Fairytales of Leadership

Master Thesis:

Fairytales of Leadership

An interdisciplinary approach to cross-cultural leadership

June 24, 2019

Word count: 12.392

A

C

The Role of Fairytales ... 5

Research Question ... 6

Relevance of the Research ... 7

Methodology ... 9

Findings ... 13

Overview of the difference with the GLOBE study ... 13

Charismatic / Value-Based and Team-Oriented leadership ... 18

Self-Protective, Participative and Autonomous leadership ... 20

Humane Orientation ... 21

Non-Team-Oriented and Non-Participative behavior ... 23

Discussion ... 29

Limitations and further research ... 31

Limitations ... 31

Future Research ... 32

References ... 34

Appendix A: GLOBE leadership scores... 41

Germanic Europe ... 43

Confucian Asia ... 44

Anglo Cluster ... 45

Appendix C: The Six Leadership Scales ... 46

Appendix D: 10 analyzed Fairytales ... 51

Germanic Cluster ... 51

Confucian Asia ... 52

Introduction Cross-Cultural Leadership

I

C

-C

L

Introduction Previous Research

knowledge and training to managers in cross-cultural settings. Qualitative studies from different cultural contexts can thus be of value in this research field (Moan & Hetland, 2012). According to Ofori and Toor (2008), future research should focus on a ‘multidisciplinary perspective’ to examine the complexity of cross-cultural leadership and determine how these skills can be developed; as research and practice need to establish effective and efficient methods to train professionals for cross-cultural projects (Mendenhall and Oddou, 1985).

P

R

Cross-cultural leadership research focuses on the direct or moderating impact of cultural phenomena on leadership (Brodbeck & Eisenbeiss, 2014). Since Hofstede (1980, 1984) presented his cultural dimensions (Power Distance, Individualism,

Masculinity/femininity, Long-term Orientation, and Uncertainty Avoidance) based on

his 53 nations study about cultural values in 1980, interest flared and multiple researchers have attempted to capture the influence and values of culture. Among others Trompenaars (1993), who conducted an employee value survey in 46 nations and Hall (1999), who developed his low and high context criteria to understand cultural differences. Recent cross-cultural studies focus on applying these findings, to address the impact of cultural differences (Taras, Kirkman, & Steel, 2010). Those projects tried to resolve the most prominent conceptual and methodological limitations in comparative cross-cultural research. However, there are two issues concerning theses value-based approaches to culture which this study will discuss in the following section.

Introduction Previous Research

the world (House et al, 2004). The project was developed by Robert J. House from the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania and employed qualitative methods to assist their development of quantitative instruments (House et al, 2004). The project raised the importance of cross-cultural studies in management training by visualizing how culture changes managerial leadership (House et al, 2004). They postulated six leadership dimensions, which are Charismatic Leadership,

Team-Oriented Leadership, Participative Leadership, Humane-Team-Oriented Leadership, Autonomous Leadership, and Self-Protective Leadership. To encompass this

knowledge of cultural influence a consensual and culture-common definition of leadership was attempted by the GLOBE project. They conceptualize organizational leadership as “the ability of an individual to influence, motivate, and enable others to contribute to the effectiveness and success of the organizations of which they are members” (House et al., 1997, p. 548).

Introduction Interdisciplinarity of Culture

I

C

The editors of the Handbook of Cultural Analysis; Tony Bennett and John Frow (2008), propose that, if the study of culture is concerned, disciplines and fields cannot be seen as separate entities with disconnect histories, their own theories or methods. In other words, the study of culture is an endeavor that links several disciplines and fields (Bennett & Frow, 2008). Classical literature and a humanities-oriented approach might offer solutions to the above-mentioned limitations of previous research by stimulating more creative thinking and allow managers to envision and prepare for different scenarios and dilemmas. Generally, more effective leadership could lead to benefits such as better strategy development and communication (Porter, 1996). Thus we should be thinking not only about differences within and between disciplines but also about similarities and connections between disciplines (Crane, 2010) as “inter-disciplinarity is widely considered to be one of the main sources of scientific discovery.” (E. Shiu, 2014, p. 2).

Introduction The Role of Fairytales

2012; Egan, 2000; Stevenson, 1996), a branch of literature not as acknowledged in this context are folklores and fairytales.

T

R

F

Fairytales could possibly offer great insights into cross-cultural leadership research. This new and innovative approach is founded in Hofstede’s insights into the expression of culture through language. As Hofstede (2015) stated, language is one of the ways through which culture expresses itself. This can be verbal, through the use of body language, or the written word. The multilevel nature of accents, dialects, and languages can be utilized, not only to draw parallels but to paint vivid pictures of culture. The human main language capabilities and our accents are developed during our childhood. Thus to keep the comparison, our culture too develops an “accent” in our youth, which reveals much of our upbringing. Though, as this is a fitting analogy one must remember that culture reaches deeper than language, it also encompasses tacit knowledge of our understanding of unspoken communication, the implicit understanding about relationships, and the foundation of our value systems (Hofstede, 2015). This makes the literature of childhood an excellent subject to study cultural influences.

Introduction Research Question

This development is also in accordance with Klenke’s (2002) observation of “a growing interest in the leadership, management and organizational behavior literature in storytelling, both as a qualitative methodology and a vehicle for organizational change and transformation” (Klenke, 2002, p. 19). Fairytales offer insights into relationships, values, decision processes, and prevailing over conflicts of injustice and morale (Klenke, 2002). They thus present a moral compass as well as observations of the practices, believes, and values in different cultures, which are not only relevant and insightful for leadership research but could offer new leadership training opportunities.

R

Q

Bharadwaj (2014) has shown in her study that if applying theories of intercultural management to the leadership, communication, and management in Shakespeare’s literature, evidence of a strong cultural connection to his native country emerges, hence his writings cannot be adopted in other parts of the world. The Confucian Asia Cluster for example values leaders are protective of their own leadership, not very participative, and who can take independent decisions, the Southeast Asia cluster on the other hand values independent decision-makers, and paternalistic leadership (Bharadwaj, 2014).

While her study demonstrated the applicability of literature to cultural leadership, it also highlights the limitation. Bharadwaj (2014) concluded that an author, even one as great as Shakespeare, cannot shed his cultural upbringing and consequently the inherent behavior and values guiding his views and ideas.

Introduction Relevance of the Research

Thus an appropriate medium to combine these two disciplines remains to be found. She states, that every culture has its own literary tradition and can, therefore, look for successful models of leadership in the books renown for generations. (Bharadwaj, 2014)

This study is proposed, to analyze, if fairytales and folklore could bridge this gap and study if they offer valuable insights into cross-cultural leadership as they are uniquely embedded in national literary traditions and frequently employed during the childhood development. Thus to answer her call for further inquiries in this niche of inter-disciplinary leadership research, my research question follows: How do the fairytales we grow up with reflect cultural differences in leadership?

To evaluate the suitability of fairytales the findings will be compared to the results of the GLOBE study on cultural leadership, and commonalities and differences in leadership preference will be compared and discussed.

R

R

Introduction Relevance of the Research

managers as an innovative and useful approach to teach leadership and improve the effectiveness of one’s leadership style. Thus it will also offer practical relevance for leaders of organizations, since understanding the cultural differences is vital in expat managers and international organizations. It also contributes to a better understanding of cross-cultural leadership. Fairytales and storytelling might not only help to improve the understanding of these differences but offer a new method to teach cross-cultural leadership. To this end, this thesis attempts to contribute to the existing academic literature by exploring a new method to understand and teach cultural leadership preferences, and by analyzing whether fairytales are a promising approach, which contributes effectively to the existing theory of cross-cultural leadership.

Methodology

M

Leadership has been perceived as a social process (Conger, 1998) that is heavily influenced by the particular circumstance (Zaccaro et al., 2001), thus researchers have argued that the leadership phenomena should be studied through qualitative approaches (Bryman, 2004), such as the use of directed content analysis (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005), to distinguish cultural leadership values. According to Hsieh and Shannon (2005), content analysis as a flexible method for analyzing text data ranging from impressionistic, intuitive, interpretive analyses to systematic, strict textual analyses. According to them “research using qualitative content analysis focuses on the characteristics of language as communication with attention to the content or contextual meaning of the text […] Qualitative content analysis goes beyond merely counting words to examining language intensely for the purpose of classifying large amounts of text into an efficient number of categories that represent similar meanings” (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005, p. 1278). They define qualitative content analysis as a research method for the subjective interpretation of the content of text data through the systematic classification process of coding and identifying themes or patterns.

Methodology

and management studies, focusing on leadership, in order to try to give an appropriate answer to the research question; how do the fairytales we grow up with

reflect cultural differences in leadership?

The data that is needed to provide an answer to this question was collected via desk research. The research method consists of interpretations of fairytales from three distinct GLOBE cultural clusters in the light of issues regarding leadership, in order to set up a fundament to build on further. The characteristics and behavior, shown in regard to leadership, were analyzed in detail. The existence of the cultural differences and assumptions was kept in mind while conducting the analysis in order to minimize the culture bias.

The study includes ten distinct and meaningful fairytales per GLOBE cluster. Meaningfulness was the criteria for inclusion and exclusion of stories, the fairytales had to be interpretable in the context of leadership, and have a length between 3000 and 4000 words. This limit was chosen to result in equal size samples for each cluster with enough substance for the analysis and to provide at least the suggested ten fairytales for each cluster. Multiple countries of origin for each cluster were included in the initial selection of stories in order to consider intra-cluster differences. However, after applying the length filter, not all of the countries included in the first round were deemed as eligible. To be able to theoretically have influenced leadership practices of today, the stories had to be written over 30 years ago and published in children’s story-/ fairytale- /folklore book. Additionally all stories had to be either written or translated into German or English. The final fairytales included in the study were selected randomly within each cluster.

Methodology

part of this analysis. The fairytales were categorized by length; Appendix B shows a detailed list of the stories deemed suitable for the study and presents the final selection.

The chosen clusters for this study are Anglo, Germanic Europe, and Confucian Asia. Due to the closeness of the Anglo and Germanic cluster, the impact of the cultural differences may be more nuanced; also the need to translate the stories is missing. To include a completely different perspective, the Confucian Asia cluster was chosen for this study, to be able to see if the unique worldviews and values of Asian countries’ may reflect differently in fairytales. Therefore allowing to analyze, if fairytales present an universal medium reflecting very unique and distinct cultures. Table 1 shows similarities and differences in the three clusters according to the GLOBE study.

Table 1: Leadership preferences according to the GLOBE study

Cluster High ranking leadership dimensions

Confucian Asia _{Humane-Oriented, Autonomous, and Self-Protective Leadership}

Germanic Europe Team-Oriented, Charismatic, Participative, and Autonomous leaders

Anglo Cluster Team- and Humane-Oriented, Charismatic, and Participative

Leadership

Source: Own, GLOBE leadership scores see Appendix A

Methodology

via atlas.ti. A list detailing the codes and criteria used to indicate the six leadership dimensions of the GLOBE study; Charismatic Leadership, Team-Oriented Leadership, Participative Leadership, Humane-Oriented Leadership, Autonomous Leadership, and Self-Protective Leadership is presented in Appendix C.

After this within-analysis, the frequency and specific use of codes in each cluster was analyzed, to see if certain leadership styles are dominantly represented. Afterward, a cross-cluster analysis was conducted, to show if fairytales represent cultural differences across the chosen clusters and if those reflect the findings of the GLOBE study. This cross-analysis gives insights into patterns and enhances the probability of a theory that is reliable and accurate (Eisenhardt, 1989). After the analysis, the results were compared to each other, as well as to previous finding in literature.

Findings Overview of the difference with the GLOBE study

F

In order to show whether fairytales can contribute to cross-cultural leadership research and teachings, this chapter will present the findings of the analysis. The chapter is divided into the leadership dimension to give a comprehensive overview of the similarities, differences, and possible contributions to leadership studies. The results of the analysis indicate a connection between the behavior demonstrated in fairytales and the preferred leadership style, as found by the GLOBE project.

O

GLOBE

The analyzed fairytales displayed below (Table 2 and Table 3) present the results of the GLOBE leadership study and my fairytale analysis. Each Table shows the cluster scores for the six leadership dimensions as well as a ranking of the three clusters, used in this analysis to allow for comparison.

Table 2: Results GLOBE study

C h ar ism at ic / Va lu e -b a sed G lo b a l L ead er sh ip D im en si o n T eam -O ri e n te d G lo b a l L ead er sh ip D im en si o n Se lf -P ro tect iv e G lo b a l L ead er sh ip D im en si o n P ar ti ci p at iv e G lo b a l L ead er sh ip D im en si o n H u m a n e -O ri e n te d G lo b a l L ead er sh ip D im en si o n A u to n o m o u s G lo b a l L ead er sh ip D im en si o n Confucian Asia 5,63* 3** 5,61 3 3,72 1 4,99 3 5,04 2 4,04 2 Germanic 5,93 2 5,62 2 3,03 3 5,86 1 4,71 3 4,16 1 Anglo 6,04 1 5,74 1 3,08 2 5,72 2 5,08 1 3,82 3

Source: Own, GLOBE Phase 2 Aggregated Societal Level Data for Leadership Scales: May 17, 2004, https://globeproject.com/data/GLOBE-Phase-2-Aggregated-Leadership-Data.xls

Findings Overview of the difference with the GLOBE study

The Germanic Europe cluster values Charismatic, Participative, Team-Oriented, and Autonomous leaders. The Team-Orientation score, while among the highest in the Germanic cluster, was below average in the cross-cluster comparison and Participative leadership had the highest score of all clusters. Self-Protective Leadership behavior was seen as negative. The Confucian Asia cluster endorsed Charismatic and Team-Oriented leadership styles the highest, but Participative, Humane-Oriented, and Autonomous leadership were also valued. But Charismatic, Team-Oriented and Participative leadership were still rated below average in the comparison with all other clusters and though receiving a low score Self-Protective Leadership was scored highest compared to all clusters. The Anglo Cluster showed the highest value of all clusters in the dimension for Charismatic leadership. Participative, Team- and Humane-Oriented Leadership were also highly endorsed while Self-Protective Leadership behavior was seen as negative as in the Germanic cluster (Chhokar, Brodbeck & House, 2007; Appendix A).

Table 3: Results of fairytale analysis

C h ar ism at ic / Va lu e -b a sed G lo b a l L ead er sh ip D im en si o n T eam -O ri e n te d G lo b al L ead er sh ip D im en si o n Se lf -P ro tect iv e G lo b a l L ead er sh ip D im en si o n P ar ti ci p at iv e G lo b a l L ead er sh ip D im en si o n H u m a n e -O ri e n te d G lo b a l L ead er sh ip D im en si o n A u to n o m o u s G lo b a l L ead er sh ip D im en si o n Confucian Asia 38* 3** (3)*** 24 3 (3) 32 1 (1) 3 3 (3) 26 1 (2) 8 2 (2) Germanic 55 2 (2) 40 1 (2) 14 3 (3) 9 2 (1) 25 3 (3) 11 1 (1) Anglo 64 1 (1) 34 2 (1) 14 3 (2) 11 1 (2) 26 1 (1) 6 3 (3)

Source: Own, atlas.ti

* Absolute number of occurrences of codes indicating this leadership dimension ** ranked from 1 (highest) to 3 (lowest)

Findings Overview of the difference with the GLOBE study

For the most part, the analysis came to the same ranking results as the GLOBE study. The differences marked in red are predominantly switches between the first and second highest score and results from two clusters having the same indicator code results. This might be due to the fact that the differences in the GLOBE leadership score results are only in the decimal area. In the case of the Self-Protective and Humane-Oriented leadership, two clusters received the same ranking, this might be due to the sample size as the differences in the GLOBE results were less than 0,05 points and thus require a larger sample to become more prominent.

Findings Overview of the difference with the GLOBE study

Table 4: Leadership behavior found in fairytales

Anglo Asian German Totals

Row-relative* Row-relative Row-relative Absolute**

Charismatic / Value-Based leadership 40,76% 24,20% 35,03% 157 Team-Oriented leadership 34,69% 24,49% 40,82% 98 Non-Team-Oriented leadership 44,19% 18,60% 37,21% 43 Self-Protective leadership 22,95% 52,46% 24,59% 61 Participative leadership 47,83% 13,04% 39,13% 23 Non-Participative leadership 37,50% 9,38% 53,13% 32 Humane-Oriented leadership 33,77% 33,77% 32,47% 77 Autonomous leadership 24,00% 32,00% 44,00% 25

Source: Own, atlas.ti

* Row-relative: percentage of codes in the leadership dimension appertaining to the cluster ** Absolute: absolute occurrence of codes indication the leadership dimensions

Findings Overview of the difference with the GLOBE study

Team-Oriented leadership show the highest percentages in this column, the German cluster as well represents about a third of the Humane-Orientation leadership codes and one-quarter of the Self-Protective leadership style indicators.

Codes for Charismatic / Value-Based Leadership are mainly found in the Anglo and German cluster, only about a quarter of the corresponding codes are found in the Confucian Asia cluster as can be seen in Table 4. The same is true for Team-Oriented leadership. Allover these two leadership dimensions are found over two hundred times which represents half of the codes, found in the analysis.

52% of the codes, used to categorize the Self-Protective leadership dimension, are found in the Asian cluster. In the Participative leadership dimension, over 80% of the codes used to measure this dimension are found in the Anglo and German cluster (Table 4). Autonomous leadership is highest in the Asian and German cluster, representing over 75% of the codes found in this dimension, as shown in Table 4. The two clusters have the highest scores in this dimension but the Anglo cluster is still represented by almost one quarter.

Findings Charismatic / Value-Based and Team-Oriented leadership

C

/

V

-B

T

-O

While it is true that the GLOBE study found that the leadership dimensions considered most positive in Confucian Asia include Charismatic / Value-Based and Team-Oriented Leadership, even though they were less positively rated than in the average of all other clusters (see Appendix A). Thus, these results still lead to assume a high correlation between the values taught in fairytales and the reality found in leadership preference studies.

An explanation for high values in Team-Orientation could be that about 70% of the codes in the Asian cluster originate from the behavior for group-orientation or loyalty (shown in Table 5 below in combination with Appendix C).

Table 5: Detailed coding scores of the Team-Orientation leadership dimension

Anglo Asian German Totals

CODES Absolute*

Column-relative** Absolute Column-relative Absolute Column-relative Absolute Administratively competent 0 0,00% 1 3,70% 2 4,65% 3 Collaborative Team Orientation 24 64,86% 19 70,37% 33 76,74% 76 Team Integrator Diplomatic 13 35,14% 7 25,93% 8 18,60% 28 Totals 37 100,00% 27 100,00% 43 100,00% 107

Source: Own, atlas.ti

* Absolute: absolute occurrence of codes indication the leadership dimensions ** Column-relative: percentage of codes in the cluster appertaining to the code

Findings Charismatic / Value-Based and Team-Oriented leadership

honest, just and trustworthy behavior. The other two clusters are more equally divided among the endorsed leadership measurements.

Table 6: Detailed coding scores of the Charismatic leadership dimension

Anglo Asian German Totals

CODES Absolute*

Column-relative** Absolute Column-relative Absolute Column-relative Absolute Decisive 17 24,29% 6 15,00% 6 9,38% 29 Inspirational 11 15,71% 6 15,00% 12 18,75% 29 Integrity 15 21,43% 16 40,00% 18 28,13% 49 Performance-oriented 0 0,00% 1 2,50% 9 14,06% 10 Self-Sacrifice 24 34,29% 6 15,00% 8 12,50% 38 Visionary 3 4,29% 5 12,50% 11 17,19% 19 Totals 70 100,00% 40 100,00% 64 100,00% 174

Source: Own, atlas.ti

* Absolute: absolute occurrence of codes indication the leadership dimensions ** Column-relative: percentage of codes in the cluster appertaining to the code

A prime example for the Anglo cluster leadership values is the story of the happy prince. The happy prince is a statue saddened by the misery and the treatment of the less fortunate in his city. One day, a swallow comes by on his way to Egypt. The prince enlists his help to give the gemstones he is decorated wit to the poor. The happy prince is so compassionate and generous that he gives all he has away; he sacrifices himself to help those no one else will.

Findings Self-Protective, Participative and Autonomous leadership

swooped past the match-girl, and slipped the jewel into the palm of her hand. ‘What a lovely bit of glass,’ cried the little girl; and she ran home, laughing. Then the Swallow came back to the Prince. ‘You are blind now,’ he said, ‘so I will stay with you always.’ ‘No, little Swallow,’ said the poor Prince, ‘you must go away to Egypt.’ ‘I will stay with you always,’ said the Swallow, and he slept at the Prince’s feet.

- The Happy Prince, Oscar Wilde, Irish1

The swallow says with the prince until he freezes to death because he could not leave the blind prince, he is loyal and concerned with the needs of the group, thus, in the end, he sacrifices himself in contrast to the prince, not for compassion but loyalty. Therefore this story is a perfect representation of the leadership values in the Anglo cluster, Humane- and Team- Orientation, Participative and Charismatic leadership.

S

-P

,

P

A

The findings are in accordance with the results of the GLOBE study as Confucian Asia has one of the highs ranks in this dimension and the only one ranking self-protectiveness above the cluster average by the three selected regions.

The same is true for the Participative leadership dimension; out of all the regions used in the GLOBE study, Confucian Asia ranged Participative leadership the lowest, while the other two clusters both indicated an above average preference for this leadership style.

Autonomous leadership is also in accordance with the findings of the globe study, but due to the low number of codes (25) indicating this behavior the results are

1

Findings Humane Orientation

not as distinct. There is no reason to assume, that a bigger sample would not correct these findings.

H

O

In the Humane-Orientation and Self-Protective leadership style dimensions, the German cluster countries rate well below average in the GLOBE study. This was not reflected in the findings; here Humane-Oriented leadership is almost equally represented in all clusters. An explanation might be to the small sample size or the genre itself, as 92% of the codes used to categorize the humane-orientation stem from codes for generosity and compassion as can be seen in Table 7.

Table 7: Detailed coding scores of the Humane-Orientation leadership dimension

Anglo Asian German Totals

CODES Absolute*

Column-relative** Absolute Column-relative Absolute Column-relative Absolute Humane orientation 24 92,31% 20 66,67% 23 92,00% 67 Modesty 2 7,69% 10 33,33% 2 8,00% 14 Totals 26 100,00% 30 100,00% 25 100,00% 81

Source: Own, atlas.ti

* Absolute: absolute occurrence of codes indication the leadership dimensions ** Column-relative: percentage of codes in the cluster appertaining to the code

For example, in the fairytale of Snow-White it is the compassion and generosity of the hunter and the dwarfs which saves the princess in the beginning.

Findings Humane Orientation

she told them that her step-mother had wished to have her killed, but that the huntsman had spared her life, and that she had run for the whole day, until at last she had found their dwelling. The dwarfs said, ‘If you will take care of our house, cook, make the beds, wash, sew, and knit, and if you will keep everything neat and clean, you can stay with us and you shall want for nothing.’

- Little Snow-White. Brothers Grimm, German2

Another example for generosity in the German cluster is the story of the Golden Mermaid, about a prince going on a long journey but as he passes a starving wolf he offers him his horse even though his trip will be much harder without a horse and he may not succeed in his quest. His compassion wins and he offers his most valuable resource to the wolf.

His path led him first through a wood, and he hadn’t gone very far when he met a lean-looking wolf who stood still as he approached. The Prince asked him if he were hungry, and when the wolf said he was, he got down from his horse and said, ‘If you are really as you say and look, you may take my horse and eat it.’

- The Golden Mermaid, Andrew Lang's Fairy Books, German3

This leads to the conclusion that these acts of humane orientation might be an essential element of the genre as in each cluster at least 8 out of 10 stories contain such elements, as can be seen in the tables in Appendix D.

2

Grimm & Grimm, 2004, Little Snow-White, para. 27

3

Findings Non-Team-Oriented and Non-Participative behavior

N

-T

-O

N

-P

The assumption regarding the Non-Team-Oriented and Non-Participative leadership subcategories is, that this negative behavior would be used to demonstrate undesirable behavior instead of displaying favorable actions to inspire certain manners as assumed during the analysis of the other leadership dimensions. Table 8 presents the Code-Co-Occurrences of the aspects of the Non-Team-Oriented and Non-Participative leadership dimensions in combination with the role of the character employing them.

Table 8: Code-Co-Occurrence of negative conduct and the role of the character

Evil Character Hero Royal Stature Victim

CODE Ger. Ang. Asia Ger. Ang. Asia Ger. Ang. Asia Ger. Ang. Asia

Autocratic 8* 1 0 0 2 0 5 3 3 3 0 0

Non-Participative 6 2 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 4 0

Malevolent 9 10 5 0 5 0 3 1 1 4 3 2

Totals 23 13 5 0 7 0 9 4 4 7 7 2

Source: Own, atlas.ti

* Absolute: absolute occurrence of codes indication the behavior displayed in a certain character type and cluster

As Table 8 above shows autocratic and non-participative behavior in the Anglo and German cluster are predominantly present in evil, royal or victim characters. The following quotation is a prime example of how victims require the hero to save them from the consequences of their actions.

The first sister, who had reclaimed the bag of the mothers gold from the old hag had not gone far when she met a horse grazing in a

Findings Non-Team-Oriented and Non-Participative behavior

she had in her hand, and drove him out of her way. […] Then she came to a mill. The mill said: ‘O, turn me! Turn me! for I haven’t been turned these seven years.’ But she did not heed what it said, only went in and lay down behind the mill door, with the bag under her head, for it was then night. When the hag came into her hut again and found the girl gone, […] she started to run as fast as she could after her. She had not gone far when she met the horse, and she said: ‘O, horse, horse of mine, did you see this maid of mine, […]’ ‘Ay,’ said the horse, ‘it is not long since she passed here.’ […] So she goes on, and it was not long before she met the mill, and said she: ‘Mill, mill of mine, did you see this maid of mine, […]’ and the mill said: ‘Yes, she is sleeping behind the door.’ She went in and struck her with a white rod, and turned her into a stone. She then took the bag of gold and silver on her back, and went away back home.

- The Old Hag's Long Leather Bag, Laure Claire Foucher, Irish4

The first girl’s individually-oriented and hostile behavior lead to her being turned to stone. The same happened to the second sister. When the third sister faced the tasks she reacted differently. She was helpful and took the time to help others who in turn responded by rewarding her actions with loyalty. Whereas the first and second sister’s undesirable actions of Non-Participative and Non-Team-Oriented leadership behavior were punished; which is in accordance with the findings of the GLOBE study. The third sister showed compassion and generosity by spending her valuable time to flee on helping others. As this is desirable leadership behavior in the Anglo cluster, the third sister was rewarded, when the hag followed her, she had earned the loyalty of the horse and mil because she did not think of herself but the

4

Findings Non-Team-Oriented and Non-Participative behavior

welfare of the group. This confirms the Participatory leadership style orientation of the Anglo clusters. Texts with a similar effect can be found in the German cluster.

The tailor asked, ‘Goat, art thou satisfied?’ she replied, ‘I have

eaten so much, Not a leaf more I’ll touch, meh! meh!’ ‘Come home, then,’ said the tailor, and led her into the stable, and tied her fast. When he was going away, he turned round again and said, ‘Well, art thou satisfied for once?’ But the goat did not behave better to him, and cried, ‘Wherewithal should I be satisfied? Among the graves I leapt about, And found no leaves, so went without, meh! meh!’ When the tailor heard that, he was shocked, and saw clearly that he had driven away his three sons without cause. ‘Wait, thou ungrateful creature,’ cried he, ‘it is not enough to drive thee forth, I will mark thee so that thou wilt no more dare to show thyself amongst honest tailors’ In great haste he ran upstairs, fetched his razor, lathered the goat’s head, and shaved her as clean as the palm of his hand.

- The Wishing-Table, the Gold-Ass, and the Cudgel in the Sack, Brothers Grimm, German5

The dishonest behavior of the goat and the autocratic conduct of the tailor led not only to the goat being punished and driven away but the tailor losing his three sons as he did not listen to reason. This fairytale demonstrated the preference for a Participative and Team-Oriented leadership style in the German cluster.

In Asian countries, autocratic and non-participative behavior is only displayed in royal characters, such as emperors, kings or princes. The following section from a Japanese fairytale is a prime example of the difference in the three clusters.

5

Findings Non-Team-Oriented and Non-Participative behavior

[…] his Highness, Prince Fire Flash, flew into a great rage, and stamping his feet, required the fish-hook of his brother. And Prince Fire Fade made answer, ‘Sweet brother, I have not thy fish-hook, but the deep sea, whose bottom no man may search. Though I should die for thee, yet could I not give thee back thy fish-hook.’ But his elder brother required it of him the more urgently. Then Prince Fire Fade burst the wild wistaria tendrils which bound his august ten-grasp sword to his side. And he said, ‘Farewell, good sword.’ And he broke it into many fragments, and made five hundred fish-hooks to give to his brother, Prince Fire Flash. But Prince Fire Flash would have none of them. And again Prince Fire Fade toiled at a great furnace, and made one thousand fish-hooks; and upon his knees he humbly offered them to his brother, Prince Fire Flash. For he loved his brother. Nevertheless Prince Fire Flash would not so much as look at them, but sat moody, his head on his hand, saying, ‘Mine own lost fish-hook will I have, that and no other.’

- The Sea King and the Magic Jewels, Green Willow and Other Japanese Fairy Tales, Japanese6

While on one hand the Prince Fire Flash is very selfish, agitated and commanding in his demands, to have his fishhook returned pointing to an autocratic, malevolent and non-participative personality, his brother Prince Fire Fade, on the other hand, stays calm, compassionate and is even willing to destroy his sword his most prized possession. This behavior and his desire to make his brother happy again is what gets him rewarded in this tale. Thus in contrast to the Anglo and

6

Findings Non-Team-Oriented and Non-Participative behavior

German clusters, bad behavior does not lead to punishment but desirable actions are rewarded.

These illustrations confirm the value of Participative leadership in the Anglo and German cluster and the disregard of Non-Participative in the Confucian Asia cluster as instead of being punished it is completely ignored.

Malevolent activities, on the other hand, are utilized in a similar way across the different cultural clusters. It is predominantly used by evil characters and to highlight undesirable behavior which leads to the person being punished or requiring help.

’My son, wilt thou have an apple?’ and she looked wickedly at him. ’Mother,’ said the little boy, ‘how dreadful you look! Yes, give me an apple.’ Then it seemed to her as if she were forced to say to him, ‘Come with me,’ and she opened the lid of the chest and said, ‘Take out an apple for thyself,’ and while the little boy was stooping inside, the Devil prompted her, and crash! she shut the lid down, and his head flew off and fell among the red apples. Then she was overwhelmed with terror, and thought, ‘If I could but make them think that it was not done by me!’ So she went upstairs to her room to her chest of drawers, and took a white handkerchief out of the top drawer, and set the head on the neck again, and folded the handkerchief so that nothing could be seen, and she set him on a chair in front of the door, and put the apple in his hand.

- The Juniper-Tree, Brothers Grimm, German7

7

Findings Non-Team-Oriented and Non-Participative behavior

The step-mother hated her son thus to get rid of him she beheads him. This dishonest and hostile behavior is what gets her killed in the end. In the Asian cluster, a similar behavior of a couple planning to kill their daughter is used to demonstrate their evilness, but does not result in them getting punished outright, however in the girl ascending into a goddess.

’The mandarin cares only about boys,’ said he roughly. ‘A man might kill a dozen girls and he wouldn’t say a word.’ ‘Lu-san’s no good anyway,’ added the mother. ‘Our boat is small, and she’s always in the wrong place.’ ‘Yes, and it takes as much to feed her as if she were a boy. If you say so, I’ll do it this very night.’ ‘All right,’ she answered, ‘but you’d better wait till the moon has set.’ ‘Very well, wife, we’ll let the moon go down first, and then the girl.’

- Lu-San, Daughter of Heaven, A Chinese Wonder Book, Chinese8

While this negative behavior is less present in the Asian cluster, compared to the Anglo and German, this might, in contrast to the Non-Participative leadership style, not be an indicator of a preference for Team-Orientated leadership but to symbolize the evilness and accentuate the superior conduct of the hero.

8

Discussion

D

To answer the research question “How do the fairytales we grow up with reflect cultural differences in leadership?” the discussion will begin by providing a summary of the findings, followed by a consideration of possible explanations for the differences presented in the findings.

For the most part, the analysis came to the same ranking results as the GLOBE study. As mentioned, the GLOBE study shows a clear preference for Charismatic and Team-Oriented Leadership in all clusters, the same is true in this study, and almost half of all codes used are to indicate these two leadership preferences. Looking at the ranking of the clusters within the different leadership dimensions few discrepancies appear and most of these seem to be due to the sample size. Thus clusters scoring closely in the GLOBE study are not distinct enough to show this differentiation in the analysis of ten fairytales.

An important finding is the seemingly over-representation of humane-orientation in the fairytales. It was postulated, that this might be due to the genre as indicator codes were compassion and generosity. While the German cluster ranked below average in the GLOBE study, my findings revealed an almost equal distribution across all clusters for the leadership style of Humane-Orientation.

Discussion

Nevertheless, each cluster has distinct differences and preferred leadership styles which the fairytales clearly indicate and reflect. Additionally, there seems to be a strong correlation between my findings in fairytales and the results of the GLOBE study. As the analysis of the thirty fairytales from the Anglo, Germanic Europe and Confucian Asia clusters has shown, they do reflect cultural leadership preference differences. Consequently, this leads to the conclusion that the use of fairytales to study and teach cross-cultural leadership differences is viable if the medium is kept in mind and thus the hypothesized general humane-orientation is considered. The stories represent the differences in leadership preference, found by the GLOBE study to a varying extent. Therefore fairytales could be used by expat managers, international organizations or educational institutes to improve the understanding of these cultural differences and offer a new method to teach cross-cultural leadership.

The unique foundation of fairytales in the history and imagination of the different clusters present a diverse and rich material base. They not only use positive examples but negative deterrence as well. The popularity of these fairytales does not seem to be relevant, even though they can only influence people and behavior if they are read, every fairytale can still be useful to educate and illustrate cultural leadership differences. This widely accessible, known and understood literary medium may be more diversified and thus interesting to a broader audience. Nevertheless, this being an initial research into the combination of leadership and fairytales, future research on the practical applicability needs to be conducted.

Limitations and further research

L

In the following, the limitations of the study will be point out, and recommendations for further research will be given.

L

Some limitations regarding the analysis process have been previously mentioned, in the methodology section. This first limitation lies in the analysis of the characteristics and behavior, the text itself. As interpretations are subjective and influenced by the researches understanding and cultural background, true objectivity is difficult to reach during the coding process. This culture bias was cognizant during the analysis in order to minimize this culture bias, but it can only be minimized. Another closely linked limitation lies in the interdisciplinarity of this research, as I don’t have a background in the humanities and thus was unfamiliar with the approach and the research method used. As the content analysis is used to quantify qualitative data it bridges between both research methods. The culture bias can only be eliminated by looking at one’s own culture and would thus require multiple researches with different cultural backgrounds to conduct the research. This approach, of in this case combining different academic backgrounds would also eliminate the limitations due to the interdisciplinarity of the research.

Limitations and further research

A final limitation resides in the chosen clusters for this study. Even though the reasons for the choice in clusters were explained, the analysis of a different set of clusters might have different results. Furthermore countries with high colonization e.g. the United States of America and Australia were excluded from the analysis as this history resulted in a mix of different cultures and thus not paint a clear picture in such a small sample of this study.

F

R

Future research could continue this direction of research and expand this study to include more clusters and larger samples to validate the results and verify the hypothesis made to explain the differences found.

While this study tested the suitability of fairytales to explain leadership difference further research could focus on the applicability and the acceptance of fairytales in this context. As even though the medium appears suitable, a new and interesting method to learn and teach about cross-cultural leadership, fairytale and folklore studies are not a well known or highly revered academic discipline. In a business context, one interesting question could be whether this is an accepted and favored medium to educate.

A second possibility for future research is to focus on popular fairytales and analyze the influence they had on today’s business leaders, as a different approach to the topic of fairytales and leadership and the field of interdisciplinary leadership research as a whole.

sub-Limitations and further research

References

R

Alexander, J. C. & Seidman, S. (1990). Culture and society: contemporary debates. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Avolio, B. J., Walumbwa, F. O. & Weber, T. J. (2009). Leadership: Current Theories, Research, and Future Directions. Annual Review of Psychology, 60(1), 421-449. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163621

Banks, R. J., Ledbetter, B. M., & Greenhalgh, D. C. (2016). Reviewing leadership (engaging culture): A Christian evaluation of current approaches. Baker Academic.

Bass, B. M. (2008). Globalization and cross national effects. In B. M. Bass & R. Bass (Eds.), The Bass handbook of leadership: Theory, research, and managerial applications, 980-1048. New York, NY: Free Press.

Bennett T. & Frow, J. (edt.) (2008). The SAGE Handbook of Cultural Analysis, http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781848608443

Bharadwaj, A. (2014). Shakespeare on Leadership, Communication and Management - Implications for Cross-cultural Business Contexts. Journal of Creative Communications 9(2), 161-184

Brodbeck, F. C., & Eisenbeiss, S., (2014). Cross-Cultural and Global Leadership, in Day, D. V. The Oxford Handbook of Leadership and Organizations,

DOI:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199755615.013.032

Brodbeck, F. C., Chhokar, J. & House, R. (2007). Culture and leadership in 25 societies: Integration, conclusions, and future directions. In J. Chhokar, F. C. Brodbeck, & R. House (Eds.), Managerial cultures of the world: A GLOBE report of in-depth studies of the cultures of 25 countries, 1025-1102. Mahwah, NJ: LEA Publishers.

References

Chhokar, J., Brodbeck, F. C. & House, R. (2007). Culture and leadership across the world. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers

Collinson, D., & Tourish, D. (2015). Teaching leadership critically: New directions for leadership pedagogy. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 14(4), 576-594.

Coutu, D. (2006). Leadership in literature. A conversation with business ethicist Joseph L. Badaracco, Jr. Harvard Business Review, 84(3), 47-55.

Crow, G., & Grogan, M. (2011). The Development of Leadership Thought and Practice in the United States. In F. English, The SAGE Handbook of Educational Leadership (2nd ed.), 255-272. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications.

Crane, D. (2010). Cultural Sociology and Other Disciplines: Interdisciplinarity in the Cultural Sciences, Sociology Compass 4/3 (2010), 169-179,

Den Hartog, D. N., House, R. J., Hanges, P. J., Ruiz-Quintanilla, S. A., & Dorfman, P. W. (1999). Culture specific and cross-culturally generalizable implicit leadership theories: Are attributes of charismatic/transformational leadership universally endorsed? The Leadership Quarterly, 10(2), 219-256.

Dorfman, P. W., Howell, J. H., Hibino, S., Lee, J. K., Tate, U., & Bautista, A. (1997). Leadership in western and Asian countries: Commonalities and differences in effective leadership processes across cultures. Leadership Quarterly, 8(3), 233-274.

Egan, M. (2000). Managers as kings: Shakespeare on modern leadership. Management Decision, 38(5), 315-327.

Eisenhardt, K.M. (1989). Building theories from case study research. Academy of Management Review, 14(4), 532-550.

Etzold, V. (2012). Power plays: What Shakespeare can teach on leadership. Business Strategy Series, 13(2), 63-69.

References

Foucher, L. C. (2008). Stories to Read or Tell from Fairy Tales and Folklore. Urbana, Illinois: Project Gutenberg. Retrieved 21.06.2019, from https://www.gutenberg.org/files/27467/27467-h/27467-h.htm

Glaser, B., & Strauss, A. (1967). The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research. Aldine, Chicago.

Gerstner, C. R., & Day, D. V. (1994). Cross-cultural comparison of leadership prototypes. The Leadership Quarterly, 5(2), 121-134.

Grimm, J. & Grimm, W. (2004). Household Tales by Brothers Grimm. Urbana, Illinois:

Project Gutenberg. Retrieved 21.06.2019, from https://www.gutenberg.org/files/5314/5314-h/5314-h.htm

Grisham, T. (2006). Metaphor, poetry, storytelling and cross-cultural leadership, Management Decision, 44(4), 486-503

Grove C. N. (2005). Worldwide Differences in Business Values and Practices: Overview of GLOBE Research Findings. http://www.grovewell.com/pub-GLOBE-dimensions.html

Hall, E., & Hall, M. (1999). Understanding cultural differences. Yartmouth: Intercultural Press.

Hargrove, E. (2004). History, Political Science and the Study of Leadership. Polity, 36(4), 579-593

House, R.J., Hanges, P.J., Javidan, M., Dorfman, P.W., & Gupta, V. (eds.). (2004). Culture, Leadership, and Organizations: The GLOBE Study of 62 Societies. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. 818 pages.

Harrison, G. L. & McKinnon, J. L. (1999). Cross-cultural research in management control systems design: a review of the current state. Accounting, Organizations and Society 24, 483-506

References

Hofstede, G., & Bond, M. H. (1984). Hofstede's culture dimensions: An independent validation using Rokeach's Value Survey. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 15(4), 417-433.

Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture’s consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Hofstede, G. (2015). Culture’s causes: the next challenge, Cross Cultural Management, 22(4), 545-569, https://doi.org/10.1108/CCM-03-2015-0040

Hogan, P. C. (2006). Narrative Universals, Heroic Tragi-Comedy, and Shakespeare's Political Ambivalence, College Literature. Cognitive Shakespeare: Criticism and Theory in the Age of Neuroscience, 33(1), 34-66

Holstein, J.A., & Gubrium, J. F. (2002). Handbook of Interview Research: Context and Method. SAGE Publications. 981 pages

House, R. J., Aditya, R. N: (1997). The social-scientific study of leadership: Quo vadis? Journal of Management, 23(3), 409-473

House, R. J., Wright, N. S., & Aditya, R. N. (1997). Cross-cultural research on organizational leadership: A critical analysis and a proposed theory. In P. C. Early & M. Erez (eds.), New perspectives in industrial and organizational psychology, 535-625. San Francisco: New Lexington.

Hsieh, H. & Shannon, S. E. (2005). Three Approaches to Qualitative Content Analysis. Qualitative Health research, November 2005, 1277-1288

James, G. (2011). Japanese Fairy Tales. Urbana, Illinois: Project Gutenberg. Retrieved 21.06.2019, from https://www.gutenberg.org/files/35853/35853-h/35853-h.htm

References

Klenke, K. (2002). Cinderella Stories Of Women Leaders: Connecting Leadership Contexts And Competencies. Journal of Leadership and Organization Studies, 2002, 9(2)

Lang, A. (ed.) (2010). The Green Fairy Book. Urbana, Illinois: Project Gutenberg. Retrieved 21.06.2019, from https://www.gutenberg.org/files/33571/33571-h/33571-h.htm

Low, P. K. C., & Muniapan, B. (2011). The essential leadership wisdom of the Bhagavad Gita. International Journal of Asian Business and Information Management, 2(4), 1-9.

Low, P. K. C., & Muniapan, B. (2011). Organisational development and the Hindu trinity: Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva on leadership, culture and change. Int. J. Indian Culture and Business Management, 4(5), 491-505

Mendenhall, M. & Oddou, G. (1985). The dimensions of expatriate acculturation. Academy of Management Review, 10(1), 39-47.

Moan, K. & Hetland, H. (2012). Are leadership preferences universally endorsed or culturally contingent?, Scandinavian Journal of Organizational Psychology, June 2012

Northouse, P. (2006). Leadership: Theory and practice (4th ed.) Sage: Thousand Oaks, CA.

Ofori, G. & Toor, S. (2008). Research on cross-cultural leadership and management in construction: a review and directions for future research. Construction Management and Economics (February 2009)27, 119-133

Peterson, M. F., & Hunt, J. G. J. (1997). International perspectives on international leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 8(3), 203-231.

References

Porter, M. E. 1996. What is strategy? Harvard Business Review, 74(6), 61-78.

Punnett, B. J. & Shenkar, O. (2004). Handbook for International Management Research. University of Michigan Press, 2004

Shiu, E. C. (2014). Creativity research : an inter-disciplinary and multi-disciplinary research handbook. Routledge ISBN: 978-0-415-62456-5

Slater, R. O. (1995), The Sociology of Leadership and Educational Administration Educational Administration Quarterly, 31(3), 449-472

Smith, P. M. (1995). Leadership. In A. S. R. Manstead, & M. Hewstone (Eds.), The Blackwell encyclopedia of social psychology, 358-362. Oxford, England: Blackwell.

Smith, P. B., Dugan, S., & Trompenaars, F. (1996). National culture and the values of organizational employees. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 27(2), 231-264.

Statler, M., & de Monthoux, P. G. (2015). Humanities and Arts in Management Education: The Emerging Carnegie Paradigm. Journal of Management Education, 39(1), 3-15.

Stevenson, W. B. (1996). A muse of fire or a winter of discontent? Teaching Shakespeare in the leadership course. Journal of Management Education, 20(1), 39-47.

Taras, V., Kirkman, B. L., & Steel, P. (2010). Examining the impact of culture’s consequences: A three-decade, multilevel, meta-analytic review of Hofstede’s cultural value dimensions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95(3), 405-439. Thomas, David C., 2008. Cross-Cultural Management 2nd Edition. Thousand Oaks:

Sage Publications, Inc.

References

Warner, N. (2007). Screening leadership through Shakespeare: Paradoxes of leader-follower relations in Henry V on film. Leadership Quarterly, 18(1), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2006.11.005

Wilde, O. (2015). The Happy Prince and Other Tales. Urbana, Illinois: Project Gutenberg. Retrieved 21.06.2019, from

https://www.gutenberg.org/files/902/902-h/902-h.htm

Yan, J., & Hunt, J. (2005). A cross cultural perspective on perceived leadership effectiveness. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 5, 49-66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1470595805050824

Appendix A: GLOBE leadership scores

A

A:

GLOBE

Source: https://globeproject.com/results/clusters/anglo?menu=cluster, viewed: 20.12.2018

Appendix A: GLOBE leadership scores

Appendix B: Fairytales Germanic Europe

A

B:

F

G

E

Austria, Germany, Netherlands, Switzerland

Story

Author /

Publisher

Length

Included in

study

German

The Dragon's Tail Brothers Grimm 3994

Faithful John Brothers Grimm 3129 √

The Fisherman and his Wife Brothers Grimm 3113 √

The Golden Bird Brothers Grimm 3133

The Golden Mermaid Andrew Lang 3430 √

The Goose-Girl at the Well Brothers Grimm 3876

Iron John Brothers Grimm 3222 √

The Juniper-Tree Brothers Grimm 3146 √

Little Snow-White Brothers Grimm 3107 √

The Master-Thief Brothers Grimm 3071 √

Snowdrop Andrew Lang 3174

The Tale of a Youth Who Set Out to

Learn What Fear Was Andrew Lang 3679

The Two Kings' Children Brothers Grimm 3418 √

Virigilius the Sorcerer Andrew Lang 3184

The Wishing-Table, The Gold-Ass, and the Cudgel in the Sack

Brothers Grimm

3820 √

The Story of the Youth Who Went Forth to Learn What Fear Was

Brothers Grimm

3907

The Young Giant Brothers Grimm 3104

Dutch

The Kabouters and the Bells William Elliot

Griffis 3039

Appendix B: Fairytales Confucian Asia

C

A

China, Hong Kong, Japan, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan

Story

Author / Publisher Lenght

Included

in study

Bamboo and the Turtle Norman Hinsdale

Pitman 3492 √

The Fairy Bonze John Macgowan 3967 √

The God of the City John Macgowan 3477 √

How Footbinding Started Norman Hinsdale

Pitman 3420

The Heartless Husband John Macgowan 3067

Lu-San, Daughter of Heaven Norman Hinsdale

Pitman 3039 √

The Mad Goose and the Tiger Forest Norman Hinsdale

Pitman 3505

The Nodding Tiger Norman Hinsdale

Pitman 3279 √

The Vengence Of The Goddess John Macgowan 3579

The Wooden Tablet Norman Hinsdale

Pitman 3095 √

Japan

The Adventures of Kintaro, the

Golden Boy Yei Theodora Ozaki 3119 √

The Jelly Fish and the Monkey Yei Theodora Ozaki 3192 √ The Sea King and the Magic Jewels Grace James 3152 √ The Stones of Five Colors and the

Empress Jokwa Yei Theodora Ozaki 3027 √

Appendix B: Fairytales Anglo Cluster

A

C

Australia, Canada, England, Ireland, New Zealand, South Africa, USA

Story

Author /

Publisher

Length

Included in

study

English

The Blue Mountains Andrew Lang 3779 √

Jack and His Golden Snuff Box Joseph Jacobs 3601

Jack the Giant-Killer Joseph Jacobs 3974 √

Little Maia Andrew Lang 3899 √

St. George of Merrie England Flora Annie Steel 3940 √ Whittington and His Cat Joseph Jacobs 3202

Irish

Ashey Pelt (Irish Version of

Cinderella) M. Damant

Birth of Fin MacCumhail and Origin

of the Fenians of Erin Jeremiah Curtin 3801 Fair, Brown and Trembling (Irish

Version of Cinderella) Jeremiah Curtin 3449 √

The Happy Prince Oscar Wilde 3471 √

Oisin in Tir na n-Og Jeremiah Curtin 3677

The Old Hag's Long Leather Bag Laure Claire

Foucher 3386 √

The Plaisham Seumas

MacManus 3872

The Shee an Gannon and the

Gruagach Gaire Jeremiah Curtin 3494 √

The Three Daughters of King O'Hara Jeremiah Curtin 3163 The Thirteenth Son of the King of

Erin Jeremiah Curtin 3784 √

The Weaver's Son and the Magic of

the White Hill Jeremiah Curtin 3303 √

Scottish

Appendix C: The Six Leadership Scales Anglo Cluster

A

C:

T

S

L

S

1. Charismatic/Value-Based

Charismatic 1: Visionary

Foresight = Anticipates possible future events

Intellectually stimulating = Encourages others to think and use their minds; challenges beliefs, stereotypes and attitudes of others

Future-oriented = Makes plans and takes actions based on future goals

Prepared = Is ready for future events

Anticipatory = Anticipates, attempts to forecast events, considers what will happen in the future

Plans ahead = Anticipates and prepares in advance

Inspirational = Inspires emotions, beliefs, values, and behaviors of others, inspires others to be motivated to work hard

Visionary = Has a vision and imagination of the future

Able to Anticipate = Able to successfully anticipate future needs

Charismatic 2: Inspirational

Enthusiastic = Demonstrates and imparts strong positive emotions for work

Positive = Generally optimistic and confident

2a. Team-Oriented

Team 1: Collaborative Team Orientation

Group-oriented = Concerned with the welfare of the group

Collaborative = Works jointly with others

Loyal = Stays with and supports friends even when they have substantial problems or difficulties

Fraternal = Tends to be a good friend of subordinates

Mediator = Intervenes to solve conflicts between individuals

Fraternal = Tends to be a good friend of subordinates

Team 2: Team Integrator Diplomatic

Communicative = Communicates with others frequently

Team builder = Able to induce group members to work together

Informed = Knowledgeable; aware of information

Clear = Easily understood

Appendix C: The Six Leadership Scales Anglo Cluster

Encouraging = Gives courage, confidence or hope through reassuring and advising

Morale booster = Increases morale of subordinates by offering encouragement, praise, and/or by being confident

Motive arouser = Mobilizes and activates followers

Confidence builder = Instills others with confidence by showing confidence in them

Dynamic = Highly involved, energetic, enthused, motivated

Motivational = Stimulates others to put forth efforts above and beyond the call of duty and make personal sacrifices

Charismatic 3: Self-Sacrifice

Risk taker = Willing to invest major resources in endeavors that do not have high probability of successful

Self-sacrificial = Foregoes self-interests and makes personal sacrifices in the interest of a goal or vision

Convincing = Unusually able to persuade others of his/her viewpoint

Integrity

Honest = Speaks and acts truthfully

Coordinator = Integrates and manages work of subordinates

Benevolent

Dependable = Reliable

Intelligent = Smart, learns and understands easily

Administratively competent

Administratively skilled = Able to plan, organize, coordinate and control work of large numbers (over 75) of individuals

Orderly = Is organized and methodological in work

Organized = Well organized, methodical, orderly

Good administrator = Has ability to manage complex office work and administrative systems

2b. Non-Team-Oriented

Malevolent

Hostile = Actively unfriendly, acts negatively toward others

Dishonest = Fraudulent, insincere

Vindictive = Vengeful; seeks revenge when wronged

Appendix C: The Six Leadership Scales Anglo Cluster

Sincere = Means what he/she says, earnest

Just = Acts according to what is right or fair

Trustworthy = Deserves trust, can be believed and relied upon to keep his/her word

Decisive

Willful = Strong-willed, determined, resolute, persistent

Decisive = Makes decisions firmly and quickly

Logical = Applies logic when thinking

Intuitive = Has extra insight

Performance-oriented

Improvement-oriented = Seeks continuous performance improvement

Excellence-oriented = Strives for excellence in performance of self and subordinates

Performance-oriented = Sets high standards of performance

Cynical = Tends to believe the worst about people and events

Undependable = unreliable

Non-cooperative = Unwilling to work jointly with others

Egotistical = Conceited, convinced of own abilities

3. Self-Protective

Self-centered

Self-interested = Pursues own best interests

Non-participative = Does not participate with others

Loner = Works and acts separately from others

4a. Participative

Participative

Delegater = Willing or Able to relinquish control of projects or tasks

Macro-manager = No close supervisor, leaves decisions making to subordinates