Control and Resistance

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A study into the relationship between the use of control tactics on the emotions, intentions, and cognitions of employees during times of change.

Master thesis, MscBA, specialization Change Management University of Groningen, Faculty of Management and Organization

April, 2014 JH Dümmer Studentnumber: S1597841 Idastraat 55 9716 HB Groningen Tel: +31 (0)60-15514253 Supervisor University: Dr. B.J.M. Emans

Secondary Assessor University: Dr. H. Grutterink

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3 ABSTRACT

The goal of this study was to analyze the relationship between the use of hard and soft influence tactics and its effect on a person’s emotions, intentions and cognitions during times of change. It did so by combining the research performed by Yukl and Tracey (1992), together with the research performed by Piderit (2000). This approach in itself was new in comparison with present literature in this field of study. It was expected that the use of soft influence tactics, could have a positive effect on a person’s negative emotions, intentions and cognitions.

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4 INTRODUCTION

“Sometimes, I feel the fear of uncertainty stinging clear And I can't help but ask myself how much I let the fear

Take the wheel and steer It's driven me before

And it seems to have a vague, haunting mass appeal But lately I'm beginning to find that I

Should be the one behind the wheel” (From Drive: a song by Incubus)

This song is, according to the lead singer Brandon Boyd of the American rock band Incubus: “all about fear, about being driven all your live by it and making decisions based on fear. It’s about imaging what life would be like if you didn’t live that way”, (source:

band website). As the last verses of this couplet show the basic thought behind this song, is to be in control of your own life.

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5 To illustrate this thought with an example: driving and being the owner of your own car, is sometimes seen as the ultimate sense of freedom; freedom in the sense that a car can provide its owner with the ability to go where he or she wants to go to.

In general, to experience this sense of freedom, a driver makes use of the streets and roads. These streets and roads on themselves are part of a larger “social structure”, for example: being part of a city and/or a country. Following Möllering (2005) on this subject, these social structures shape and decide what is acceptable in this structures environment and what is not. The social structure, in the case of this research, is the work environment, the company or the organization, in which a person is acting.

So on one side a sense of self-control seems to make people happier and more productive (Freeman et. al 2004; Helliwell and Huang, 2010; Jensen and Raver, 2012; Möllering 2005; van der Meer and Wielers, 2013). But on the other side, life itself can become more uncertain and chaotic if there is no such thing as some form of “out-side” control. So there seems to be a balance between out-side controls as “process regulators” on one side, and a sense of self-control on the other (Chtioui and Thiéry-Dubuisson, 2011, McGregor, 1960).

To illustrate this with the driving analogy: often during road works the legal driving speed is limited; the reason for this is to protect the workers against the passing traffic. As is often seen during road works, the authorities are also placing speed cameras, this as a way to enforce these measures.

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6 It gets even worse, if someone decided to drive at the normal speed; this person might even receive a speeding ticket, because of the traffic cameras. So it is imaginable that some drivers can become very frustrated because of this situation.

Of course it is also true that every person is different, which for obvious reasons means that every person is reacting differently on a particular situation. This also means that not every person is getting frustrated for driving slower than what is normally allowed. In fact the already mentioned social structure does not only decide what is allowed within these structures but also creates a person’s expectations about these social structures (Möllering 2005).

So if a person perceives that the “social structure” can be trusted, then this person could also develop positive expectations about this structure. This may even be true in a paradox situation when a structure is limiting a person’s sense of self-control (Hegre, Ellingsen, Gates, Gleditsch 2001; Möllering, 2005); for example employees can also be happy when working on an assembly line, so in a situation where the work-pace is dictated by the speed of the line. This feeling of trust also works as a form of control between the members within this structure and between these members and the social structure in which they are living. Or as it is argued by Möllering (2005) “trust produces control and control produces trust”.

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7 Each one of these three options may come with a cost, (Contu, 2008; Fleming, 2005; Gabriel, 1999; Rhodes, 2009; Patalano, 2011; Piderit, 2000). For instance when a person chooses to go for the first option, he or she may be confronted with a situation that this person actually does not want.

Being in a situation like this can make this person unhappy, fearful or angry, so a condition in which he or she is experiencing all sorts of negative feelings, (Patalono, 2011; Piderit, 2000). People in that situation might become cynical, using irony or they might start working according to rule; this as a way to distance them from this unwanted situation, (Contu, 2008; Fleming, 2005; Gabriel, 1999; Rhodes, 2009). According to: Contu, (2008); Fleming, (2005); Gabriel, (1999); Rhodes, (2009) these forms of distancing from an unwanted reality, can be seen as a form of underground resistance.

When a person chooses the second option, he or she has to get out of his comfort zone. This process itself is filled with all sorts of uncertainties and can therefore be very emotional (Contu, 2008; Fleming, 2005; Gabriel, 1999; Rhodes, 2009; Patalono, 2011; Piderit, 2000).

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8 Each of these three options showed some form of resistance against an unwanted situation within a person’s “social structure”, from a very passive form of resistance towards a very active one. The basis for these resistance levels is formed by a combination of negative emotions, intentions and cognitions (Patalono, 2011; Piderit, 2000).

Where the emotions can be described as the excitement, the fear, the joy or the anger that a person can have when he or she is being confronted with a new initiative; the cognitions are the beliefs that a person can have about the usefulness of a new project; And the intentions are the will of a person to cooperate with a new project or to oppose it, (Piderit, 2000).

As these different forms of resistance shows, the effect of outside controls on a person’s intention to resist can be very subtle, from almost non-existence to a very active one. The consequences on the other hand, of these different forms of resistance, could be more severe. This is especially true in an organization that is going through a transition, for example during a reorganization process. Employees, who are going through these processes, might feel that they are losing control of their own situation. This loss in itself can create strong feelings of anxiety, (Hegre et al. 2001; Patalono 2011). The goal of course, is not to let those feelings of anxiety grow to a point where people might get frustrated with the whole situation. Naturally the question is: how to address these people in such a way that they don’t experience strong negative emotions, intentions and cognitions (Patalono, 2011; Piderit, 2000).

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9 Soft tactics focus on the interpersonal relationship between the influencer and influenced. The goal of soft tactics is to improve the influenced person’s sense of self-control (Chtioui and Thiéry-Dubuisson, 2011). The hard tactics, in turn, are more focused on the procedural side of the particular process of change.

TABLE 1

Definition of soft influence tactics

Soft influence Tactics: Definition:

Rational Persuasion The person uses logical arguments and factual evidence to persuade you that a proposal of request is viable and likely to result in the attainment of task objects

Inspirational Appeal The person makes a request or proposal that arouses enthusiasm by appealing to your values, ideas and aspiration or by increasing your confidence that you can do it

Consultation The person seeks your participation in planning a

strategy, activity or change for which your support and assistance are desired, or the person is willing to modify a proposal to deal with your concerns and suggestions Ingratiation The person seeks to get you in a good mood or to think

favorably of him or her before asking you to do something.

Exchange The person offers an exchange of favors, indicates

willingness to reciprocate at a later time, or promises you a share of the benefits if you help to accomplish a task.

Personal Appeal The person appeals to your feelings of loyalty and

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10 TABLE 2.

Definitions of hard influence tactics

Hard influence Tactics: Definition:

Coalition The person seeks the aid of others to persuade you to do

something or uses support of others as a reason for you to agree.

Legitimating The person seeks to establish the legitimacy of a request by claiming the authority or right to make it or by verifying that it is consistent with organizational, policies, rules and practices or traditions.

Pressure The person uses demands, treats or persistent reminders to

influence you to do what he or she wants.

As it was mentioned in the first part of this paper, people are happier, more cooperative and productive if they have the perception that they are in control of their own situation (Freeman et. al, 2004; Helliwell and Huang 2010; Jensen and Raver, 2012; Möllering 2005; van der Meer and Wielers, 2013). This might imply that when management uses soft influence tactics during a change initiative; that this use in itself could have a favorable effect on a person’s emotions, intentions and cognition (Patalono, 2011; Piderit, 2000; Yukl and Tracey,1992). This possible favorable effect could also have the same result on a person’s intention to resist (Contu, 2008; Fleming, 2005; Gabriel, 1999; Rhodes, 2009; Patalono, 2011; Piderit, 2000). Favorable in this situation can be described as: reducing the chance of people’s negative- emotions, intentions and cognition grow to a point where resistance levels start to develop. Based on this theory, the following research question has been formulated:

Research question 1:

- To what extent does the use of soft influence tactics, used during a change

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11 Based on this research question the following hypotheses have been formulated:

- Hypothesis 1a: The use of soft influence tactics, used during a change initiative,

has a favorable effect on the negative emotions of people that are confronted with changes within their work-environment.

- Hypothesis 1b: The use of soft influence tactics, used during a change initiative,

has a favorable effect on the negative intentions of people that are confronted with changes within their work-environment.

- Hypothesis 1c: The use of soft influence tactics, used during a change initiative,

has a favorable effect on the negative cognitions of people that are confronted with changes within their work-environment.

Although it is not the main subject of this paper, but when “soft” influence tactics have a favorable effect on a person’s resistance levels, then this in itself might also imply that the use of these tactics could have a strengthening effect on a person’s commitment to a change initiative (Patalono, 2011; Piderit, 2000). The strengthening effect in this situation might be a stimulating factor for increasing the commitment that a person is having for a change initiative. So in this case it would have a stimulating effect on a person’s positive- emotions, intentions and cognitions (Patalono, 2011; Piderit ,2000). Based on this theory, the following research question has been formulated:

- To what extent does the use of soft influence tactics, used during a change

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has a strengthening effect on the positive emotions of people that are confronted with changes within their work-environment.

has a strengthening effect on the positive intentions of people that are confronted with changes within their work-environment.

has a strengthening effect on the positive cognitions of people that are confronted with change within their work-environment.

As it was also mentioned, the use of “hard” influence tactics could limit a person’s sense of self-control (Freeman et. al, 2004; Helliwell and Huang, 2010; Jensen and Raver, 2012; Möllering, 2005; van der Meer and Wielers 2013). This could imply that when these “hard” influence tactics are used during a change initiative, that this use could have a strengthening effect on a person’s negative- emotions, intentions and cognitions (Patalono, 2011; Piderit, 2000; Yukl and Tracey, 1992). The possible result of this effect might also be a growing intention of a person to resist (Contu, 2008; Fleming, 2005; Gabriel, 1999; Rhodes, 2009; Patalono, 2011; Piderit, 2000). Based on this theory, the following research question has been formulated:

- To what extent does the use of hard influence tactics, used during a change

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- Hypothesis 3a: The use of hard influence tactics, used during a change initiative,

has a strengthening effect on the negative emotions of people that are confronted with changes within their work-environment.

- Hypothesis 3b: The use of hard influence tactics, used during a change initiative,

has a strengthening effect on the negative intentions of people that are confronted with changes within their work-environment.

- Hypothesis 3c: The use of hard influence tactics, used during a change initiative,

has a strengthening effect on the negative cognitions of people that are confronted with changes within their work-environment.

In a follow-up paper, Falbe and Yukl (1992) stated that a combination of different influence tactics, in this case a combination between hard and soft tactics can be as useful as a single soft tactic. A comparable result is also found in a study conducted by Emans, Munduate, Klaver, Van de Vliert, (2003). In this study Emans et. al, (2003) showed that Forcing behavior (hard-influence tactics) in combination with non-forcing behavior (soft-influence tactics) could have a positive effect on a person’s compliance with a changing situation. In the case of Emans et al, (2003) research, the forcing behavior was used in support of the non-forcing behavior. This might imply that when “soft” and “hard” influence tactics are used together during a change initiative, they could have a favorable effect on a person’s emotions-, intentions and cognitions (Patalono, 2011; Piderit, 2000; Yukl and Tracey, 1992). Because of this possibly favorable effect, this tactic combination could also have the same effect on a person’s intention to resist (Contu, 2008; Fleming, 2005; Gabriel, 1999; Rhodes, 2009; Patalono, 2011; Piderit, 2000) Based on this theory; the following research question has been formulated:

- To what extent does the combination of hard- and soft influence tactics, used

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- Hypothesis 4a: A combination of hard- and soft influence tactics, used during a

change initiative, has a favorable effect on the negative emotions of people that are confronted with changes within their work-environment.

- Hypothesis 4b: A combination of hard- and soft influence tactics, used during a

change initiative, has a favorable effect on the negative intentions of people that are confronted with changes within their work-environment.

- Hypothesis 4c: A combination of hard- and soft influence tactics, used during a

change initiative, has a favorable effect on the negative cognitions of people that are confronted with changes within their work-environment.

In their paper about Theory E, “which could be described as change based on the economic value of a company”, (or hard-influence tactics) and Theory O, which is “change based on organizational capabilities”, (or soft-influence tactics), Beer and Nohria, (2000), discussed the possible downfalls when these two tactics are combined together. Beer and Nohria, (2000) warn that this combination of tactics “should be handled with care, otherwise it may bring the worst of both theories and the benefits of neither”. These same problems may also emerge in a situation where hard and soft influence tactics are combined together. So instead of having a favorable effect on a person’s negative emotions, intentions and cognitions it may do the opposite; so having a strengthening effect on a person’s negative emotions, intentions and cognitions. Based on this theory the following research question has been developed:

- To what extent does the combination of hard- and soft influence tactics, used

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change initiative, has a strengthening effect on the negative emotions of people that are confronted with changes within their work-environment.

change initiative, has a strengthening effect on the negative intentions of people that are confronted with changes within their work-environment.

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16 METHOD

In order to test the hypotheses above a questionnaire study was designed. Next to this questionnaire study, also several interviews were conducted. The goal of these interviews was to get a better understanding of the relationship between the use of influence tactics on one side, and the effect of these tactics on a person’s resistance levels on the other.

This research was conducted within several units of the Royal Dutch Army. Since the end of the Cold War in 1989, the Dutch Army has been confronted, almost continuously, with all sorts of structural reforms, changes and cutbacks. One of the major changes is the primary focus of its Armed forces itself. In this changing focus, the organization had to switch from working as effectively as possible, placing the cost of reaching a (political) given goal on lower level importance; into an organization that had to work as efficiently as possible. The units that are taking part in this study are, each in their own way, being confronted with reorganizations that are in line with this changing focus. The situation in general is that these units have to reduce in size and staff.

The questionnaire data itself was collected among the civilian and the military personnel of the 400 Medical Battalion and the 310 Maintenance Company of the Royal Dutch Army. In total one-hundred-forty-five employees volunteered to answer the questionnaire. Of this group of employees, one-hundred-sixteen, completed the study. In the group that completed the study, 82 were male and 34 were female.

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17 For the questionnaire study a Dutch translation was made of the IBQ, or Influence Behavior Questionnaire, as it was developed by Yukl and Tracey, (1992). The translation was conducted by a native speaker who is familiar with the research stream of Yukl, having conducted research with the English and the Spanish version of the Yukl questionnaire himself.

The questionnaire has 36-items and is divided into nine influence styles; each style corresponds with four items each. These influence styles are divided into three forcing or hard influence styles (pressure, legitimating, and coalition) and six non-forcing or soft influence styles (inspirational appeal, consultation, ingratiation, personal appeal, rational persuasion and exchange). Each item has the following five response choices:

1. I cannot remember him/her ever using this tactic with me. 2. He/she very seldom uses this tactic with me.

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18 TABLE 3

Results from the questionnaire study

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19 The Cronbach Alphas of the different influence tactics and the resistance levels are presented in Table 3. The values that were achieved in this study, showed an adequate level of internal consistency.

To measure a person’s responses in relation to this person’s resistance levels a Dutch translation was made of the “multidimensional response” developed by Pidererit, (2000) and as it was used by Szabla, (2007). The researcher made this translation in a close collaboration with a native speaker who is a renowned expert in this research field.

This part of the questionnaire consists of 22 items, divided into three response styles: emotional, intentional and cognitive. The questions that are representing each of these three response styles are divided into two groups, a group with positive and one with negative responses towards a change process. The emotional and the cognitive items have the following three response choices:

1. Not at all. 2. Sometimes. 3. Very strongly.

The intentional items have the following five response choices: 1. Very unlikely.

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20 Interviews

The main objective of these interviews was to get a better understanding of the relationship between the use of influence tactics on one side, and the effect of these tactics on a person’s resistance levels on the other. These interviews themselves were all about the respondents experiences with the present reorganization process within their units.

To prepare the respondents for these talks, they received an email with a “homework assignment”, a few days before the interview. In this assignment they were asked to think about their positive and their negative experiences during and with the reorganization process that was taking place within their units.

The first questions during these interviews, based on their “homework” assignment, were all about the way in which the respondents perceive the reorganization process for themselves. These starter questions were for example:

- What is your opinion about this reorganization process? - How do you experience this process for yourself?

- In what way, were you getting involved in this process?

The rest of these interview questions, were more or less asked in an unstructured and spontaneous manner, this depending on the way in which these conversations were unfolding.

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21 This analysis was done as follows: a table was made, see Table 7, at the top of this table the different influences styles and the experienced emotions, intentions and cognitive thoughts were placed; the respondents, distinguished by a number in order to protect their anonymity, were placed on the left hand side of this table.

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22 RESULTS

Questionnaire

The Pearsons correlations of each influence tactic with a person’s felt resistance- and commitment levels is shown in Table 4a/b. The following results can be distillated from the results in the tables. Soft influence tactics have, except for personal appeal, a positive relationship with a person’s negative emotion. A comparable relationship is also true for legitimating, being a hard influence tactic. Soft influence tactics have no significant relationship with a person’s negative intentions. The hard tactics pressure and legitimating on the other side have a significant and a strengthening relationship with a person’s negative intentions. Soft influence tactics have, except for personal appeal, a significant and a favorable relationship with a person’s negative cognitions. This relationship is also true for coalition and legitimating, both being hard influence tactics.

The hypotheses were tested by means of a moderated regression analysis (Barron and Kenny 1982). Table 5 shows that the use of soft influence tactics has a significantly negative relationship on a person’s negative emotions (p=0,002; B= -0,47; t= -3,15) and cognitions (p=0,04; B= -0,18; t= -2.11). A significant and stimulating relationship is found (see Table 6) with the use of soft influence tactics in relation with a person’s positive- emotions (p=0,021; B=0,36; t=2,33), intentions (p=0,005; B=0,45; t=2,88) and cognitions (p=0,000; B=0,25; t=3,90). The use of hard influence tactics has no significant relationship with a person’s positive- emotions, intentions and cognitions.

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23 A visual display is presented in Figure 1. For calculating Figure 1, the researcher made use of a calculation program as it is offered by the Moderation/Mediation help Centre of the Wellington University, School of Psychology in New Zealand.

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24

TABLE 4a

Pearson correlation between tactics and responses

Rational persuasion

Inspiration appeal

Exchange Consultation Ingratiation Personal appeal

Coalition Pressure Legitimating

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25 TABLE 4b Rational persuasion Inspiration appeal

Exchange Consultation Ingratiation Personal appeal

Coalition Pressure Legitimating

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TABLE 5. Results of Moderated Regression Analysis: Effects of the influence tactics on the Resistance levels

Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coeff.

Step 1 B Std. Error Beta t. Sig. R2 R2 change

0,112 0,097

Negative Emotional Soft tactics -0,50 0,15 -0,40 -3,40 0,001

Hard tactics 0,15 0,15 0,12 1,01 0,313

0,038 0,021

Negative Intentional Soft tactics -0,22 0,15 -0,18 -1,43 0,156

Hard tactics 0,32 0,15 0,26 2,10 0,038

0,089 0,073

Negative Cognitive Soft tactics -0,19 0,08 -0,28 -2,31 0,023

Hard tactics -0,02 0,08 -0,03 -0,25 0,801

Step 2

0,13 0,106

Soft tactics -0,47 0,15 -0,38 -3,15 0,002

Negative Emotional Hard tactics 0,15 0,15 0,12 1,04 0,300

Soft x Hard 0,17 0,11 0,13 1,49 0,139

0,076 0,051

Negative Intentional Soft tactics -0,17 0,15 -0,14 -1,10 0,274

Hard tactics 0,32 0,15 0,26 2,17 0,032

Soft x Hard 0,25 0,12 0,20 2,16 0,033

0,098 0,074

Negative Cognitive Soft tactics -0,18 0,08 -0,26 -2,11 0,04

Hard tactics -0,02 0,08 -0,03 -0,24 0,81

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TABLE 6. Results of Moderated Regression Analysis: Effects of the influence tactics on positive emotions, intentions and cognitions

Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coeff.

Step 1 B Std. Error Beta t. Sig. R2 R2 change

0,080 0,064

Positive Emotional Soft tactics 0,38 0,15 0,30 2,51 0,013

Hard tactics -0,04 0,15 -0,03 -0,27 0,788

0,071 0,054

Positive Intentional Soft tactics 0,44 0,15 0,35 2,91 0,004

Hard tactics -0,26 0,15 -0,21 -1,72 0,089

0,138 0,122

Positive Cognitive Soft tactics 0,25 0,06 0,46 3,90 0,000

Hard tactics -0,08 0,06 -0,15 -1,32 0,189

Step 2

0,088 0,063

Soft tactics 0,36 0,15 0,29 2,33 0,021

Positive Emotional Hard tactics -0,04 0,15 -0,03 -0,29 0,776

Soft x Hard -0,11 0,12 -0,09 -0,98 0,330

0,071 0,046

Positive Intentional Soft tactics 0,45 0,15 0,36 2,88 0,005

Hard tactics -0,26 0,15 -0,21 -1,71 0,90

Soft x Hard 0,01 0,12 0,01 0,11 0,909

0,139 0,116

Positive Cognitive Soft tactics 0,25 0,07 0,46 3,90 0,000

Hard tactics -0,08 0,06 -0,15 -1,31 0,193

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28

FIGURE 1

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29 Interviews

The results of the interviews are presented in Table 7. As demonstrated in this table, there seems to be a relationship between the lack of experienced rational persuasion and consultation on one side and negative emotions and cognitions on the other side. As these results show, only these two soft influence tactics kept emerging during the interviews.

A remarkable point that often appeared during the interviews was that although the respondents missed rational persuasion and consultation during some phases of the reorganization process, in others they also experienced them. In situations where these two tactics were missed the respondents in turn felt uninformed, not appreciated and surprised about the whole situation. As can be seen in Table 7, the result of not experiencing rational persuasion and consultation is that the respondents are showing signs of negative emotions and cognitions. The opposite is true when a respondent is experiencing rational persuasion and consultation. Some examples to illustrate these relationships:

In this example the respondent missed rational persuasion but at same time he also shows signs of both negative as well as positive cognition:

“……..I can understand the reason for these cutbacks and this reorganization. But what I don’t understand is the logic behind these measures. They are in my opinion inefficient….”

Another respondent reacted as follows:

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30 In this reaction it shows that the respondent is missing the rational persuasion tactic. The result of this absence is that he also experiences negative cognitions about the whole situation.

Also the combination of having negative emotions on one side and positive intentions on the other side, frequently appeared. This combination was especially true for those respondents who missed the consultation tactic. Some examples:

“……Sometimes we regretted the lack of recognitions we received for solving the problems during the reorganization process…..”

Another respondent reacted as follow:

“……Employees, within the Dutch Armed Forces, are very loyal towards the

organization. Because of this loyalty, they don’t mind to solve the problems that emerge during a change process…….. But despite this “good” effort, they don’t get the recognition for it……..”

According to another respondent:

“……The large majority of the employees within the Dutch Army are motivated to do

their utmost in performing their job. But sometimes they also have the feeling that their work and good effort is made impossible to perform. This leads into frustrations and irritations…….”

And:

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31

“……The organization is not using the full potential of its employees when it designs a reorganization process. And because of this, these processes are not as smooth, as they could be…..”

”……I tried to provide the organization with some input about how things could be done, but somehow they didn’t do anything with it……”

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32 TABLE 7 Interview results Respondent R at io n al P er su as io n In sp ir at io n al A p p ea ls C o n su lt at io n In g ra ti at io n P er so n al A p p ea ls E x ch an g e C o al it io n T ac ti cs P re ss u re L eg it im at in g T ac ti cs P o si ti v e E m o ti o n al N eg at iv e E m o ti o n al P o si ti v e In te n ti o n al N eg at iv e In te n ti o n al P o si ti v e C o g n it iv e N eg at iv e C o g n it iv e 1 X/Y X + + + + 2 X/Y X + + + 3 Y X + + + + 4 Y/X + + + 5 X X + + + 6 Y Y + + + 7 + +

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33 DISCUSSION

The purpose of this study was to explore the relationship of hard and soft influence tactics and its effects upon an employee’s emotions, intentions and cognitions during a change initiative. This approach in itself was new in comparison with earlier studies like for example Bommer et al, (2005); Lines, (2005); Yukl and Tracey, (1992). In these other studies the authors focused on the relationship between a particular influence tactic and its effect on person’s resistance level and not so much on the “building blocks” of resistance as the already mentioned negative emotions, intentions and cognitions. For this purpose the researcher developed fifteen hypotheses.

The first two groups of hypotheses discussed the possible positive relationships that soft influence tactics could have on a person’s negative as well as positive emotions, intentions and cognition. As the results from the questionnaire study shows:

has a favorable effect on the negative emotions of people that are confronted with changes within their work-environment. The results support this hypothesis

has a favorable effect on the negative intentions of people that are confronted with changes within their work-environment. The results reject this hypothesis

has a favorable effect on the negative cognitions of people that are confronted with changes within their work-environment. The results support this

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34 - Hypothesis 2a: The use of soft influence tactics, used during a change initiative,

has a strengthening effect on the positive emotions of people that are confronted with changes within their work-environment. The results support this

hypothesis.

has a strengthening effect on the positive intentions of people that are confronted with changes within their work-environment. The results support this

hypothesis.

has a strengthening effect on the positive cognitions of people that are confronted with change within their work-environment. The results support this hypothesis.

The first remark, that can be made, is that soft influence tactics somehow do not have any significant effect on a person’s negative intentions. A possible explanation for this, as it was also shown during the interviews, is that the employees of the Dutch Army are very loyal towards the organization and are dedicated in doing their job. The result of this loyalty is that they do not have any negative intentions towards a particular change measure. This in itself might perhaps be a firm-specific situation, but despite that, it also shows that the effects of an influence tactic on a person’s emotions, intentions and cognitions are not a forgone conclusion; as can be seen in the third group of three hypotheses. In this group the researcher discussed the possible negative relationship that hard influence tactics could have upon a person’s negative emotions, intentions and cognitions. As the results from the questionnaire study shows:

- Hypothesis 3a: The use of hard influence tactics, used during a change initiative,

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35 - Hypothesis 3b: The use of hard influence tactics, used during a change initiative,

has a strengthening effect on the negative intentions of people that are confronted with changes within their work-environment. The results support this hypothesis.

- Hypothesis 3c: The use of hard influence tactics, used during a change initiative,

has a strengthening effect on the negative cognitions of people that are confronted with changes within their work-environment. The results reject this hypothesis.

What these hypotheses show is that the use of hard influence tactics does not have any significant negative effect on a person’s negative emotions and cognitions, a result that was reasonably expected.A more remarkable point is that despite the fact that during the interviews the respondents mentioned that they do not have any negative intentions against a change initiative; they somehow, based on the result of hypotheses 3b, do experience negative intentions. These negative intentions are based on the fact that they do not feel that they are heard and appreciated for the work that they are doing. These complaints might not immediately develop into openly and public resistance, also for the simple fact that military staff is not allowed to strike, but despite that, it shows that the employees are struggling with the changes that are taking place within the Dutch Army. These results are a confirmation of the studies done by Contu, (2008); Fleming, (2005); Gabriel, (1999); Rhodes, (2009).

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36 Because of the detail nature of this study, it shows that the use of soft influence tactics do have a positive effect on a person’s negative emotions and cognitions. So when these soft tactics are used, then an organization is also better able to detect and anticipate on these earlier signs of negative emotions and cognitions and with that minimize the development of frustration.

The next step of this study was to invest the interaction effects of the combined use of hard and soft influence tactics on a person’s negative as well as positive emotions, intentions and cognitions. For this purpose the fourth and the fifth group of three hypotheses where developed. As the results from the questionnaire study shows:

change initiative, has a favorable effect on the negative emotions of people that are confronted with changes within their work-environment. The results reject

this hypothesis.

change initiative, has a favorable effect on the negative intentions of people that are confronted with changes within their work-environment. The results reject

change initiative, has a favorable effect on the negative cognitions of people that are confronted with changes within their work-environment. The results reject

change initiative, has a strengthening effect on the negative emotions of people that are confronted with changes within their work-environment. The results

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37 - Hypothesis 5b: A combination of hard- and soft influence tactics, used during a

change initiative, has a strengthening effect on the negative intentions of people that are confronted with changes within their work-environment. The results support this hypothesis.

change initiative, has a strengthening effect on the negative cognitions of people that are confronted with changes within their work-environment. The results

reject this hypothesis.

The result of hypothesis 5b is depicted in Figure 1 of this study. First of all, as can been seen in Figure 1, in a situation where a high portion of soft influence tactics are combined with a lower amount of hard influence tactics, then this combination results into a positive effect on a person’s negative intentions during a change process. This result is comparable with the results found by Emans et al, (2003) and so supports the validity of this research. What Figure 1 also shows is that this result is also true for an opposite situation; so a situation where soft influence tactics are in support of a dominant fraction of hard influence tactics.

Based on the results found in Hypothesis 3b of this study that showed that hard influence tactics had a negative on a person’s negative intentions; it seems that with regard to the results of Figure 1 that soft influence tactics are also able to bend around the negative effects of hard influence tactics on a person’s negative intentions. This image was also emerging during the interviews, in which the respondents mentioned that they felt much more comfortable with thewhole situation when they experience rational persuasion and consultation during the change process. This result in itself is an extension of the research conducted by Emans et al, (2003).

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38 As Figure 1 shows, when the portions of soft as well as hard influence tactics are growing during a change initiative, then this growth in itself has a negative effect on a person’s negative intentions. This is the point in Figure 1, where both soft and hard influence tactics are high. This point in itself is also a confirmation of the warning made by Beer and Nohria, (2000). So when both influence tactics are carefully combined with each other, then this combination can help to create acceptation for a change process; but the opposite will happen when this is not done with great care. A possible explanation for this negative intention may lay in the fact that each of these influence tactics has its own distinguished approaching style. So when employees are confronted with these different tactics during a change process then it would be difficult for them to know what to expect and how to react. This situation in itself can make an employee uncertain, especially in organizations like the Dutch Army where people are looking for certainty and clarity.

Future Directions and Conclusions

Now that basically the relationship between the use of different influence tactics and its effect on a person’s emotions, intentions and cognitions is established. The next question as a way to elaborate this research is to pay attention to the relationship of one single tactic or a limited combination of tactics and its effects on a person emotions, intentions and cognitions. In this study two big groups where established, so it would be very interesting to see, what a limited use of tactics can do. Especially the role that “rational persuasion” as an influence tactic can do, would make this elaboration worthwhile doing.

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