n u m e r a tio n i s. CDVP - a -. te n se. end o f. -n in g a -. 27-29. t h e m o rp h o lo g y .. fo rm s w h ich a p p e a r i n. th e. th e sis..

(11) 10. 20.. D ire c t R e la tiv e ,. P re sen t a ffirm a tiv e. 21 .. n e g a tiv e. 22. 23.. H o d ie rn a l p a s t a f f ir m a tiv e D ire c t R e la tiv e .. 24.. 25. 26.. RP - R - a RP - t a -. R -i. CRP - a -. R -a. H o d ie rn a l P a s t n e g a tiv e. CRP - a t a -. P re h o d ie rn a l P a st a ffirm a tiv e. CRP - a k a - R - a. P re h o d ie rn a l P a s t n e g a tiv e. CRP - a t a k a -. I n d ire c t R e la tiv e .. -a. R -a. P re sen t a ffirm a tiv e. IR P -. SRP - R - a. 27.. P re s e n t n e g a tiv e. IR P -. SRP -. ta -. 28.. H o d ie rn a l P a s t a f f ir m a tiv e. IR P -. CSRP -. a- R -a. 29.. H o d ie rn a l P a s t n e g a tiv e. IRP -. CSRP -. -a ta -. R. -a. 30.. P re h o d ie rn a l P a st a ffirm a tiv e. IR P -. CSRP -. -aka- R. -a. P re h o d ie rn a l P ast n e g a tiv e. IRP -. CSRP -. ata k a - R -a. 31. •. 32.. P a rtic ip le .. R -i. P resen t a ffirm a tiv e .. ka -. DVP -. R -a. 33.. P re se n t n e g a tiv e. ka -. DVP -. ta -. 34.. F u tu re. P ast a ffirm a tiv e. DVP -. a- R -a. 35.. F u tu re. P a s t n e g a tiv e. DVP -. a ta - R -a. 36.. P re se n t in c e p tiv e. (i). k a - DVP - t a n i n g a - R - a. 37.. P re se n t in c e p tiv e. (ii). k a - DVP. - t a n a - R- a. P re sen t a ffirm a tiv e. n o - DVP -. 39.. H o d ie rn a l P a s t a f f ir m a tiv e. n i-. CDVP - a -. 40.. P re h o d ie rn a l P a st a ffirm a tiv e. n i-. CDVP - k a - R - a. 38.. T em p o ra l.. R -a. 41.. C o n d itio n a l.. 42.. (p ro ta sis) .. P re sen t a ffirm a tiv e. n o - DVP -. R -a R -a. R -a. P re se n t n eg a tiv e. n o - DVP - t a -. R -i. 43.. H o d ie rn a l P a s t a f f ir m a tiv e. n i-. CDVP - a -. R -a. 44.. H o d iern a l P a s t n e g a tiv e. n i-. CDVP - a t a -. R -a. 45.. P re h o d ie rn a l P a s t a ffirm a tiv e. N i - CDVP - a k a -. R -a. 46.. P re h o d ie rn a l P a s t n e g a tiv e. n i-. CDVP - a t a k a -. R -a.

(12) 47.. (A p o d o sis).. H o d ie rn a l P a s t a f f ir m a tiv e. n i-. CDVP - a t a k a -. R -. 48.. H o d ie rn a l P a s t n e g a tiv e. n i-. CDVP - a t a k a -. R -. 49.. P re h o d ie rn a l P a st a ffirm a tiv e. n i-. CDVP - a t a k a -. R -. 50.. P re h o d ie rn a l P a s t n e g a tiv e. n i-. CDVP - a t a k a -. R -. The P e r f e c t t e n s e s 51.. a ll. have th e p e r f e c t s u f fix. P resen t a ffirm a tiv e :. a fte r. stro n g w eak. th e. ro o t.. DVP - l i - R + s u f f i x . DVP R + s u f f i x. 52.. P re se n t n e g a tiv e. ta -. 53.. H o d iern a l P a s t a f f ir m a tiv e. CDVP -. 54.. H o d ie rn a l P a s t n e g a tiv e. tii-C D V P - a -. 55.. P re h o d ie rn a l P a s t. a ffirm a tiv e. CDVP -. 56.. P re h o d ie rn a l P a s t. n e g a tiv e. 57.. D ire c t R e la tiv e .P re se n t a ffirm a tiv e. 58.. P re s e n t n e g a tiv e. tii-. DVP R+ a li. R+ R+. a k a li-. CDVP - a k a -. DRP - t a -. R+ R+. H o d ie rn a l P a s t a f f ir m a tiv e. CDRP - a -. 60.. H o d ie rn a l P a s t n e g a tiv e. CDRP - a t a -. 61.. P re h o d ie rn a l P a st a ffirm a tiv e. CDRP - a k a - R+. P re h o d ie rn a l P a st n e g a tiv e. CDRP - a t a k a -. 63. 64. 65.. I n d ire c t R e la tiv e .. R+. DRP R+. 59.. 62.. R+. R+. P re sen t a ffirm a tiv e. I R P SRP R+. P re s e n t n e g a tiv e. I R P SRP - t a -. R+. R+. H o d ie rn a l P a s t a f f ir m a tiv e. I R P CSRP - a -. 66.. H o d ie rn a l P a s t n e g a tiv e. I R P CSRP - a t a -. 67.. P re h o d ie rn a l P a st a ffirm a tiv e. I R P CSRP - a k a - R+. P re h o d ie rn a l P a st n e g a tiv e. I R P CSRP - a t a k a - R+. 68.. R+ R+.

(13) 12. A b b re v ia tio n s. R. R o o t,. as. in. ku-b o o l-a. DVP. D ependent V erb al P re fix. CDVP. C o n tra c te d D ependent V erbal P re fix P re fix. 'to. as. in. co m e .' ba - la - bool -. RP. R e la tiv e. CRP. C o n tra c te d R e la tiv e. IRP. I n d ire c t R e la tiv e. SRP. S in g le. CSRP. C o n tra c te d S in g le .R e la tiv e P re fix. INP. I n d e p e n d e n t N o m in a l P r e f i x. R e la tiv e. as. -. in b a -b o o l-a P re fix P re fix. as as. in. in. -. as in b ^ a -b o o l-a ' T h e y w ho a r e. b -a -b o o l-a ngo-b a -y a n d -a. P re fix. a. -. -. ' th e y cam e'. c o m in g .' ' T h e y w ho c a m e . '. - 'w h o m. th e y w a n t'..

(14) 13. P reface. The t h e s i s of y ears. arose. spent in. o u t o f p ro b le m s w h ich o c c u r r e d. te a c h in g T o n g a .^. d u rin g. As w i t h m o s t l a n g u a g e s. a num ber th e verb. s y s te m w as t h e p a r t o f t h e. la n g u a g e w h ich r e q u i r e d m o s t a t t e n t i o n. and th e. fo rm s r e c e iv e d. of. th e. sem e s e v e n t y. te n se. fo rm s w as c h e c k e d an d v a l i d a t e d. w ho f e l t a p e r s o n a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y s p e e c h w o u ld n o t a l l o w tra B la tio n s. th e p eo p le o f th e. so c a r e f u lly. th a t in. c e rta in. c la ss.. t h e y h a d when t a u g h t i n fo rm s,. te n se. and r e l a t e. th e ir p u p ils' o b v io u s d i r e c t. th e. d isc o u rse. th e. o ccu rren ce o f. c e re m o n ie s and s c h o o l l e s s o n s . re c o rd in g. in. In a l l. th e p e rio d o f. form s a c q u ir e d a. h av e m e an in g s u n r e l a t e d we s e e m e d t o b e u s i n g. th e y w ere i n d i c a t i v e s .. fin d. a d e sc rip tiv e. fo rm s i n. d isc o u rse. th e. to. I. fie ld. and a n a ly se d. and th e m o st r e p r e s e n ta t iv e. in c lu sio n. th e. in. te n se. as i f. w as t o. fo rm s i n w ays. c o n t r a d ic t w hat had. and f i n a l l y. form s,. th e sis. fo rm s w h ic h w o u ld r e l a t e. to. appeared to. c la ss. n o t ta u g h t as verb th e. C e rta in. I re c o rd e d a g r e a t num ber o f c o n v e r s a tio n s ,. hours'. accuracy o f. m any t e n s e. th o u g h n o t a lw a y s ,. been ta u g h t in. My e n d e a v o u r t h e n i n th e. My a s s i s t a n t s ,. c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h my a s s i s t a n t s. a r e a ; we u s e d. se c o n d tim e r e f e r e n c e w h ile o t h e r s th o se. fo r th e. tim e s.. ' c i T o n g a c a m a k u w a ', i . e . ,. I n o tic e d. w h ich a p p e a r e d a t t i m e s ,. to. several. Each. fro m E n g l i s h .. N o n e th e le ss, and w ith. any. in d iv id u a l tre a tm e n t.. from. its. sto rie s,. to o k w o rk .. to. use. one an o th er. in. p la y s,. m odel f o r. iso la tio n .. re lig io u s. a b o u t o n e h u n d r e d a n it.fif t y M uch o f. th is. sa m p le s w ere c h o se n. I. sc rip te d for. th e sis.. I t a u g h t T onga i n 1960 an d 1961 an d from 1969 t o 1 9 7 2 . F ro m 1967 - 1969 Dr C a r t e r o f t h e S c h o o l o f O r i e n t a l an d A f r i c a n S t u d i e s h a d program m ed a t e a c h i n g c o u r s e o f T onga w h ich i s i n u s e a t t h e S c h o o l a n d i n Z am b ia.. and I.

(15) The r e c o r d i n g s sin c e. a fte r. are. an i n i t i a l. about i t .. t y p i c a l ex a m p le s o f aw aren ess o f. When I p l a y e d t h e. am azed a t w h a t th e y h ad s a i d. th e. re c o rd in g. sp o n ta n e o u s. ta p e. co n v e rsa tio n. re c o rd e r p eo p le. back th e. fo rg o t. s p e a k e rs w ere o f te n. an d sa n e tim e s w ish e d to. co rrec t th e ir. 'm is ta k e s '. S in c e. th e. r e c o r d in g s w ere ta k e n. t h e r e w ere c e r t a i n sta n d a rd ise d. d iffe re n c e s. i n many a r e a s o f T o n g a l a n d. in p ro n u n c ia tio n b u t I have ad o p ted. o r t h o g r a p h y reco m m en d ed b y t h e T onga O r t h o g r a p h y C o m m itte e .. A f u r t h e r p o i n t m u st b e m e n tio n e d w ith had ta u g h t th e H ow ever, e a ste rn te n se. I. to n a l p a tte rn s. found t h a t. fo rm s w ere u s e d . e s p e c ia lly. sy stem .. D e sp ite. w ith. th e. te n se. to. in. th o se. liv in g. fact. to. in. a ll. changes. in. to w n s,. In. te a c h in g. b etw een th e. ev en th o u g h. th e. u s e d a v e r y much r e d u c e d t o n a l d iffe re d ,. S in c e. th e. le av e o u t th e to n e p a t te r n s. th e. stu d y. is. w o u ld h a v e. arg u m e n t.. b u t I w ill. sin g le. it. sin c e. le d. th e. w o u ld b e i m p o s s i b l e. te n se to. have num ber.. th a n k th e. th e m a l l ,. Language. S c h o o l.. F o r e i g h t e e n m o n th s s h e h e l p e d w i t h m any i n t e r v i e w s. sc rip te d. som e o f. My s p e c i a l. to. W here fo rm s s u c h a s. o u t M a r y A nn N h a n d u , my a s s i s t a n t i n. th e. sam e. concerned. to n e m ark in g. I h a v e nam ed th em a n d p u t i n. I h a d so m any i n f o r m a n t s. sam e. th e young p e o p le. th e h o d ie rn a l p a s t and th e F u tu re p a s t a ffim a tiv e p a r t i c i p l e s im ila r m o rp h o lo g ie s. I. t h e M onze a r e a .. d iffe re n c e s. t h i s many o f. cases.. a n d w o u ld h a v e h e l d up t h e. to n e .. u se around. t h a t to n e p a t t e r n s in. to. i n my r e c o r d i n g s ,. fo rm s I d e c id e d to. c o n s ta n t re fe re n c e co n fu sio n. w h ich a r e. In a d d itio n. form s w ere a c c e p te d th e. reg ard. t h e r e w ere c o n s id e r a b le. and w estern p a tte r n s. reco rd ed ,. te n se. th e. and a ls o. ta p e s.. th a n k s go to. me w i t h g r e a t p e r c e p t i o n. Dr H az el C a r t e r ,. and p a tie n c e. th ro u g h. my s u p e r v i s o r ,. w ho g u i d e d. th e w ritin g. th e. of. th e sis..

(16) 15. C h a p te r 1 In tro d u c tio n. 1 .0. S ta te m e n t o f th e As w as s a i d. v a lid a te In. th e P reface. a d e sc rip tiv e te a c h in g. my p u p i l s In. in. P ro b le m. m odel f o r. use o f th e. som e s e v e n t y. th e m o rp h o lo g y se c tio n ^ ". th e. th e. Tonga o v e r a num ber o f y e a r s. to m a ste r th e. h e a d in g s.. th e o b je c t o f th is. S in c e. la b e ls. in. te n se. fo rm s. in. to. th e. te n se. E n g lish. q u ite. in. th e. co u rse b ein g. H ow ever, I. I. d id. t a u g h t my p u p i l s. W hen I s p o k e. I becam e stilte d. fin d. me,. in. th a t th e re. and t h a t w h ich I I. who w e r e. v illa g e s.. th e. v illa g e s. form s as. s p o k e t o my a s s i s t a n t s. was c a r e f u l lis te n in g. to. use w hat I. and w ere n o t a t. knew. th e y s to o d. aw are t h a t w h ile. co rrec t th is. I t w o u ld h a v e b e e n to o w as c o l l o q u i a l. fa c ile. to. an d w h a t w as u se d i n. th e Tonga. and to. o th e r Tonga.. knew t o b e c o r r e c t a ll. shy. u s e d w as a c c e p t a b l e .. co m p ariso n w ith w h at I h e a rd o u ts i d e. th e. v a rio u s. My a s s i s t a n t s , w h o. was a d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n. a s s u r e d me t h a t w h a t I. in c re a sin g ly. Tonga.. of te stin g. and th e r e f o r e. te a c h in g o f th e. te a c h. 2. t o my p u p i l s. a n d my a s s i s t a n t s c o rre c tin g. used.. th e. to. under th e ir. fo rm s.. done a t l e a s t th r e e y e a rs se co n d a ry s c h o o l,. s e t up and. com mon u s e i n. Z am b ia I h a d t h e o p p o r t u n i t y. a ssig n e d. d id n o t q uery. to. fo rm s o f T o n g a.. liste d. had a l l. w e ll,. is. I had n e c e s s a rily. th e s e w i l l b e found. I w as t e a c h i n g. accuracy o f th e. te n se. stu d y. sty le. 3. about N o n e th e le ss,. o f speech. seem ed. and w h at I m y se lf used in say. th a t. c lass. th e Tonga u sed in. w as. 'c o r r e c t',. sin c e. Xc f . p . 7 . ^ C a r te r and O 'B r i e n ,. 1968.. 3. They w e re p a r t i c u l a r l y on t h e lo o k o u t f o r ' c i T onga cam akuw a' T o n g a ', i . e . o b v io u s d i r e c t t r a n s l a t i o n fro m E n g l i s h i n t o. - 'E u ro p e a n Tonga..

(17) 16. a l l Tonga seem ed to t h e n w as t o th e. th is. f i n d why t h e r e. la n g u a g e .. w h ile. use. I began to. c o rre c t,. w as to o. I. se em e d t o b e tw o c o r r e c t o r su sp e c t t h a t th e. ta u g h t th a t. of. My p r o b l e m. ac c e p ta b le. sc h e m a tiz a tio n. o f th e. 't h e y. are. to d a y ;. t h e r e w as o ne s i n g l e - w o r d to d a y and a n o th e r. te n se. sin g le -w o rd. m oreover t h a t th e p r e s e n t te n s e. ta lk in g (n o w )'. 'o u ts id e - c h s s '. speech I. p ast of b efore. to d a y. fo r c e rta in references. found. d id. -. 'p e o p le. o f a c tio n s. not try. to. sa y in g. h o d ie rn a l p a s t m ig h t be u sed a f t e r. co u ld be used a f t e r. th e p a s t.. choose.. o f thum b t h a t w o u ld b e h e l p f u l ,. tw o a c t i o n s. in. fo llo w e d. I. at. te n se. fo rm s, of. firs t. trie d ,. to. a c tio n s. ' as o f n a tu re ' w ith. an d m y s e l f m ix ed t h e th e. as. 'p r e s e n t te n s e '. th a t th e p a s t o f. o f tim e. I h ad no sy stem. h ow ev er,. to. g i v e som e r u l e s. to d a y o r. th e. to d a y o r p r e h o d ie r n a l. each o th e r and t h a t to d a y w hen t h e. for form. referred. T h is m ix tu re. th e p a s t o f b e fo re. th e p a s t o f b e fo re. form. On c o m p a r i n g t h i s. a n d t h a t we u s e d. t e a c h my p u p i l s. w h e r e b y t h e y m i g h t know how t o. p a s t , w hen t h e. ta lk ') .. t h a t b o t h my a s s i s t a n t s. and t h a t o f to d a y. o th e r k in d s I. te n se. to b e an a d e q u a te r e p r e s e n ta tio n. t h a t w e re g o in g o n a t t i e mom ent o f s p e e c h o r w h ic h w e n t o n (e .g .. form s o f. spoke.. a c t i o n s w h ich to o k p l a c e b e f o r e fo r p a s t a c tio n s. c o llo q u ia l v e rsio n .. n e a t and c l e a r ,. t h e w ay i n w h ic h p e o p l e F o r e x a m p le ,. so -c a lle d. th e p re s e n t te n se. a c tio n. it. d en o ted. w as in c o m p le te . T h is. situ a tio n. w as o b v i o u s l y u n s a t i s f a c t o r y. p a s t an d t h e p r e s e n t w hen t h e y came t o no v a l u e. th e in. fo llo w e d. e x a m in a tio n o f f u r th e r try in g. to. and th e I n f i n i t i v e s The S u b j u n c t i v e. d e s c rib e. fo rm s. as reg ard s. th e h o d ie rn a l. th e p re h o d ie rn a l p a s t, th e. ru le s. th e b e ta /io u r o f. b u t w hen i t. o f th u m b se em e d t o b e o f. th e S u b ju n c tiv e. - H o rta tiv e 1. o r N o m in o -V erb als. -. H o rta tiv e. w ere in. c o n sta n t use. a s T em p o ra ls. and. 1A d a s h i s p l a c e d b e t w e e n S u b j u n c t i v e a n d H o r t a t i v e t o s h o w t h a t t h e s e tw o t e n s e f o r m s , w h i l e h a v i n g t h e sam e m o r p h o l o g i c a l a n d m o r p h o t o n o l o g i c a l r e a l i s a t i o n i n m o s t i n s t a n c e s a r e y e t tw o d i s t i n c t fo rm s w i t h t h e i r ow n i n d i v i d u a l m e a n i n g ..

(18) 17 th e re. seem ed t o be no r e l a t i o n. w h ich i t such as. h a d w hen u s e d. b etw een t h i s. in te rp re ta tio n. in. t h e w ay i t. had been ta u g h t.. th e S u b ju n c tiv e -. H o rta tiv e ,. 'T u p ilu k e '. 'L e t us r e t u r n '. had to b e in te r p r e te d. -. o f th e. fo rm. F o r ex a m p le ,. and t h a t. a form. ' T h a t we may r e t u r n '. in o th e r c irc u m sta n c e s. as. -. 'W h e n w e h a d. r e tu r n e d '. T here. is,. of co u rse,. had been v a lid a te d. a T em poral s e r i e s. and ta u g h t.. The p ro b lem. th e. te m p o ral u se o f th e S u b ju n c tiv e. and. fin d w hat governed. th e. ch o ice. of te n se s. (38,. re m a in e d ,. how ever,. - H o rta tiv e. in to. o f S u b ju n c tiv e. 3g & 4 0 ) ^ w h i c h to. in c o rp o ra te. a to ta l d e sc rip tio n. - H o rta tiv e. ra th e r. th a n. th e T em p o ra l. I in. a ll. trie d. su b stitu tin g. c a s e s w here. c irc u m sta n c e s.. it. T em p o ral M u tin ta '.. th e. fin d M u tin ta '. trie d. - H o rta tiv e. u sin g. th e. fo rm g iv e n. tw ajan a. M u tin ta '.. co u ld be used as in v a ria b ly. w h ich m eans. -. 'W h e n we r e t u r n e d. th e. T u p ilu k e kum unzi. tw a ja n a beenzum a b o o n s e '. It. fo llo w in g ,. th e re fo re ,. to. say. c o u l d o n ly b e u s e d a s a T e m p o ra l when i t had gone b e f o r e .. The change. b ein g p a r t o f a la r g e r. ^cf.. -. som e l i m i t e d. above in If. th e. th e for. th e. hom e we f o u n d. 'T u p ilu k e th e v illa g e. or. we w i l l. 'N itw a k a p ilu k a. th e v illa g e. we f o u n d M u t i n t a ' .. c ila m fu ku L u sak a.. 'We l i v e d. f o r a lo n g. tim e in. our f r ie n d s '. th a t. th e S u b ju n c tiv e. w as d e p e n d e n t i n. o f m e an in g o f t h e. u n i t th a n. M o rp h o lo g y s e c t i o n .. to. to. say). 'T w a k a k k a la c i i n d i. When w e r e t u r n e d h o m e we f o u n d a l l seem ed n e c e s s a r y. to. in. su b stitu ta b le. sh o u ld s a y ,. 'L e t u s r e t u r n. Y et I had re c o rd e d. L usaka.. I. (w h ich w as n o t w h a t I w as t r y i n g. kum unzi tw a ja n a M u tin ta '. th e T em p oral te n s e. 'W h e n we h a d r e t u r n e d. t o l d me t h a t e i t h e r. M u tin ta '. for. w o u ld o n ly b e a c c e p t e d. s e n t e n c e w o u ld m ean. My l i s t e n e r. kum unzi t u l a j a n a. I. and i t. 'T u p i lu k e k u m u n z i,. - H o rta tiv e. th e n. S u b ju n c tiv e. o ccu rred. F o r e x a m p le ,. fo llo w in g s e n te n c e , S u b ju n c tiv e. th e. th a t o f th e. te n se. se n te n c e .. - H o rta tiv e. som e w ay o n w h a t. fo rm d e p e n d e d on i t s.

(19) 18. Som ew hat s i m i l a r d i f f i c u l t i e s th e. n o m in o -v e rb a Is o r. th e. u n sta b ilise d. v erb al. n o m in o -v e rb a l,. 'n k u u n k a '. n o m in o -v e rb a l,. in fin itiv e s. -. it. is. to. The s t a b i l i s e d. o f w h ich. 'k u u n k a '. g o ',. ' nkokuunka' ^ -. w ere e v id e n t i n th e re. -. 'to. th e. are. g o ',. th re e th e. and th e r e s t r i c t i v e. 'i t. is. th e. occu rren ces o f. sta b ilise d. sta b ilisa tio n. such. se n te n c e s. I t. L ite ra lly. th is. a g irl. is. T h is. it. is. is. to. -. bear for. in te rp re te d. bears g irls. for. 'T o b e a r. as:. o n e se lf.. The tim e r e f e r e n c e h a b itu a l and th e. in Tonga, n o m in o o f th e. to g o '.. n o m in o -v e rb a l o c c u rre d in. m usankw a n k u z y a l i l a bam akuw a,. fo rm s. as,. 'K u z y a l a. *. k u z y a l a m u sim b i n k g f c y a l i l a . a boy i t. is. to b ear fo r. th e E u ro p ean s,. to b ea r. o ra se lf'. One b e a r s b o y s. ( t o w ork f o r ). th e E u ro p ean s b u t one. 2 o f th e s ta b ili s e d. su b je c t is. n o m in o -v e rb a l. th a t o f C lass. 8. (IN P - k u ). is. present or. from. 'K u z y a la '. -. 'T o b e a r ' . In c e rta in. co n te x ts,. n o m in o -v e rb a l n e c e s s i t a t e d h a b itu a l and a ls o C lass. th e. such as C lass. h o w ev er, a past. th e. tim e r e f e r e n c e. a p p ro p ria tio n. 1. (IN P , u - ) .. in te rp re ta tio n. In. of. in ste a d. th e. sta b ilise d. of a present or. o f a s u b j e c t w h ic h b e l o n g s th e. speech o f C le tu s. to. Monze. a Noun. (D .P .P .2 ). I reco rd ed , In o m b w a a k a li m u sonogo, w a lo m u d a a la nguw ena oyu nkaam bo m u sy im i w e e ta m a l i. (12). n k u ty o la kasang a. .. .. (11). w a k a li. .. T h e r e s t r i c t i v e s t a b i l i s a t i o n i s f o r m e d a s f o l l o w s N a z a l i s e d DVP + DVP + s t e m . W hen u s e d w i t h a n o u n s t e m i t r e s t r i c t s t h e r e f e r e n c e t o a p a r t i c u l a r o b j e c t , e . g . th e s t a b i l i s a t i o n o f a noun g iv e s 'n c i n t u ' i t i s a th in g (s o m e th in g )', w h ile th e r e s t r i c t i v e s t a b i l i s a t i o n g iv e s i t th e th in g 'n c e c i n t u '. As i t a p p e a r s w i t h a v e r b a l r e f e r e n c e i t i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o g i v e a t r a n s l a t i o n s i n c e t h e r e i s no p a r a l l e l i n E n g l i s h , 'n k o k u u n k a ' is g iv e n th e l i t e r a l t r a n s l a t i o n o f ' i t i s th e to g o '. As w i l l b e s e e n i t s in te r p r e ta tio n as a verb form d e p e n d s on i t s o c c u r r e n c e i n a d isc o u rs e .. 2. T h is. s a y i n g r e f e r s t o t h e p r a c t i c e am ong T o n g a y o u n g men o f g o i n g t o to w n f o r w o rk . N o rm ally i t i s in te n d e d t h a t th e b o y s w i l l r e t u r n a s so o n a s t h e y h a v e e a r n e d en o u g h money t o p a y b r i d e w e a l t h , b u t i n p r a c t i c e m a n y m en r e m a i n i n t o w n a n d a r e l o s t t o t h e i r f a m i l i e s . The E n g lis h sa y in g c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h i s i s 'Y o u r s o n i s y o u r s o n t i l l h e g e t s h im a w i f e , your d au g h ter i s your d a u g h te r th e re s t of your l i f e '..

(20) 19. L it.. Now a s h e w a s a w i s e m a n , b u t h e. because a. (11). little. h e w as a c l e v e r p e r s o n ,. very. w ho b r o u g h t m o n e y h e. broke. is. necessary. to. t h e r e e d a n d w hen h e o f th e. form .. I. trie d. to. use. a p ast reference th e. is. w ho b r o u g h t m o n e y. th e. (12). sam e t h i s it. is. to. break. reed.. T r a n s . Now a s h e w a s. It. t h e o l d man h e. c le v e r,. a reed .. refer. d id. th is. th e. to. it.. .. o ld m an, a r e a l. t h e d i s c o u r s e t o know who i t w a s. sta b ilise d. everyone. .. The d is c o u r s e. an d w as t o l d. g en iu s, fo r. is necessary. n o m in o -v e rb a l. in. for. th e in te r p r e ta tio n. iso la tio n. t h a t t h i s w as n o t a c c e p t a b l e .. who b r o k e. to. g iv e. I had re c o rd e d. fo llo w in g , Tw akaunka k u L i b i n g i .. L it.. N k u jan a kuya b a n tu n i n s i l i b i .. We w e n t t o L i v i n g s t o n e .. T ran s.. I t. We w e n t t o L i v i n g s t o n e .. is. to. fin d. th e re. p eo p le. th e y a re b la c k. We f o u n d t h a t t h e p e o p l e w e r e a s. a n ts.. n um erous. as a n ts . I *. th e n. 2. L it. I t. trie d. th e. fo llo w in g s e n te n c e ,. ' N k u ja n a ku L i b i n g i b a n tu n i n s i l i b i . is. to. fin d. I w as t o l d. a t L iv in g sto n e p eo p le a re. th a t. th is. o th e r s ta te m e n t sa y in g S im ila rly in te rp re te d ex a m p le i n. L it.. th e. as. if. th e. d id. n o t m ean a n y t h i n g. I had gone to. re stric tiv e it. had te n se. speech. sta b ilisa tio n. o f M a ria H a a k o la ,. (27). It. to. us b r in g. here. is. p la c e d b e fo re. cam e a f t e r. so m e. in. a d isc o u rs e. as. fo r. D .P .P .3 .. to Tonga la n d .. T r a n s . And e v e n t u a l l y h e b r o u g h t u s h e r e. ^The a s t e r i s k. it. o f th e n o m in o -v e rb a Is m u st be. and s u b je c t m ark ers. N k o k u tu le ta kokuno kubu Tonga. th e. u n le ss. L iv in g sto n e .. (27). is. an ts.. to Tonga la n d .. fo rm s o r s e n te n c e s. th a t are. u n a c c e p ta b le ..

(21) 20. T h is. ra ise s. sta b ilise d sin c e. th e. f u r t h e r p ro b le m. n o m in o -v e rb a l and th e. th e re. are. v e rsio n ap p ears. se n te n c e s in. o f th e d is t i n c t i o n. re stric tiv e. b etw een th e. sta b ilisa tio n. su c h a s t h a t q u o te d above w here. se n te n c e s in. iso la tio n. w h ile. th e. of. th e. sam e fo rm. th e s t a b i l i s e d. re stric tiv e. sta b ilisa tio n. does n o t. The c a s e in fin itiv e. c o n te x ts.. a ll. T h is. a d isc o u rs e. th ree. in. th e. w ith. th e. u n sta b ilise d. nor d id. it. A b a We ( 2 6 ). form y e t. occur in. sam e s e n t e n c e. .K u ti,. in te rp re ta tio n. th e. referen ce. o ccu rren ce in. found as. in. n o m in o -v e rb a l o r. sim p le. such. as. in. in. o r p erson c e rta in. se n te n c e s o u tsid e th e m id d le o f. su b o rd in a te. to an o th er. f o l l o w i n g e x a m p le from. 1. (27). b a s ik a k ale. tw a m u le ta .. L i t . A n d t h e b a We ( 2 6 ). is. th e se p o s itio n s. a s m ay b e s e e n. tw a a k u ja n a 'O h ,. it. tim e. of its. fo rm w as n o t a c c e p t a b l e w hen t r i e d. J a k o p a V u n d iy a n a D .P .P .. (28). th e. as a p a s t te n se. a d isc o u rse ; in. e v e n m ore s t r i k i n g. w h ich h a s no m o r p h o lo g ic a l o f s t a b i l i t y ,. y e t re q u ire d. verb. is. we fo u n d. n te n te n te b a n ji- b a n ji.. Ngooyu w a a li k u t o l a m a l 'a a n u . (27). th e y hav e a r r iv e d. a lre a d y ,. crow ds. th e y. m a n y -th ey m any. (28). To s a y ,. ' O h , we h a v e h i m b r o u g h t ;. H ere h e i s. w ho w a s t a k i n g m o n e y. yours. T r a n s . As f o r. t h e We p e o p l e we f o u n d. The p o lic e m a n s a i d ,. 'W e ll,. th a t th e y had a lre a d y. we h a v e b r o u g h t h i m h e r e .. H ere. a rriv e d is. in. d roves.. t h e man who w as. t a k i n g y o u r m o n e y .' In as. th is. in sta n c e. at. ' The p o lic e m e n s a i d ' ,. p o sitio n In. is a ll. cannot be. (28) sin c e. 'b a k a a m b a k u t i ' th e se. cases. d e sc rib e d. m u s t b e made t o. it. in. -. u n it. I t becam e m a n if e s t t h a t p u p ils. w as a c c e p t a b l e ,. th e. u n sta b ilise d. th e. o n ly. 'th e y. sa id. o f th e. n o m in o -v e rb a l i s. a lte rn a tiv e th a t. w o u ld seem c l e a r. te rm s. a la rg e r. th e. .. .. form. 'k u ti'. in. th is. .. th a t th e. se n te n c e. for. in te rp re te d. o p e ra tio n. i n w h ich. it. o f th e. occurs,. form. reference. such as th e d is c o u rs e . w h ile. each in d iv id u a l se n te n c e. approach used d id. n o t ta k e. in to. I. t a u g h t my. acco u n t th e. fact.

(22) 21. t h a t p e o p le do n o t sp e ak i n t o w h ic h t h e s e th e. in d iv id u a l. th e n s l o t t e d depend fo r w o u ld. in to. th e. th e. d isc o u rse. I t w as n e c e s s a r y d isc o u rs e. 1 .1. N ot o n ly. fin d. d isc o u rse. fo rm s,. found,. e n titie s. a se n te n c e w ith in b u t c e rta in. iso la te d. to d a y. th e to. and. a d isc o u rs e se n te n c e s. se n te n c e s. an d w hen. H o rta tiv e ).. se n te n c e s w ith in ta k e. say th a t. th e. ac co u n t o f th e very. o f m e an in g . cro p p ed up w ith. th e r e la tio n s h ip. and t h a t o f to d a y I d e c id e d. usual as. 'o n e r e f e r r i n g to. in C o llin s to. to. b etw een. b eg in th e. in v e stig a tio n. to. fo rm s o f T o n g a . d iv id e. t h e p a s t b e t w e e n tw o o n e w o rd. a p a s t tim e o f to d a y. a p a s t tim e b e f o r e. h o w ev er,. tw o t e n s e. It. in. so as. T he tw o s i n g l e w o rd p a s t t e n s e. firs t. iso la te. se n te n c e s,. a w ay o f d e s c r i b i n g. t h a t n o t o n ly. to d a y are. p a s t re fe re n c e b u t th a t th e d is tin c tio n. at. as. to. u n its. tw o f o r m s .. o th e r r e f e r rin g. th e s e. firs t d id. sam e m e a n in g w h en u s e d. to. la rg e r. not s u ffic ie n t e ith e r. su rro u n d in g. th e p ro b le m h a d f i r s t. I t has been. I. is. ( c f . th e e x a m p le s above o f th e S u b ju n c ti v e -. th e p a s t o f b e fo re th e se. I t. co u ld b e d e s c rib e d. and a s p a r t o f th e. S in c e. te n se. fitte d .. d isc o u rse .. c o n sid e ra b le d iffe re n c e s. w ith. s e n te n c e s o n ly b u t t h a t t h e r e w ere. c o n te x t on th e. n o t have. used in. se n te n c e s. se n te n c e s. its. in. (h o d ie rn a l p a st). and th e. *1. (p re h o d ie rn a l p a s t ) .. th e re. o th e r. te n se. fo rm s w i t h. s e t up a s. to. th e. tim e. form s c a n n o t b e r e g a r d e d a s b e in g. as. c le a r as. a. referen ce it. of. w o u ld seem. sig h t. is. tru e. in. c e rta in. c irc u m sta n c e s th a t th e d iv is io n. o f tim e. b etw een th e p r e h o d ie r n a l p a s t an d th e h o d ie r n a l p a s t d o e s h o ld s t a r t w ith. a n e x a m p le o f how t h i s 1 .1 .1. 1962,. is. a c c u ra te w ith in. D i s t i n c t i o n b etw een th e p r e h o d ie r n a l. The d i s t i n c t i o n. ■ ^ C o llin s,. d iv is io n. p.. b etw een th e. 35.. tw o p a s t t e n s e. fo rm s. referen ce. and I w i l l a lim ite d com pass.. and h o d ie r n a l p a s ts is. e x e m p lifie d. in. th e.

(23) fo llo w in g. a n s w e r s g i v e n b y tw o c h i l d r e n w hen a s k e d w h e r e t h e i r p a r e n t s w e r e .. A . T a a t a w a u n k a k u M onze - L i t e r a l l y H ere th e c h i l d in c lu d e s. th e. few h o u r s used in. uses. n o tio n. th a t th e. c h ild 's. and alm o st c e r ta in ly. sim p le. to o k p la c e. sta te m e n ts. B. B a k a u n k a H ere. 2. is. 3. kum unzi -. som e t i m e p r i o r. -. 'h e h a s. th e. M onze w i t h i n th is. an a c tio n. th e. p re v io u s. te n se. fo rm. o r e v e n t w h ich. re p lie d ,. t_. She h a s g o n e t o t h e v i l l a g e ' .. p re h o d ie rn a l p a s t,. n o tio n. th a t th e. T ense T h is. c h ild 's. 14.. The tim e. la tte r. sta te m e n t,. m o t h e r w e n t home a t. th e day o f sp eech .. gone'. p re h o d ie rn a l p a s t. Ijilo. to. lite ra lly. I t w o u ld b e d i f f i c u l t t o 'w a u n k a '. refers. M onze.. sta te m e n t e x p l ic i tly. N o rm ally th e n ,. t h a t o f T e n s e 12 a b o v e .. in c lu d e s to. daw n.. gone to. speech.. used th e. d if f e r e n t to. e x p lic itly. T h is. w hen a s k e d w h e re h e r m o th e r w a s ,. th e c h ild has. reference. sin c e. to. T ense 1 2 .1. fa th e r w ent to. o r q u e stio n s. a s h o r t tim e p r i o r. A n o th e r c h i l d. a t B,. th e h o d ie rn a l p a s t,. - My f a t h e r h e h a s. say. a t e x a c tly. changes to. w hat tim e. 'w a k a u n k a '. -. th e h o d ie rn a l p a s t,. 'h e h a s g o n e '. i.e .. th e. F o r ex a m p le o n e w o u ld s a y ,. bakoona c i i n d i ca 9 o 'c lo c k k .. Y esterd ay. th e y w ent to bed a t 9.. BUT Sunu babuka c i i n d i If,. h o w ev er,. ' Bakabuka' o r. c a 6 o 'c lo c k .. th e p e o p le g o t up d u rin g. 'b a b u k a '. w h e th e r one r e g a rd e d. m a sik u . th e. g e ttin g. c l e a r d if f e r e n c e b etw een T enses. 3. n ig h t one co u ld. up as. re la te d a t le a st. to in. 12 a n d 1 4 a n d t h e. th e. n ig h t,. say e i t h e r ,. d ep e n d in g on. to d a y o r y e s te r d a y . sim p le. sta te m e n ts. a fa irly. tw o f o rm s w o u ld c o v e r t h e. o f p a s t tim e.. lrr h e t e n s e f o r m s a r e t o b e i s t a k e n fro m C a r t e r ,. 2. th e. They g o t up d u r in g. T h e r e w o u ld seem t o b e t h e r e f o r e ,. to ta lity. Today th e y g o t up a t 6 .. fo u n d i n t h e m o rp h o lo g y s e c t i o n . 1971, pp. 27-29.. T h e i r n u m b erin g. I n T o n g a a p e r s o n ' s f a t h e r m ay b e r e f e r r e d t o b y t h e s i n g u l a r DVP, u - , o n e ' s m o t h e r , h o w e v e r , m u s t a l w a y s b e g i v e n t h e h o n o r i f i c p l u r a l DVP, b a - . 'k u m u n z i' - l i t e r a l l y and i s t r a n s l a t e d. - 'to ' or 'h o m e '.. 'a t'. th e v illa g e. refers. to. o n e 's. home v i l l a g e.

(24) 23. 1 .1 .2 If,. th e n ,. p riv a tiv e th e. th e re. o p p o sitio n. la n g u ag e. refers. P riv a tiv e th e w rite rs. th e. is,. is. e v e n ts. 'I n. o c c u rrin g. in. in. th e. tw o p a s t t e n s e. Tonga th e m odel o f d ev ice. to. s h o w how. th e p a s t.. b o rro w e d from th e P ra g u e S c h o o l o f P h o n o lo g y ,. p riv a tiv e. m em ber.. form s. to. an a d e q u a te d e s c r i p t i v e. concept to d if fe r e n tia te o p p o sitio n. e sse n tia l. The o th e r. one te rm. is. b e tw e e n th e phonem es. d e fin e d p o s itiv e ly ,. and i n h e r e n t m e a n in g .. te rm. now t h e m o d e l o f p r i v a t i v e to th e. T ense. 14,. tim e b e f o r e. tw o t e n s e. to d a y. is. T h is. d e fin e d n e g a tiv e ly. in. to be. c e rta in. T herefore, tim e p r i o r. to. form u s e d t o. in. th e. o p p o sitio n. te rm. is. c a lle d. as n o t in h e re n tly. o r m a rk e d an d u n m arked fo rm s. under d isc u ssio n. t h e m ark ed fo rm .. It. th e n. 'd e f in e d p o s i t i v e l y '.. th e. as w ill be seen. s tim e. The - a it. to. th e p e rio d. referen ce. fo rm i s. does change. c a lle d. its. and can th e. tim e. n a rra tio n. o f e v e n ts w h ich. re fe rrin g. to. to o k p la c e. th em o n e c o u l d. a t a very. ex p ect th a t th e. su c h e v e n ts w o u ld b e th e p r e h o d i e r n a l p a s t ,. sake of b re v ity. of. c irc u m sta n c e s.. speech. d en o te. la te r. th e p re h o d ie rn a l. refers. and d o es n o t a t any tim e ch an g e. unm arked fo rm , b e c a u s e , referen ce,. form s. can be c a lle d. th e re fo re be sa id. For th e. is. a p p lie d. t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e m a r k e d m e m b e r.^ -. a p p lie d. p a s t,. to. o p p o sitio n. tw o p a s t t e n s e. sh o u ld g iv e. te rm s o f i t s. 'm a rk e d '. If. o n ly. o f w h ic h u s e d t h e. in. p o sse ssin g. are. o p p o sitio n. o f a la n g u ag e . th a t. P riv a tiv e. th e p re h o d ie rn a l p a s t w ill b e r e f e r re d. lo n g te n se. T ense 14. to. as. th e. -ak a - p a s t. 1 .1 .3. T est o f p riv a tiv e. The f i r s t. ex a m p le t o. N g u m w i'.. The e v e n ts. fa th e r of. th e. ^ "F o rsy th , p . 6 .. te st. o p p o sitio n. th e m odel i s. l e a d in g up t o. th is. in. w ritte n. chosen. fro m a book. p a s s a g e w ere a s. f a m ily h a d h a d an e p i l e p t i c. fit. n a rra tiv e. and h i s. 'N y o k o. fo llo w s,. J a k o p o ,th e. w if e h a d h a d dream s. th e. form s.

(25) 24. p re v io u s n ig h t f o r e te l lin g reg ard ed. as. a fow l to. 'M a lw e z a '. e x o rc ise. -. th e. som e d i s a s t e r .. 'b a d. lu c k /e v il. Taken to g e t h e r th e s e. f o r tu n e '.. lite ra l. d ec id e d to. k ill. e v il.. The n a r r a t i v e 1 te n s e s w i l l be u n d e r lin e d , in th e. The fa m ily. e v e n ts w ere. tra n sla tio n. fo llo w in g. th e se w ill. th e Tonga p a s s a g e ,. a g a in be u n d e rlin e d. b u t n o t in. th e. tra n sla tio n . M u sy u le,. m u d a a la. (1). C oolw e b a k a j i k a k a c e s e . M asik u. (5). w a k a a m b ila C o o lw e k u t i b a k a k a m e m ukupa (3 ). B a k av o o m an a antoom w e b o o n s e. b a k a ja y a nkuku i s i y a. k w ateg w a. m b o b a k am a n in a b u y o k u l y a nyam a y a n k u k u m azuba c o n se m a sik u ayo naa,. n in z i.. (7 ). B i n a C oolw e. 'tu ta n d e. (6 ). te eb a k aa n a.. (8). (4). B in a. b a k a ly a .. m a lw e z a '.. bakoona.. (2 ). Obo b u z u b a. Bana b a k a z y ib id e. kw aana. N c ib a k a lo ta m a sik u ayo b o o n s e ,. b a k a li k w iid e. k u k w iila .. (9 ). w a k a l i kuum a J o l e z y a n o b a k a l i k o o n a .. M u d aala. kum w i k a y a b i l a k u n h o n z i .. w a k a li k u v w itim a k u b ee k u l i w asin w a;. a lik e. 2. C oolw e. (11). J o le z y a n g o w ak a li k u lo t a k u c a i l a .. (10). N am w iin g a. c ita. w a k a li k u b w en ta. P e si kubucedo boonse. (10a). (12). b a k a s u n tu k a koom a. L ite ra l T ra n sla tio n . In. th e b ack ,. th e. o l d man. m i l k . T h e m o t h e r o f C o o lw e th e y. a ll,. (4). w as s a i d , to. eat. 'le t. th e y. a te .. us ch ase. th e m eat o f th e. 3. (1). (2). N ig h t. he. she (5). to ld. C o o lw e t h a t t h e y. cooked k ac ese th e y k i l l e d. away t h e b a d l u c k . fo w l. (6). th e y s l e p t .. 4. (3). sh o u ld m ilk. They g a th e re d. a fo w l w h ic h i s. T h at day as. th e y. The c h i ld r e n. w ho. b la c k. th e. to g e th e r th e re. fin ish e d o ff w ere u se d. ju st to. 1 'N a r r a t i v e ' a c c o r d in g t o t h e S h o r t e r O x fo rd D i c t i o n a r y ( 3 r d e d i t i o n , 1968) i s 'a n a c c o u n t o r n a r r a t i o n , a t a l e o r r e c i t a l ( o f f a c t s , e t c . ) ' o r ' t h a t p a r t o f a d e e d o r d o cu m en t w h ich n a r r a t e s t h e r e l e v a n t o r e s s e n t i a l f a c t s . ' T h e s e d e s c r i p t i o n s o f n a r r a t i v e w o u ld seem som ew h at c i r c u l a r and i t w as f e l t a f u r t h e r e l e m e n t s h o u ld b e i n t r o d u c e d s o I d e s c r i b e d th e n a r r a tiv e used in t h i s stu d y a s 'th e r e c i t a l o f a s e r ie s o r sequ en ce o f e v e n t s , w h ic h , r e a l o r i m a g in a r y , a r e e n v i s a g e d a s t a k i n g p l a c e so m etim e p r i o r t o t h e i r b e i n g w r i t t e n down o r s p o k e n o f ' .. 2. 'a li k e '. -. m o re co m m o n ly s p e l t w i t h. tw o k ' s .. 3. A T o n g a w o m an i s f r e q u e n t l y r e f e r r e d t o a s ' M o t h e r o f . . ' ( n o r m a l l y t h e n a m e of her f ir s t c h ild ). Among t h e W e s t e r n T o n g a t h e f ia n c e w i l l g iv e h is f u t u r e w i f e t h e nam e o f 'M o t h e r o f . . ' ( a n d g i v e t h e nam e t h e y i n t e n d g iv in g ^ 'k a c e s e '. -. th e ir. firs t. c h ild ).. ro o ts. g ath ered. in. th e bush,. c u t up a n d c o o k e d ..

(26) te llin g. sto rie s. W hat th e y. days a l l. a t n ig h t th a t. d ream t n ig h t t h a t th e y a l l ,. m o th e r o f C oolw e. (8). sh e w as j u s t t o. J o l e z y a w hen th e y w e re t o s l e e p . th e w h ile he le t. i t be. dream t o. sin g in g. th e re d riv e. is. (7 ) I. th e y d id n o t t e l l. d o n ' t know i f 1 ,. cry. o u t lo u d ly .. T h e o l d m an. sad songs in. sle e p .. C oolw e. who w a s h a n g e d ; h e a l o n e ,. c a ttle .. (10). w h a t.. N am w iin g a. (11). (12). is. h e w as to. Jo le z y a. B u t a t daw n t h e y a l l. it. sto rie s.. th e. (9). w as t o h i t. c o m p la in. h e w as t o is. The. snore. (10a). 2. o n e w ho w a s t o. th e y s l e p t so u n d ly .. T ra n sla tio n . A fte r th a t,. t h e o l d man t o l d C o o lw e t h a t t h e y. The m o th e r o f C oolw e c o o k e d r o o t s . T h at n ig h t th e y k i l l e d T h at e v e n in g as The c h i l d r e n , n ig h t.. a b la c k. fow l in. soon as th e y h ad. who n o r m a l l y t o l d. fin ish e d sto rie s. and sin g in g. i n C o o l w e 's s n o r e s a s. dream t o f d riv in g. e x o rc ise. e a tin g. every. to g e th e r and a t e .. th e. ev e n in g d id. do n o t know.. if. c a ttle .. d irg e s. in h is. th e ir m isfo rtu n e .. fo w l,. N am w iin g a w as h i t t i ng J o l e z y a. o l d man w a s c o m p l a i n i n g ra ttlin g. g ath ered. o rd er to. W hat th e y d re a m t o f t h a t n i g h t I. w as j u s t m o a n in g a l o u d .. a ll,. They a l l. s h o u ld do t h e m ilk in g .. t hey w ent to b e d . n o t do so. T h e m o t h e r o f C o o lw e in h is. sle e p .. a ll. sle e p .. The. T h e re w as a. som eone w as b e i n g h a n g e d .. B u t t o w a r d s daw n t h e y. th a t. Jo le z y a ,. fe ll. in to. o f th em. a deep. sle e p . In -. aka. T h is th e to. th e. - p a st. te n se. ev e n ts. it. th e day o f. 1. o. th e. T h is. form h a s. In th e in. p a s sa g e q u o te d th e r e is. to. a com pound t e n s e. re la te d. sam e t i m e r e f e r e n c e are. p a s sa g e q u o te d. to be seen as. as th e. th e. p r e h o d ie rn a l p a s t and so. ta k in g p la c e. a t som e tim e p r i o r. from. ' N y o k o N g u m w i'. c o n tin u o u s p a s t ,. th e. th e. n a rra tiv e. -a k a li. verbs. ku- p a s t,. > ' I d o n o t know - h a s n o t t h e u s u a l m o r p h o lo g y o f a v e r b i s m o r e c o m m o n ly s p e l t ' c c i t a ' .. 'k u v w itim a ' and so i s. to. speech.. -ak a - p a s t o r th e. 'c it a ' T h is. also. th e P a s t C o n tin u o u s o r th e P a s t H a b itu a l T en se .. th e. refers. is. i s u sed to in d ic a te sn o rin g w ith a ls o used fo r th e d e a th r a t t l e .. a ra ttle. in. th e. are. w ith. e ith e r. one. fo rm .. th ro a t.

(27) e x c e p tio n .. T h is o c c u rs. sa d s o n g s '.. T h is. used to r e f e r W ith t h i s. to. a t no.. te n se. fo rm i s. a n a rra tiv e. one. fin d s. a v a rie ty. o f te n se. sh a ll. te n se refer. e x p la n a tio n w ritte n. form s a s ag a in. of. (cf.. its. 2 .3. can b e g iv e n. to. ). for. very r e g u la rity .. th e. to. n a rra tiv e th e w ritte n. I t. is. th e p re c e d in g. th e. te n se. a c tio n .. fo rm s one. in. spoken n a r r a tiv e. re g u la rity. W hen t h e. in Tonga. o f th e w ritte n. in v e stig a tio n. h a s b e e n g o t u n d e r w ay I form. to. see. if. som e. a p p a re n t d is c re p a n c y b etw e en sp oken and. Tonga.. T h re e ex a m p le s o f sp o k en n a r r a t i v e th e v a rie ty e x tra c ts. o f te n se. from. reference. is. M ukansefw a,. made t o. a. h er c h ild re n. fo rm s w h ich a r e. th e p assag e s. The f i r s t. are. 32.. o f p a s t ev e n ts. T h is m akes th e. spoken. w h ile he s in g in g. T ense. o p p o sitio n. spoken n a r r a ti o n s. fo rm s.. used in. 'th e. in Tonga.. T est o f p riv a tiv e. Tonga s in g u la r by re a s o n o f th e. above h a s. o f p a s t e v e n ts. w hen o n e l i s t e n s. -. co n tem p o ran e o u s w ith. th e p a s s a g e q u o te d. 1 .1 .4 H ow ever,. 'k u m w i k a y a b i l a '. th e P re se n t P a r tic ip le ,. an a c t i o n w h ich i s. one e x c e p tio n. w o u ld e x p e c t i n. 10a,. th e ir. g iv e n in. are. used fu ll. to. n u m e ra tio n a s. and easy. about th e. is. ta k e n. In t h i s. fa th e r.. to. show s o m e th in g o f. p a s t e v e n ts.. end o f C h a p te r. th e y o ccu r. ra c o n te u se .. d e a th o f t h e i r. re la te. a t th e. ex a m p le o f sp o k e n n a r r a t i v e flu e n t. g iv e n h e re. They a r e 6. and. th e re . fro m a w id o w , P a u l i n a passage. A g ain t h e. she i s. n a rra tiv e. te llin g form s. u n d e rlin e d . N gam ha k u t i. w akafw a n s y e e l e n d i k k e , n d i m u j i s i. (2). N dabona. (4 ). N kubona m b w a a k a ti m eso. u lile d e. (3). (1). ab u lo ,. w a ta lik a kugusya m eso.. (5). (4a). ku m u tw e m u l u m 'a a n g u .. H ena n k u fw a s h u a h m asim p e?. w aa g u sy a oku m u b i,. n k i i d e m utw e a m u b i l i o k u. n d a t i a b i k k e m u tw e w ak w e a m a u l u .. N kubona m u n tu. w agusya m eso. L ite ra l T ra n sla tio n . I. am s a y i n g. th a t. h e a d h u sb a n d m in e .. (2 ). (1 ) I. h e d i e d me b e i n g saw. (3). o n my o w n ,. I. am h o l d i n g. h e h as begun to p u ll o u t th e. to. th e. e y e s . 71 i t. is. ^ 'H e n a ' i n T onga i s a q u e s t i o n m a rk e r w h ic h l e a v e s t h e o r d e r o f w o rd s i n a se n te n c e unchanged. In th e l i t e r a l tr a n s l a ti o n s I h ave used a q u e s tio n m ark b e fo re th e u tte r a r c e to in d ic a te 'h e n a '..

(28) 27. to. d ie. su re. o u t th e re ,. tru ly ? th e. on th e b e d ,. (5 ). is. to. see. poor p erso n ,. it. is. I. (4 ). It. s a id. as he s a id. th e. j u s t th e h ead. (4 a). h e th e m p u l l e d. and b o d y th e r e. t h a t h e s h o u ld p u t h e a d h i s. a p e r s o n w ho h a s p u l l e d. eyes. on f e e t .. It. he is. ly in g. is. see. to. o u t eyes.. T ra n s la tio n . W hat I me h o l d i n g. am s a y i n g. is. th is. eyes. th e p o o r m an,. o n ly. w h at d e a th. th is. one u se o f th e. as. to. on th e. and i t s. th e. la tte r. e x t r a c t w h ic h i s. ta k e n. H ere. is. The o ld. to. see fiv e. -a - p a s t. is. la d y. is. 2,. In. a v a rie ty. eyes.. T ense no. to. o f te n s e. th e re. is. 4a and 5 P a u lin a u se s w h at 12,. a n d w h ic h w i l l. 4 th e re. is. th e. a s a te n s e. o f sp eech. in. in. em erg ed i n. fro m. s ta b ilis e d. fo rm. as su ch w ill be in v e s tig a te d. fro m M a ria H a a k o la. g iv in g. 3,. n o t re fe rre d. s ta tu s. p u ll o u t h is. fo rm s w ith p a s t r e f e r e n c e. In n o s.. eyes. t h a t h e s h o u ld. so m eo n e p u l l o u t t h e i r. th o u g h n o t i d e n t i c a l p a t t e r n. th e re. p u ll o u t h is. sa w t h a t h e w a s a b o u t t o. th e h o d ie rn a l p a s t,. as. T h is. a g a in. O h!. w h ic h h a s. n o m in o -v e rb a l.. A s im ila r,. I w a s o n my o w n , w i t h. th a t he had begun to. W hen I. -ak a - p a s t.. to. now o n b e r e f e r r e d. la n g u a g e. w h ile. w ith h i s h e a d an d body on th e b e d I s a i d. e x tra c t,. h as been re fe rre d. I saw. is ?. h e a d o n my l a p .. In. t h a t my h u s b a n d d i e d. h im b y t h e h e a d .. O h!. p u t h is. is. a n y w o rk. C h a p te r. th e. next. (D is c o u rs e P r e h o d ie r n a l P a s t 3 ) .. fo rm s a l l. re fe rrin g. a n a c c o u n t o f h e r m o t h e r 's. c a p tu re. to. p a s t e v e n ts .. an d e n s la v e m e n t. by th e M a ta b e le . I n o B aam a n k o n d o. (1 ). y a k a b a j a n a mu M b e sa o k u k u b a M a a l a .. k u N b e s a w a k a l i k u j e s i om w an a u u n y o n k a u m u s a n k w a . b a M a ta b e le. (4 ). Eno. (2 ). (3 ). Ib a ja n e. bakababw eza. b a b a to la .. L ite ra l T ra n s la tio n . Now my m o t h e r t h e w a r (2 ) a boy.. T hat i t T hen. (3 ). (1 ). it. m ig h t h e r. th e y h e r. her fin d. la id. fo u n d to. in. M besa,. M besa,. th e re. to. sh e w as h a v in g. h a n d s o n t h e M a ta b e le. (4 ). t h e M a a la . a c h ild. th e y h e r. w ho s u c k s , to o k. T ra n s la tio n . The f ig h tin g. c a u g h t u p w i t h my m o t h e r a t M b e s a , t h e r e. am o n g t h e. M a a la .. aw a y.

(29) A t th e tim e i t. c a u g h t up w ith h e r. a t M b e sa s h e w a s s u c k l i n g. a c h ild ,. a boy.. The Matabele captured her and took her o f f . In. th is. p assage,. w h ic h a l s o. w ill be. fo u n d i n. C h a p te r 6. (D is c o u rs e P re h o d ie r n a l P a s t 3 ),. fo rm s a l l. o f w h ic h r e l a t e. to. th e. th e re. fu ll a t. a re. tim e s e t u p b y th e. th e. end o f. fo u r n a rra tiv e -ak a -. te n s e. te n s e. fo rm. in. (1.) In. no.. T ense o r to w ith. 2 th e re th e. 5 .. a te n s e. fo rm. S u b ju n c tiv e T e n se .. a n a rra tiv e. C h a p te r. is. fu n c tio n. In. i n m o rp h o lo g y t o. I t h as been in te rp re te d. and t h i s. (4 ) M a r ia u s e s. s im ila r. in te rp re ta tio n. th e. w ill be. - a - p a s t fo llo w in g. th e. h ere. h o rta tiv e a s a te m p o ra l. ju s tifie d. th e. in. -a k a - p a s t a t. (3. ) The t h i r d tra in e e . te a c h e r. e x a m p le i s. ta k e n. fro m th e. th is. re c o rd in g. On t h e d a y b e f o r e tra in e e s. to. a. ' L w i i n d i ',. th e m t h a t we w o u ld r e c o r d. th e ir. f r o m R o d a 's s p e e c h d e a l s w i t h (8 ). a R a in F e s t i v a l a n d h a d th e. th e b e e r-p o u rin g .. .. b a t u b w e z a tu m w i t u b i y a. (9 ). (1 1 ). a te a c h e r. I h ad ta k e n R oda and th r e e. im p re s s io n s. N o b a k a m a n a w aaw o b a k a. (1 0 ). sp e e c h o f R oda C ik u n i,. to ld. th e m a s. f o llo w in g d a y . p a r t o f th e. o th e r I. to o k. The e x t r a c t. c e rem o n y .. bakaunka n k o b a k a s iile bukoko b a tu b a la tila. a ly a. a m u ly a n g o. .. .. .. .. .. L ite ra l T ra n s la tio n . (8 ) had l e f t (1 1 ). W hen t h e y th e b e e r,. th e y. a re. fin is h e d th e y. p o u rin g. th e m. th e re. th e re. th e y. . . .. .. (1 0 ). t h e y th e m. .. .. a t th e g a te. (9 ). th e y. s e t o u t f o r w h e re. lifte d. .. .. .. . th e y w en t to. th e y. u p som e s m a l l p o t s. .. T ra n s la tio n . W hen t h e y h a d th e b e e r, ga te. th e y. .. .. fin is h e d. th e re. th e y. . t h e y p i c k e d u p se m e p o t s. w h ere th e y h a d l e f t. and p o u re d b e e r. th e re. a t th e. . . . In th is. p a st a t no. T ense 8 o r. 9. 10.. e x tra c t, A t (1 1 ) (1 1 ). w o u ld b e i m p o s s i b l e. at. (1 0 ). t h ere. b a la tila to. th e re is. is. th e. -a -. p a s t used a f te r. th e. -a k a -. th e P r e s e n t o r P ro x im a te F u tu re T e n s e ,. h as been in te rp re te d. g iv e a p r e s e n t o r. fu tu re. as. ' th e y. referen c e. to. p o u re d 1 s in c e an a c tio n. it. w h ic h.

(30) 29. to. my k n o w l e d g e , h a d t a k e n p l a c e. th e p re v io u s d a y .. E x a m p le s o f s p o k e n p a s t n a r r a t i v e fo rm w i t h is. p a s t re fe re n c e. c le a r th a t. it. is. w h ic h t o o k p l a c e Thus. far,. fu tu re. is. th e. te n s e ;. fro m a l l. to. th e. o f te n s e. sp e a k e rs re c o rd e d . used. to. It. d e n o te a c tio n s. - a k a - p a s t , w h ic h we w o u ld h a v e e x p e c t e d. th e re have been fo u r o th e r. o f th e s e. a v a rie ty. sp eech .. is. th e. fo rm s u s e d w ith. - a - p a s t w h ic h. to. re fe r. to. th e. th e. th ird. is. th e s u b ju n c tiv e. s ta b ilis e d. is. - a k a - p a s t w h ic h i s. tim e p r i o r. 1 .1 .1. The f i r s t. w o u ld b e e x p e c t e d or. th e. as w e ll a s th e. th e m odel s e t up in re fe re n c e .. c o u ld b e g iv e n. n o t o n ly. a lo n g. w h ere t h e r e. n ear p a s t;. n o m in o - v e r b a l w h ic h i f. it. th e. fro m. a past. th o u g h a p a s t t e n s e. seco n d. is. th e. o r h o rta tiv e. -la -. and th e. a n y tim e r e f e r e n c e. fo rm ,. p rese n t fo u rth. th is. is. to. th e. p re s e n t. 1 .1 .5. In a d e q u a c y o f p r iv a t e. o p p o s itio n. to. d e s c rib e. th e p a s t te n s e. fo rm s A m o d el w as s e t u p f o r t h e b a se d on p r iv a tiv e w h ic h a r e. o p p o s it io n b e tw e e n th e. c o m m o n ly r e g a r d e d. m odel d ep en d ed on th e d is tin c t. is. H o w ev er,. d e fin ite. 'I. to. th e. i.e .. no.. 4. te n s e. th a t o f th e. used. -ak a -. fo rm. 'b a b a t o l a '. -. th e. re fe rre d. to by th e. v a lid ity. th e. l a d y , M a r i a M a a k o la t h e. a c tio n. o f th e. a c tio n. o f th e. 't h e y. her. to. fo rm in. referen c es. th e. The d i s t i n c t i o n. it. used. u s e s th e. (4 ). la n g u a g e .. fo rm s b e in g. a lw a y s. In -a-. th e. sp eech o f. p ast a t no.. In. th e. 'T h e y h e r. speech. to. th e. la id. W h ile i n. ta k e p la c e. to. a fte r. re fe rrin g. b e tw e e n th e. to. 2. her. o f th e. o ld. sam e tim e. hands on, th is. yet. th a t re fe rre d th e. th e m b o t h .. tim e r e f e r e n c e s. o f th e. -a k a - and. as. in s ta n c e. c o u ld n o t be th o u g h t o f a s o c c u r rin g w ith in. sp eech. T h is. w o u ld a p p e a r t h a t t h e r e. m ust r e f e r -. Tonga. tw o t e n s e s. th e t re fe rrin g. -a - p a s t.. - a - p a s t does. o f th e. to by th e. 'h e d i e d '. in. in. o f th e. d is tin c tio n .. b efo re. 'B a k a b a b w e z a '. to o k o f f '. to by th e. -a k a - p a s t,. fe w h o u r p r i o r. 'w a k a f w a ' -. p a s t te n s e s. tw o t e n s e. re fe rre d. saw ' m u st h av e ta k e n p la c e. h u sb an d s d e a th. tim e. fro m w h a t h a s b e e n s e e n a b o v e i t. doubt as. -. o f th e. a s th e o n ly p a s t te n s e s. tim e r e f e r e n c e. P a u l i n a M u k a n sefw a a b o v e , 'N d a b o n a '. d e s c rip tio n. a- p a st.

(31) te n s e. fo rm s a s. g iv e n. in. 1 .1. s ta te m e n ts. is. in. e v e ry d a y. th e. w ritte n. o f th e. th e n. o f th e. of th e ir. -a k a - and. s a id ,. ap p e ars. use. in. in. to. re w ritte n. N gam h a k u t i (2 ). (1 ). N dakabona. s h u a h m a s im p e ? o k u m u b i,. re w rite. th e. th e re. u n d e rlin e d. if. p o s s ib ly. (n d ab o n a ). ^ T h e c h a n g e fro m la te r on.. th e. be. th e. an a d e q u a te. use. fo rm r e j e c t e d. b e tw e e n th e w r i t t e n. sp o k en n a r r a ti v e s th e. o f -a k a -. j u s t q u o te d. w o rd s s h o u ld h a v e - a k a - ' . re c o rd in g. as. fo llo w s .. fo rm s.. (3 ). N dakabona. w a k a ta lik a. n d i m u j i s i k u m u tw e m u l u m 'a a n g u . (w a ta lik a ). (n k u b o n a )(w a k a ti. k u g u sy a m eso .. H ena. ( m b w a a k a ti) 1 m eso w a a g u s y a. a b u lo .. (5 ). N d a k a ti. (n d a ti). N k u b o n a m u n tu w a g u s y a m e s o .. o f T onga to b e in g. a n o th e r lin e. to. in v a ria b le. n k i i d e m u tw e a m u b i l i o k u u l i l e d e. condem n t h e m a jo r ity. s h o u l d b e m ade i n. u sed w ill b e p u t in b ra c k e ts. w a k a fw a n s y e e l e n d i k k e ,. (4 ). is. s c r i p t o f P a u l i n a 's. T h is s u g g e s tio n , w h ile a p p e a lin g. so. b e g ro u n d s f o r. spoken,. a b o u t th e d if f e r e n c e. fo rm s w h ic h P a u l i n a. a b i k k e m u tw e a m a u l u .. la n g u a g e. a ll. sp o k en. spoken n a r r a tiv e .. 'N y o k o N g u m w i' a n d t h e. The o r ig in a l n a r r a tiv e. 2. if. 'S o m e p e o p l e d o n o t s p e a k g o o d T o n g a , a l l. th e. in. S u g g e s te d c h a n g e t o. S he th e n p ro c e e d e d. b e s id e. f o r s im p le. ap p ear to. d is tin c tio n. a - p a s ts. O ne T o n g a , w hen c o n s u l t e d it. h o w e v e r,. a t le a s t. t h a t so m e f u r t h e r d i s t i n c t i o n. 1 .1 .5 .1. as. abandon,. n a rra tiv e .. tim e r e f e r e n c e s. fo rm. to. T h ere d o e s ,. a p p lic a b ility. I t w o u ld seem. d e s c rip tio n. s p e e c h a n d o f w h ic h a t y p i c a l e x a m p le w as. to o w e ll e s ta b lis h e d. and q u e s tio n s .. q u e s tio n in g n o t in. used. in. its. s im p lic ity. in a d e q u a te. o f e n q u ir y w as s o u g h t.. o rig in a l r e la tiv e. to. th e. 2. and c la r ity ,. sp e a k e rs. of th e ir. In. th e. fa c t,. in d ic a tiv e. w o u ld. ow n. in f o rm a n t. w i l l b e d e a l t w ith. T h e sam e g i r l w h en r e c o r d i n g h e r s e l f , u s e d a s g r e a t a v a r i e t y o f t e n s e fo rm s a s any o f th e o th e r s p e a k e r s . T h ere i s , I f e e l , an u n th in k in g a s s u m p t i o n e s p e c i a l l y a m o n g s c h o o l c h i l d r e n t h a t 'W h a t e v e r i s w r i t t e n dow n i s c o r r e c t . ' I h a v e r a r e l y f o u n d a n y o n e w ho w o u ld s a y t h a t p r i n g e d Tong w as i n c o r r e c t e v e n i n p l a c e s w h e re t h e y a d m i t t e d t h a t th e y t h e m s e l v e s w o u ld n e v e r u s e a p a r t i c u l a r fo rm w h ic h I h a d p o i n t e d o u t i n a book..

(32) in. re w ritin g. to. 'N d a k a b o n a '. to. p ro v id e. p a s t in. a ll to. and. a d e s c rip tiv e. th e. in. to. 2 .1. and 2 , I. fo llo w. a p a tte rn. w ill. s im p le. referen c e -a it. th a t I. a ls o. p a s t w h i l e w hen t h e. 1 .2. Pro x im a te. m y s e lf to. th e. th e. am t r y i n g. to. s o lv e. w o u ld s e e m t o. c o u ld. fo r a p ic tu re. c ro ss a). th e. b). seem. tw o p a s t t e n s e s a past. s p o k e n w o rd a s i t. a g a in. I n C h a p te r. sp e a k e rs. n a rra tiv e. is. th e. th e. seem. to. we h a v e s e e n . fo llo w in g .. d is tin c tio n. -a k a - p a s t in. s im ila r. to. o f tim e. a d is c o u rs e. t h a t o f th e. -a k a - p a s t.. to w r ite. s e n te n c e w as s u g g e s te d. s h o w in g a m o to r c a r w h ic h h a d b r a k e d. as. R oad. a. so t h a t a c h ild. ro a d . He s to p p e d. th e c a r. c h ild .. s e n te n c e w as c o r r e c t e d. o v er th e c h ild .. to. re a d ,. a t a m u l y a t i m w ana.. is. fro m. -a k a - p a s t and th e h o d ie rn a l th e. T he fo llo w in g. W a k a i m ik il a m o o ta k u t i. he ru n. h o rta tiv e. and t h e p a s s a g e q u o te d. W a k a im ik ila m o o ta k u t i a t a k a m u l y a t i m w ana.. th e. a s th e. rmmote c o n n o t a t i o n s a s m o d e ls. l e s t h e ru n o v er th e H o w ev er,. F or th e. R e f e r e n c e w i l l b e m ade. be a c le a r. - a - p a s t fo llo w s. R u le s f o r C h i ld r e n .. c a p tio n. -. try. -a -. I t w o u ld. A p o s s i b l e w a y o u t o f t h e d ile m m a w a s f o u n d w h e n tr y in g S a fe ty. s h a ll. fo rm s s u c h. a n o th e r a u th o r.. t h a t o f th e w r itte n. I. e x p e c t.. f o r m s m ay a c q u i r e. t h a t fro m. a tim e r e f e r e n c e and. te n s e. P a r t 1 , C h a p te r 2 .3 ). to. to. o th e r. d e a l w ith p a s s a g e s w h ere th e. th e re. to h av e. le d. 'N k u b o n a '. u se o f th e. s u b ju n c tiv e. am w o r k i n g .. b e tw e e n t h e p r e h o d i e r n a l th e. w o u ld s e e m. th e. o f th e. 4,. h o w e v e r,. a p a s t d is c o u rs e .. am r e s t r i c t i n g. (c f.. s im ila r. s e n te n c e s. in. o u t h ow o t h e r. T h e a n tin o m y w h ic h I In. in c lu d e. th e d is c u s s io n. 'N y o k o N g u m w i' w i l l b e c o m p a r e d w i t h 2,. F irs t,. sem e m e th o d o f d i s t i n g u i s h i n g. f in d. Tonga. c h a n g in g n o ,. n o m in o -v e rb a l and th e. o f my r e c o r d i n g s. to w ritte n. in. o n e w o u ld h a v e b e e n. a p a s t re fe re n c e. A t th e m om ent I. on th e b a s is la te r. abeyance. fin d. b e f o r e g o in g on th e refe re n c e .. th o s e. s ta b ilis e d. o f w h ic h a c q u i r e me n e c e s s a r y. c lu e. fra m e w o rk w h ic h w i l l. o u ts id e. am l e a v i n g. p re s e n t,. g av e a v a lu a b le. t h a t w i l l b e ta k e n up l a t e r .. s itu a tio n s. m om ent I -la -. th e p a s s a g e ,. He s t o p p e d. th e. car. le s t.

(33) 32. S e n te n c e a). c o n ta in s. t e n s e 6 a n d s e n te n c e b) te n s e. 4.. In. s e n te n c e. o v e r th e. (a). c h ild '. o f th e c a r. la c k. (b ). c o n n e c tio n b e tw e e n. seem a g a i n. in. is. th e re. rea so n. m o o ta '. -. c a lle d. is. S u b ju n c tiv e. a n o t h e r '.. th e n ,. c o rre c tio n. s e n te n c e. to. ( 1 .1 .2 ) .. In. (a ). th is. 'k u t i. case,. in. T onga. ru n. to. o v er th e c h ild s to p p e d. th e. w h ile. (b ). th e. th e c a r ',. i.e .. t h a t w hen th e -k a -) to. th e. f o r m s o n e w o u ld. it. f o rm s w h ic h. seem s. by th e. to. tw o s e n t e n c e s. b e tw e e n th e. s to p p in g to. m ean. a v o id. ro a d .. -ak a - p a rt.. The in te r p r e ta tio n. is. tw o t e n s e. -a k a -. fo llo w e d by th e S u b ju n c tiv e ,. f o llo w e d. on. o f th e. fo llo w. th e re. be. a n d a re m o te o r. s u b ju n c tiv e s. -a k a - p a s t is. th e n. be c le a re r.. c h ild .. t h e p o i n t o f v ie w o f o u r i n v e s t i g a t i o n th e s e. a. T en se 4. w as i n t e r p r e t e d. th e. to. ex p re ss. c a r a t t h a t m om ent w as t o. s te p p e d o u t o n to. f a c t t h a t b o th. in. w as a te m p o r a l over. h o w e v e r,. (a). s to p p in g. one s e n te n c e. a t a m u l y a t i ',. a b o u t th e s e. s e n te n c e. re fe rre d. is. in. c o u ld h a r d ly. tw o S u b j u n c t i v e. q u e s tio n e d. w as no c o n n e c t io n. (w h ic h c o n t a i n s. fo rm. is. sh o w t h a t t h e r e. b e tw e e n t h e a c t i o n s te n s e. b u t th e. 'l e s t he. a r e a o f o p p o s i t i o n o f m a rk e d a n d u n m a rk e d. a s th e Tonga I. is. scene. As o n e T o n g a s a i d. t h e m e th o d c h o s e n. of. b e tw e e n t h e s e. i m p o r t a n t fro m th e. E n g lis h. W h ile o n e m ig h t n o t l i k e. th e S u b ju n c tiv e ,. c h i l d w ho h a d. 'H e s t o p p e d fo r. is. t h e m an h a d. k n o c k in g o v e r th e. fo rm s. 1a t a k a m u l y a t i 1 -. s to p p in g o f th e c a r an d n o t ru n n in g. c a r an d n o t ru n n in g. W hat i s. o f th e. b e tw e e n a n im m e d ia te te m p o r a l c o n n e c t i o n. w ere c o n c e rn e d. th a t th e. sam e i n. 'W a k a im i k a m o o t a '. tw o p a r t s. th e. a lre a d y. As f a r. te n s e. in. th e. d o u b tfu l o n e .. o f th e. th e re. th e. h a s b e e n m e n tio n e d an o p p o s itio n. in. a s a s e n te n c e ,. d is tin c tio n. to b e. -k a-. tw o s e n t e n c e s ;. c la u s e. fo rm w as u s e d. W i th t h e. th e. n o t r u n n in g dcw n o f t h e c h i l d .. la tte r. s e n te n c e. is. u n d e rlin e d ,. rem o v e an y te m p o r a l c o n n e c tio n b e tw e e n th e. o f c o n n e c tio n b e tw e e n t h e. and t h i s. is. to. o f th e. 'K u t i a t a k a m u l y a t i m w ana'. In. tw o s e n t e n c e s. a ffirm a tiv e ,. a ffirm a tiv e. g iv e a c o r r e c t d e s c r ip tio n. in s e rtio n. 'T h e r e a r e. c o n s id e r th e. R e m o te S u b j u n c t i v e. th e S u b ju n c tiv e. o f th e. n o t to. w as s a i d. and th e. e x p la n a tio n , and. th e. u n d e rlin e d. c o n ta in s. The tr a n s l a ti o n. f i r s t w as c o n s id e r e d. th e. 'W a k a i m i k a. by th e. w h ic h. re m o te. no te m p o ra l c o n n e c tio n fo rm s. T ense 4 ,. B u t w hen t h e th e n. th e re. sam e is. a. ft.

(34) 33. c lo s e. te m p o r a l c o n n e c tio n b e tw e e n th e. fo rm s. p a s ts w ith. It. w as d e c id e d. R oad S a f e ty .. (3 ). The. firs t. th e y h e r. to o k. ( L i tX. T hen. -a k a - p a s t in. su g g est th a t. 'T h e y h e r. in. is. th e. hands o n ' in te n d e d. 4 sp eak s. -a -. re la tiv e. to. th e y h e r. s e n te n c e s. is. fro m. ta k e n. tw o t e n s e. -a k a - and - a -. fro m t h e. la id. -a-. in d ic a te to. th e. above d e a lin g sp eech o f. p a s t in. t h a t th e. s h o rtly. th e. -a-. in. s u b ju n c tiv e. -a k a - p a s t in no.. 4. a c tio n. re fe rre d a fte r. -a - p ast is. in. it. no.. refers in. no.. a c tio n. u sed a f te r. re fe rre d. to by th e. -a k a -. fo rm .. 3 B akababw eza to. 3.. fo r. 't h e y. her. to o k p la c e The a c tio n. in d ic a te d. by n o .3.. th e -ak a - p a s t in. tim e. W o r k in g o n t h i s. ta k e p la c e. f o r m w o u ld b e e x p e c t e d. (b ). 'a t a m u l y a t i '. 'b a b a t o l a '. to. th e. s e n te n c e. o n t h e a s p e c t o f im m e d ia c y o r p r o x i m i t y. w h e n tw o o r p o s s i b l y m o r e e v e n t s. on one a n o th e r ,. h a n d s o n t h e M a ta b e le. h a n d s on h e r a n d to o k h e r aw ay.. and th e. th e a c tio n. to o k p la c e. a c tio n. la id. b e tw e e n th e. and th e. to. p a s t ta k e s th e. a s s u m p tio n ,. o f th e. ab o v e on th e r e l a t i o n s h i p. I t c o u ld b e assu m e d t h a t w hen t h e th e n. by th e. b a b a to la .. 'W a k a i m i k a '. a te m p o ra l r e l a t i o n s h i p. o f w h ic h n o .. (3 ). th e r e la tio n s h i p. la id. aw ay'. (4 ). T h en t h e M a ta b e le. F ro m w h a t h a s b e e n s a i d. to o k. e x a m p le c h o s e n. uses. to. aw ay.. ( T r a n s .). b e tw e e n t h e. in t e r p r e t th e. e x a m p le t a k e n. b a k a b a b w e z a b a M a ta b e le. T ra n s la tio n. I. to. re fe rre d. ( 1 .4 .2 ) .. L ite r a l T ra n s la tio n (4 ). try. on a m odel b a se d on th e. M a ria H a a k o la Eno. to. a c tio n s. th e. im m e d ia te ly. f o llo w in g. se c o n d and s u b s e q u e n t. v erb s. T h is c o u ld b e p u t fo rw a rd a s o f te n s e a n o th e r. fo rm s i n in. c lo s e. -a k a - p a s t, -a-. p a s t.. of a ll. th e It. th o s e. o ld e r p e o p le V e n e la n d a. a te n ta tiv e. a Tonga n a r r a tiv e . te m p o ra l s e q u e n c e. firs t. an d th e. w i l l b e fo u n d t h a t t h i s. th a n. in. a h ig h e r. in. th e. W hen tw o o r m o r e e v e n t s firs t. se c o n d and s u b s e q u e n t n a r r a ti v e. re c o rd e d , h as. ru le. ru le ,. ( D i s c o u r s e P r e h o d i e r n a l P a s t 6). fo rm. fo llo w. chosen. one. is. v e r b s m ay b e u s e d w i t h. w h ile. in c id e n c e. th a t o f younger ones.. te n s e. s e le c tio n. a p p lic a b le. o f v a lid ity. R e fe re n c e. to. in th e. to th e. th e. th e th e. speech. speech o f. sp eech o f. w i l l show t h a t.

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