Counteracting moral licensing in the green consumption domain through product framing

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Counteracting moral licensing in the green consumption domain

through product framing

Master thesis

by

Rositsa Petrova Hadzhipetrova

University of Groningen

Faculty of Economics and Business

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List of Tables

Table 1: Descriptive statistics of participants...16

Table 2: Results of ANOVA...20

Table 3: Mediation analyses overview...22

Table 4: Results of mediation analysis 1...23

Table 5: Results of mediation analysis 2...24

List of Figures

Figure 1: Respondents nationality chart……...16

Figure 2: Mediation analysis 1...22

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Abstract

The purpose of the present thesis project is to gain a better understanding of moral licensing in the green consumption domain and to suggest means by which to counteract this psychological phenomenon. The current study explores the concept of significant others as a way to frame the initial green consumption and measures the effect of framing on moral licensing in a subsequent moral task. Furthermore, this research paper studies the mechanisms which explain the relationship between product framing and the effect of moral licensing, demonstrating that this relationship is mediated by the inclusion of significant others in the self.

The present thesis project provides valuable implications for marketers and policy makers in the green consumption domain and also contributes to the theory regarding moral licensing and the relationship between the self and significant others.

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Preface

The present thesis project marks the end of my journey as a Marketing student at the University of Groningen. During the past one year I challenged myself by diving into the unknown and found out that indeed a person is capable of true progress and satisfaction only when they step out of their comfort zone.

I would like to express my gratitude to my supervisor Jing Wan for her valuable help through the process of writing my Master thesis.

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Introduction

Within recent years the importance of environmentally friendly products and activities has been largely advocated worldwide (Atkinson, 2015). Since the green consumption exists in various domains, individuals should exert consistency across them as to achieve substantially positive results in the broad area of environmental challenges (Whitmarsh & O'Neill, 2010). This consistency in behaviors can be enhanced on the grounds of the positive spillover effect of engaging in pro-environmental activities, which implies that the “adoption of a particular pro-environmental behavior is found to increase a person’s inclination to engage in another pro-environmental behavior” (Thøgersen & Crompton, 2009, p. 12). However, more recent studies have demonstrated a negative side effect of the initial engagement in green consumption (Tiefenbeck, Staake, Roth & Sachs, 2013). What is causing the adverse effect of environmental activities and why do people forgo their green behavior? One way to answer this question is to view green consumption as prosocial and moral behavior. According to Sachdeva, Jordan and Mazar (2015), “green consumerism embodies the dilemma inherent in many prosocial and moral actions — foregoing personal gain in favor of a more abstract, perhaps somewhat intangible gain to someone or something else” (p. 2) In that sense, the negative side effect of initial green consumption can be explained via the concept of moral licensing (Monin & Miller, 2001), which implies that a past moral behavior is likely to justify less moral or even immoral behavior in subsequent activities (Merritt, Effron & Monin, 2010). Moreover, Mazar and Zhong (2010) found that the transgression in morality can be present in a domain which is different from the domain of the initial deed, implying a wide spectrum of the negative spillover effect.

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outcomes when one adopts a green behavior. A significant other represents “someone who is highly important in one’s life and on whom one depends, in part, for desired outcomes, especially emotional outcomes”, i.e. family and close friends (Andersen, Glassman & Gold, 1998, p. 846). Framing significant others as beneficiaries in the green consumption domain could have two important advantages over the concept of the self. Firstly, seeing an environmental cause as relevant for significant others is likely to boost the importance of this cause for one’s self regardless of whether there are any tangible benefits (Andersen et al., 1998). According to Aron, Aron and Smollan (1992), significant others are perceived as part of the self, rather than a separate social domain. Therefore, it is likely that people do not experience a deed executed for the utility of significant others as an altruistic act and thus would not get a feeling of improved self-image leading to moral self-licensing. By elaborating on the above-stated assumptions, the present academic work addresses following questions:

What would be the effect of framing the initial green consumption as beneficial for significant others on moral licensing?

Would this effect be different in comparison to the effect of framing the initial green consumption as beneficial for the environment or society in general?

If the former effect is negative, thus moral licensing is reduced, what could be the likely drivers of it?

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framing pro-environmental consumption in a way that would lead to positive and consistent results within the green domain.

Theoretical Background

The concept of moral licensing within green consumption

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2002). It seems that, as to successfully counteract environmental deterioration, there should be sound knowledge about the motivation to participate in eco-friendly activities and also means through which to trigger coherent behaviors in the green consumption domain.

Elaborating on the reasons for inconsistency in the pro-environmental activities, the concept of moral licensing provides a good understanding of the internal processes people go through when engaging in moral and altruistic behaviors (Miller & Effron, 2010). Moral licensing is a psychological phenomenon within which people “[take] actions that could be seen as socially undesirable or morally questionable” (Miller & Effron, 2010, p. 120) after having the chance to demonstrate or anticipate their morality. This concept has been proven to be applicable for both within-domain and across-domain behaviors, meaning that engaging in a preservation campaign can reduce the motivation to indulge in another green consumption action (Tiefenbeck et al., 2013), but also can result in a subsequent immoral deed in unrelated domains (Mazar & Zhong, 2010). Mazar and Zhong (2010) argued that green consumption is tightly connected to the social and moral self. In their study participants who chose green products, were described as more altruistic and cooperative. Thus, when individuals have already had the opportunity to establish their morality, kindness and compassion, they worry less about engaging in activities that are morally dubious. Griskevicius, Tybur and Van den Bergh (2010) came to the conclusion that compared with the “[intrinsic] care about the well-being of the planet and its inhabitants” (p. 393) the desire for building a prosocial reputation is a greater determinant of green consumption. When individuals engage in pro-environmental activities experienced as altruistic actions that lead to gaining a status of a “cooperative and helpful group member” (Griskevicius et al., 2010, p. 393), presumably the favorable reputation would boost the moral self-image and thus would lead to self-licensing.

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altruism. As previously stated one way to do so is to frame the eco-friendly behavior as self-beneficial. However, in many instances the self-benefit approach in green consumption may not be applicable or may lead to undesirable consequences. In line with that, the present academic work takes on the concept of significant others as an entity distinct from society in general but closely related the self.

The self and significant others

If framing the green consumption as an altruistic act is to increase the likelihood of moral licensing phenomenon to occur, what would be the effect of framing the initial green consumption as beneficial for significant others? Before embarking on this question, the section below provides a brief definition of two relevant terms, namely the “self” and “significant others” and how they relate to one another.

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H1: Framing the initial green consumption as beneficial for significant others would have a negative effect on moral licensing in comparison to being framed as beneficial for the society in general or the environment per se.

If the hypothesis is validated, and significant others could be applied as a way to counteract the moral licensing effect, another question is to be addressed: What are the internal processes that people undergo as to be consistent in their moral behaviors after demonstrating their morality in the initial moral task? In order to provide an answer to this question, the following section explores the view of significant others as part of the self.

Significant others as part of the self

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me, and so coming to find out that they are true of me” (p. 11). This transition of “marks” is intensified when a person is presented with a significant-other cue that creates a link between the self, the significant other and the typical interaction scenario between the self and the significant other (Andersen & Chen, 2002;Chen, Fitzsimmons, & Andersen, 2006). When a significant-other representation is activated, individuals are more likely to perceive the goals, attitudes and behaviors of the significant other as their own, thus an act for their benefit could be seen as self-beneficial. Merely thinking about significant others can shape a person`s thoughts, attitudes and behavior in accordance to the ones of their significant others (Skorinko, 2012). In addition, Horberg and Chen (2010) concluded that the extent to which people perceive an act for significant others as self-beneficial rather than altruistic depends on the extent to which they include significant others in their selves. In line with that, it can be assumed that when people feel closer to their significant others, the activation of significant-other representation would increase the perception of self-benefit after the initial moral deed, which would elude the moral self-boost and consequently would decrease the moral licensing effect in a subsequent moral task.

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Methodology

Data Collection Method

In order to test the outlined hypothesis, the present thesis made use of the quantitative data collection methods. In that way the causal relationship between the framing of the initial green consumption and moral licensing effect and its valence was tested. Although a significant drawback is the relative lack of flexibility, the convenience, scientific image and capacity to draw general conclusions upon empirical results – attributes all pertaining to the quantitative methods – is the reason why the latter were applied in the research (Kuada, 2012). A judgement experiment was designed to “elicit meaningful judgmental responses” (Aronson et al., 1998, p. 110) from the participants after they were presented with different stimulus materials via an online questionnaire constructed in Qualtrics (Appendix A: Qualtrics questionnaire).

Participants

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Table 1: Descriptive statistics of participants

Gender Frequency Percentage Age

Male 78 41.70% Mean 26.97

Female 109 58.30% Range 19-60 years

Total 187 100% SD 6.56

Education Frequency Percentage Marital status Frequency Percentage

High School/GED 18 9.60% Single/never married 134 71.70%

College

8 4.30%

Married/Domestic

partnership ₄₉ _26.20%

Bachelor`s degree 89 47.60% Separated 3 1.60%

Master`s degree 67 35.80% Widowed 1 0.50%

Ph.D./ Advanced

graduate work 5 2.70%

Figure 1: Respondents nationality chart

Procedure

Initial green consumption

The subject of initial green consumption was presented as a consumer product. At the beginning of the experiment participants were informed that they have to evaluate a new

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statements across the three conditions was identical except for their focus, which was adjusted as to correspond to the product framing in each condition.

Moral licensing

After rating the brand of paper napkins in terms of its favorability, participants were informed that as to proceed with the second part of the experiment, the system needs few minutes to process their answers. During this fictitious break respondents were presented with information about a charity organization, which was seeking new volunteers for their activities. The moral licensing effect was measured as the likelihood that participants would volunteer for the charity organization. The likelihood was measured on a scale ranging from 1 (“Very Unlikely”) to 7 (“Very Likely”). A higher score on the scale corresponded to a decrease in moral licensing, whereas a lower score meant that there was an increase of the moral licensing effect.

Inclusion of significant others in the self

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of .7 (Leech et al., 2015) and shows a high reliability of the scale. Based on the individual scores of all participants, an average RISC score was computed and it was applied in the following analyses of the experiment. The IOS scale is a single-item scale that consists of 7 pairs of circles which measured the extent of closeness between the self and significant others (Aron et al., 1992). According to previous theoretical findings the RISC and the IOS scales measure the chronic predisposition of individuals to include significant others in their selves (Aron et al., 1992; Cross et al., 2000). However, literature also suggests that this chronic predisposition could be influenced by contextual cues that increase the salience of significant others in one`s thoughts (Chen et al., 2006). Therefore, it is assumed that the significant-other beneficial product framing would act as a cue that would intensify the self-other inclusion, which would be measured by both the RISC and the IOS scale. In line with that, both scales were used in the experiment as to lead to more wholesome and meaningful results.

Results

Effect of framing the initial green consumption on moral licensing

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Table 2: Results of ANOVA Product Framing M (SD) Environment 3,83 (1,86) Significant Others 4,95 (1,53) Society 4,26 (1,77) Note. N=187

The effect of product framing on the likelihood of charity participation was significant, F(2,186) = 6.46, p = .002. According to the results of the ANOVA and Fisher’s LSD test, respondents who were presented with the product framed as beneficial for significant others were more likely to volunteer for the charity (M = 4.95, SD = 1.53) in comparison to respondents who were presented with the product framed as environment-beneficial (M = 3.83, SD = 1.86, p = .000) or as society-environment-beneficial (M = 4.26, SD = 1.77, p = .03). In addition, Fisher`s LSD test showed no significant difference in terms of the likelihood to participate in the charity between the respondents in the two control conditions, in which the paper napkins were framed respectively as beneficial for the environment and beneficial for society (p = .17).

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Consequently, H1: Framing the initial green consumption as beneficial for the significant others would have a negative effect on moral licensing in comparison to being framed as beneficial for the society in general or the environment per se is supported.

Inclusion of significant others in the self

The ANOVA analysis confirmed that framing an eco-friendly product as beneficial for significant others would result in a decreased moral licensing effect in the subsequent moral task. The present thesis aims at further researching the mechanisms which lead to the reduction in moral licensing. According to the second hypothesis, the effect of the initial green consumption on moral licensing is mediated by the extent to which individuals include significant others in their selves. H2 is based on the assumption that participants in the significant-others beneficial framing condition demonstrate a higher likelihood of charity participation, because this specific product framing intensifies the extent to which they include significant others in their selves in comparison to the two control conditions. As to test this hypothesis, a mediation analysis was conducted, using the MEDIATE macro tool for Macros mediation analyses, developed by Andrew Hayes (Hayes, 2013).

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Table 3: Mediation analyses overview

RISC score IOS score

Product framing _{Mediation 1: The effect} of Product framing on moral licensing through RISC score

Mediation 2: The effect of Product framing on moral licensing through IOS score

Mediation analysis 1

Figure 2: Mediation analysis 1

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the relationship between the independent and the dependent variable. However, the remaining direct effect, b = 0.56, was lower than the total effect of Product framing on Charity participation when including the mediator, b = 0.89, which means that there is a partial mediation. Moreover, as 0 is not within the CI bounds (.003; .07), the positive indirect effect of Product framing on Charity participation through the RISC score was further confirmed. Thus, in comparison to the control conditions, framing the initial green consumption as beneficial for significant others had a negative indirect effect on moral licensing mediated by the inclusion of significant others in the self, measured by the RISC score.

Table 4: Results of mediation analysis 1

Dependent variable

Charity

Participation RISC score

Charity Participation

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

Independent variables Product framing .89 .49 .56 RISC score .68 R square .06 .05 .22 p < .05 Mediation analysis 2

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Table 5 illustrates the main results of mediation analysis 2. The model was significant, F(1,185) = 10.97, p = .001, and, as in mediation 1, the independent variable Product framing had a significant positive total effect on the dependent variable Charity participation, b = 0.89, t = 3.31, p = .001 (path C). However, Path A was insignificant, b = 0.33, t = 1.30, p = .19, hence the independent variable Product framing does not have a significant effect on the mediator IOS score. The latter result does not meet the requirements for mediation outlined by Baron and Kenny (1986), according to which the independent variable should to have a significant effect on the mediator. Based on that, there was no presence of mediation: the negative effect of framing the initial green consumption as beneficial for significant others on moral licensing was not mediated by the inclusion of significant others in the self, measured by the IOS score. According to the output (Appendix B: SPSS output), both the independent variable Product framing and the mediator IOS score had a significant direct positive effect on the dependent variable Charity participation, yet there was no correlation between the former two variables.

Table 5: Results of mediation analysis 2

Dependent variable

Charity

Participation IOS score

Charity Participation

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

Independent variables Product framing .89* .33 .79* IOS score .32* R square .06 .01 .14 *p <.05

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applied: the RISC score and the IOS score. As stated in the methodology, these two scores and their corresponding scales have been thus far used as chronic measures of the extent to which an individual perceive significant others as an integral part of the self (Aron et al., 1992; Cross et al., 2000). However, since the literature suggests that these measures could be affected to some extent under contextual cues, such as significant-other representations (Chen et al., 2006), the RISC and IOS scales were expected to measure the change in the extent of self-other inclusion due to product framing. Based on the results, the score from the IOS scale was not in line with this assumption. Although the IOS score did have a significant direct positive effect on the likelihood of volunteering for a charity (suggesting that integrating significant others into the self decreases the moral licensing effect), this score was not predicted by the framing of the eco-friendly product (initial green consumption). Nevertheless, the RISC score was proved to be a mediator of the negative effect of significant-others framing on moral licensing, leading to the conclusion that unlike the IOS score, the RISC score could be affected by the product framing.

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Discussion

Conclusions

The main goal of the present thesis project was to explore the moral licensing effect in the green consumption domain and suggest a way to counteract this psychological phenomenon. In order to do so, the paper researched the relationship between the self and significant others and how an act benefiting the latter can affect one`s moral behavior in a subsequent moral task. Apart from this, the present thesis project aimed at exploring the internal processes and mental mechanisms which explain the relationship between significant-others framing and moral licensing.

One of the main findings the present paper put forward is that framing the initial green consumption as beneficial for significant others reduces the propensity of moral licensing in a subsequent moral task. The results from the conducted analyses supported H1 and demonstrated that when people choose an eco-friendly product framed as beneficial for significant others, they are more willing to volunteer for a charity, compared with people who make a purchase decision regarding a green product presented as either environment or society-beneficial. This finding is in line with the theoretical findings which suggest that as significant others provide the context in which the self is developed, an act towards their benefit is not experienced as altruistic, thus it does not lead to a moral self-boost and consequently to a moral licensing effect (Chen et al., 2006; Skorinko, 2012). Furthermore, the results from the analyses supported the findings of Alibeli and White (2011), according to which people do make a distinction between significant others and society in general, as the former are perceived as closer to the self than to the more general concept of “others”.

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consumption as beneficial for significant others on moral licensing is due to the inclusion of significant others in the self. In order to test this, two mediation analyses were conducted, in which the Relational-Interdependent Self-Construal scale (RISC scale) and the Inclusion-of- Other-in-the-Self scale (IOS scale) were applied as measures of the extent to which people incorporate significant others in their selves. The results of the analysis, using the RISC score supported H2: the score on the RISC scale mediated the negative effect of significant-other framing on moral licensing. However, the same was not replicated by the IOS score: although the IOS score had a significant positive effect on the likelihood of charity participation, corresponding to a reduced moral licensing, it was not affected by the framing of the initial green consumption. As stated in the methodology section, both the RISC and the IOS scales have been thus far applied as measures of the chronic closeness between the self and significant others, however, the literature suggests that these measures could be affected externally through contextual cues, i.e. representations of significant others (Chen et al., 2006). Based on the results of the mediation analyses, it can be concluded that the RISC scale supports this assumption, but the IOS scale does not, which means that the latter is more applicable for testing the chronic self-significant others closeness.

To conclude, the present thesis project explored the moral licensing effect in the green consumption domain and demonstrated that the concept of significant others could be a feasible way to counteract this psychological phenomenon.

Limitations and directions for future research

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The first limitation of the present study is related to its generalizability. In terms of the green consumption domain, the research was limited to a product category (paper napkins), which belongs to the fast moving consumer goods. When consumers have to make a purchase decision regarding the latter category, their involvement is usually low and the choice is not considered as one of great importance (Hoyer, MacInnis & Pieters, 2012). Consequently, when people choose eco-friendly paper-napkins, they might not feel a boost in their self-image, since they have not put much extra efforts (i.e. related to time or money), thus the moral licensing effect would be reduced regardless of the product framing. However, within a research scenario where the purchase decision is in a category of high involvement, the choice of the green product (vs. the non-green product) would mean spending more money or/and time. As a result, regardless of the product framing, people might feel that they have done something altruistic and as a consequence would license in the following task. Furthermore, apart from consumer goods, the green domain relates also to participation in green activities, where individuals do not necessarily make a purchase choice, but rather take a certain course of actions, such as recycling. As in the case of high-involvement products, further research could indicate that green activities carry the feeling of altruism regardless of how they are framed. In addition, in the present research participants were “forced” to choose an eco-friendly product, since both types of paper napkins were green. However, in a field experiment consumers would also consider competitors` conventional products and when the price difference is salient they would probably choose the non-green good over its eco-friendly substitute, even if the latter is framed as beneficial for significant others.

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under contextual cues this closeness is intensified, leading to the omission of altruism. However, if the same experiment is conducted with people belonging to the individualistic cultures, it may be that even when they act for the benefit of their significant others, they would still feel altruistic and would license in a subsequent task.

In addition, the experiment was conducted via an online Qualtrics questionnaire, within which participants were passive observers and did not exert any actual behavior. Moreover, the effect of moral licensing was measured as the likelihood of charity participation, yet if we were to measure the actual participation, it could be that the likelihood would not necessarily transform into an actual behavior. A further research in a laboratory or in a field, where individuals participate actively in the experiment, could put forward more straightforward and realistic findings about topic of interest.

Another limitation is the proximity in time between the initial and subsequent moral tasks. It could be that the effect of the contextual cue, which brings the perception of significant others, wears off as the lag between the two tasks increases. A further research could test the latter assumption and those outlined above as to provide more findings regarding the moral licensing effect in the green consumption domain.

Managerial implications and recommendations

The present thesis project outlines several managerial implications, which could be taken into consideration by marketers and policy makers in the eco-friendly domain. The findings of the paper are especially relevant in cases that require consistency in consumers` behavior.

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participate in green activities. As to keep consumers consistent in their green consumption pattern, marketers and policy makers should avoid using the concept of environment or society in general as beneficiaries of the green consumption, because an act towards their utility leads to moral self-boost, which increases the moral licensing effect. On the other hand, framing an eco-friendly product as beneficial for significant others is perceived as a self-beneficial rather than altruistic act, thus it does not result in an increase in the perception of one`s morality, and it does not lead to a self-licensing effect.

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Appendix A: Qualtrics questionnaire

Dear Participant,

Welcome to the Consumer Attitudes Study! In the next few minutes, you will be presented with information about a new brand of paper napkins, which then you will be asked to evaluate. As we would like to measure the attitudes and the purchase intentions prior to the launch of the brand in the market, we ask you to pay attention to the questions and be honest in your answers. The study will take no more than 5 minutes of your time!

You are going to read some information about a new brand of paper napkins called PaperWorld. Please read the text carefully and complete the following task.

Control condition 1

PaperWorld is a new brand of paper napkins that will be launched in the marketplace at the beginning of 2016. There are two types of paper napkins that PaperWorld will offer in the supermarkets and local stores - biodegradable napkins and napkins made of recycled paper. One of the key aspects of the new brand is its environmentally conscious identity. By introducing eco-friendly products, PaperWorld aim at addressing the importance of "green" consumption through which people would contribute to the preservation of the environment. The message which PaperWorld want to convey to consumers is:

"Choose the napkins of PaperWorld - help us preserve the environment!"

Q1 Please mark the number that indicates the extent to which you agree or disagree with each of these statements, using the scale from 1 to 7.

Strongly Disagree (1) Disagree (2) Somewhat Disagree (3) Neither Agree nor Disagree (4) Somewhat Agree (5) Agree (6) Strongly Agree (7)

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Focal condition

PaperWorld is a new brand of paper napkins that will be launched in the marketplace in the beginning of 2016. There are two types of paper napkins that PaperWorld will offer in the supermarkets and local stores - biodegradable napkins and napkins made of recycled paper. One of the key aspects of the new brand is its focus on family as a crucial social unit for every human being. PaperWorld strongly believe that people should look after their families and providing sustainable environment is the first step towards family well-being. By introducing eco-friendly products, PaperWorld aim at addressing the importance of "green" consumption as a way through which people would positively influence the environment and thus their families. The message which PaperWorld wants to convey to consumers is:

"Choose the napkins of PaperWorld - help us provide your family with a sustainable environment!"

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positive impact on my family. (3) By using the eco-friendly paper napkins of PaperWorld, I would show that I care for my family. (4)        By using the eco-friendly paper napkins of PaperWorld, I would help in improving the well-being of my family. (5)        Control condition 2

PaperWorld is a new brand of paper napkins that will be launched in the marketplace in the beginning of 2016. There are two types of paper napkins that PaperWorld will offer in the supermarkets and local stores - biodegradable napkins and napkins made of recycled paper. One of the key aspects of the new brand is its focus on society and on sustainable environment as a way to improve its well-being. By introducing eco-friendly products, PaperWorld aim at addressing the importance of "green" consumption through which people would positively influence the environment and thus the well-being of others. The message which PaperWorld want to convey to consumers is:

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I like the fact that PaperWorld offer recycled and biodegradable napkins. (1)        Using products made of recycled materials would have a positive impact on society. (2)        Using biodegradable products would have a positive impact on society. (3)        By using the eco-friendly paper napkins of PaperWorld, I would show that I care for other people. (4)

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By using the eco-friendly paper napkins of PaperWorld, I would help in improving the well-being of other people. (5)       

Q2 Now, imagine that you have to purchase one of the two types of PaperWorld eco-friendly napkins. Which type would you choose?

 The biodegradable paper napkins (1)

 The paper napkins produced out of recycled paper (2)

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Q3 Upon reading the text about Helpgivers, please answer the following question: Very Unlikely (1) Unlikely (2) Somewhat Unlikely (3) Undecided (4) Somewhat Likely (5) Likely (6) Very Likely (7) How likely are you

to assist Helpgivers in gaining awareness by handing out brochures in your free time? (1)       

Thank you! Your answers from the first part of the study have been processed and now you can proceed with the second part of the study.

Q4 Listed below are a number of statements about various attitudes and feelings. There are no right or wrong answers to these questions. We are simply interested in how you think about yourself. Please mark the number that indicates the extent to which you agree or disagree with each of these statements, using the scale from 1 to 7.

Strongly Disagre e (1) Disagre e (2) Somewha t Disagree (3) Neither Agree nor Disagre e (4) Somewha t Agree (5) Agre e (6) Strongl y Agree (7) My close relationships are an important reflection of who I am. (1)        When I feel very close to someone, it often feels to me like that person is an important part of who I am. (2)

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Overall, my close

relationships have very little to do with how I feel about myself. (3)        I think one of the most important parts of who I am can be captured by looking at my close friends and understanding who they are. (4)        When I think of myself, I often think of my close friends or family also. (5)        When I establish a close friendship with someone, I usually develop a strong sense of identification with that person. (6)

      

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what kind of person I am. (8) My sense of pride comes from knowing who I have as close friends. (9)        In general, my close relationships are an important part of my self-image. (10)        I usually feel a strong sense of pride when someone close to me has an important accomplishment . (11)       

Q5 You see 7 combinations of circles, each of them illustrating the relationship between your family and yourself (one circle being your family and the other one yourself). Please mark the combination of circles that best describes the relationship between your family and

yourself.

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 Image:Circle 3 (3)  Image:Circle 4 (4)  Image:Circle 5 (5)  Image:Circle 6 (6)  Image:Circle 7 (7)

Thank you for your answers! As to completely the study, we would like to ask you some general questions about yourself.

Q6 How old are you? ______ years (1)

Q7 What is your gender?  Male (1)

 Female (2)

Q8 What is your country of origin?  Please select below... (1)

Q9 What is the highest level of education you have completed?  High School/GED (1)

 College (2)

 Bachelor's Degree (3)  Master's Degree (4)

 Advanced Graduate work or Ph.D. (5)

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 Single, never married (1)

 Married or domestic partnership (2)  Separated (3)

 Divorced (4)  Widowed (5)

Q11 What do you think this study is about?

This is the end of the study! Thank you for participating! After reading the information below, please click on the arrow ">>" as to exit the study! Now, let me tell you about the real purpose of the study.

This study is part of a master thesis project focusing on moral licensing in the "green" consumption domain and aims at suggesting means through which to counteract this phenomenon. Thus, the study is not related to consumer attitudes. Upon exerting moral behaviour (i.e. choosing an eco-friendly product), people tend to feel morally licensed to avoid engaging in subsequent moral activities (i.e. volunteering for a charity organization) or are likely to worry less about engaging in morally dubious deeds (i.e. cheating on an exam). Moral licensing is a psychological phenomenon through which people internally justify their less moral or immoral behavior after demonstrating their morality. As "green" consumption is regarded as a moral activity that could lead to moral licensing, in this thesis project I am researching whether framing an eco-friendly product in a specific way may counteract the moral licensing phenomenon in a subsequent, unrelated to the environmental domain, task. "PaperWorld" and "Helpgivers" are randomly chosen names for the purpose of the study and do not correspond to a real brand/organization, thus the information regarding them is fictitious.

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Appendix B: SPSS output

Output 1: ANOVA and Fisher`s LSD

Descriptives

ChPart

N Mean Std.

Deviation

Std. Error 95% Confidence Interval for Mean

Minimum Maximum

Lower Bound Upper Bound

Env 60 3,83 1,861 ,240 3,35 4,31 1 7 SignO 61 4,95 1,532 ,196 4,56 5,34 1 7 Soc 66 4,26 1,774 ,218 3,82 4,69 1 7 Total 187 4,35 1,779 ,130 4,09 4,60 1 7 ANOVA ChPart

Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Between Groups 38,599 2 19,300 6,459 ,002

Within Groups 549,807 184 2,988

Total 588,406 186

Multiple Comparisons

Dependent Variable: ChPart LSD

(I) PFrame (J) PFrame Mean

Difference (I-J)

Std. Error Sig. 95% Confidence Interval Lower Bound Upper Bound

Env SignO -1,117* ,314 ,000 -1,74 -,50 Soc -,424 ,308 ,171 -1,03 ,18 SignO Env 1,117 * ,314 ,000 ,50 1,74 Soc ,693* ,307 ,025 ,09 1,30 Soc Env ,424 ,308 ,171 -,18 1,03 SignO -,693* ,307 ,025 -1,30 -,09

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Output 2: Reliability analysis of RISC scale Reliability Statistics Cronbach's Alpha N of Items ,901 11 Item-Total Statistics Scale Mean if Item Deleted Scale Variance if Item Deleted Corrected Item-Total Correlation Cronbach's Alpha if Item Deleted CloseR1 49,8824 109,997 ,794 ,882 CloseR2 50,1444 113,748 ,752 ,886 CloseR4 50,6364 113,760 ,687 ,889 CloseR5 50,2781 115,288 ,670 ,890 CloseR6 50,6631 116,268 ,604 ,893 CloseR7 50,1176 116,846 ,633 ,892 CloseR9 51,1979 115,902 ,554 ,897 CloseR10 50,6043 111,789 ,778 ,884 CloseR11 50,0909 117,750 ,646 ,891 CloseR3new 50,9893 118,892 ,441 ,904 CloseR8new 50,7433 116,213 ,513 ,900

Output 3: Mediation analysis 1

Run MATRIX procedure:

*************** MEDIATE Procedure for SPSS Release 050213 **************** Written by Andrew F. Hayes, Ph.D. http://www.afhayes.com

************************************************************************** VARIABLES IN THE FULL MODEL:

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MODEL SUMMARY (TOTAL EFFECTS MODEL)

R R-sq Adj R-sq F df1 df2 p

,2366 ,0560 ,0509 10,9718 1,0000 185,0000 ,0011

MODEL COEFFICIENTS (TOTAL EFFECTS MODEL)

Coeff. s.e. t p Constant 4,0556 ,1544 26,2720 ,0000 PF ,8953 ,2703 3,3124 ,0011 OMNIBUS TEST OF TOTAL EFFECT

R-sq F df1 df2 p ,0560 10,9718 1,0000 185,0000 ,0011 ************************************************************************** OUTCOME VARIABLE: RISC MODEL SUMMARY R R-sq Adj R-sq F df1 df2 p ,2175 ,0473 ,0422 9,1887 1,0000 185,0000 ,0028 MODEL COEFFICIENTS Coeff. s.e. t p Constant 4,8874 ,0931 52,5017 ,0000 PF ,4941 ,1630 3,0313 ,0028 ************************************************************************** OUTCOME VARIABLE: ChPart MODEL SUMMARY R R-sq adj R-sq F df1 df2 p ,4657 ,2169 ,2084 25,4812 2,0000 184,0000 ,0000 MODEL COEFFICIENTS Coeff. s.e. t p Constant ,7095 ,5621 1,2622 ,2085 RISC ,6846 ,1113 6,1488 ,0000 PF ,5570 ,2529 2,2026 ,0289 TEST OF HOMOGENEITY OF REGRESSION (X*M INTERACTION)

R-sq F df1 df2 p RISC ,0000 ,0007 1,0000 183,0000 ,9784 OMNIBUS TEST OF DIRECT EFFECT

R-sq F df1 df2 p ,0206 4,8513 1,0000 184,0000 ,0289

************************************************************************** INDIRECT EFFECT(S) THROUGH:

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Effect SE(boot) LLCI ULCI PF ,3383 ,1094 ,1481 ,5786 OMNIBUS ,0289 ,0175 ,0032 ,0712 ---

********************** ANALYSIS NOTES AND WARNINGS ***************************

Number of samples used for indirect effect confidence intervals: 5000

Level of confidence for confidence intervals: 95,0000

Bias corrected bootstrap confidence intervals for indirect effects are printed in output

--- END MATRIX ---

Output 4: Mediation analysis 2

Run MATRIX procedure:

*************** MEDIATE Procedure for SPSS Release 050213 **************** Written by Andrew F. Hayes, Ph.D. http://www.afhayes.com

************************************************************************** VARIABLES IN THE FULL MODEL:

Y = ChPart M1 = IOS X = PF ************************************************************************** OUTCOME VARIABLE: ChPart

MODEL SUMMARY (TOTAL EFFECTS MODEL)

R R-sq Adj R-sq F df1 df2 p

,2366 ,0560 ,0509 10,9718 1,0000 185,0000 ,0011

MODEL COEFFICIENTS (TOTAL EFFECTS MODEL)

Coeff. s.e. t p Constant 4,0556 ,1544 26,2720 ,0000 PF ,8953 ,2703 3,3124 ,0011 OMNIBUS TEST OF TOTAL EFFECT

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************************************************************************** OUTCOME VARIABLE: IOS MODEL SUMMARY R R-sq Adj R-sq F df1 df2 p ,0955 ,0091 ,0038 1,7043 1,0000 185,0000 ,1934 MODEL COEFFICIENTS Coeff. s.e. t p Constant 4,9127 ,1458 33,7004 ,0000 PF ,3332 ,2552 1,3055 ,1934 ************************************************************************** OUTCOME VARIABLE: ChPart MODEL SUMMARY R R-sq adj R-sq F df1 df2 p ,3740 ,1399 ,1305 14,9587 2,0000 184,0000 ,0000 MODEL COEFFICIENTS Coeff. s.e. t p Constant 2,5049 ,3948 6,3453 ,0000 IOS ,3156 ,0745 4,2357 ,0000 PF ,7901 ,2599 3,0402 ,0027 TEST OF HOMOGENEITY OF REGRESSION (X*M INTERACTION)

R-sq F df1 df2 p IOS ,0001 ,0108 1,0000 183,0000 ,9173 OMNIBUS TEST OF DIRECT EFFECT

R-sq F df1 df2 p ,0432 9,2428 1,0000 184,0000 ,0027

************************************************************************** INDIRECT EFFECT(S) THROUGH:

IOS

Effect SE(boot) LLCI ULCI PF ,1052 ,0848 -,0438 ,2988 OMNIBUS ,0012 ,0050 -,0021 ,0164 ---

********************** ANALYSIS NOTES AND WARNINGS ***************************

Number of samples used for indirect effect confidence intervals: 5000

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Bias corrected bootstrap confidence intervals for indirect effects are printed in output

Counteracting moral licensing in the green consumption domain through product framing