21ST CENTURY SKILLS IN PRIMARY EDUCATION:
Learning materials for students and teachers for the development of information literacy
Master Thesis
Marloes Lenters
21ST CENTURY SKILLS IN PRIMARY EDUCATION:
Learning materials for students and teachers for the development of information literacy
Master Thesis July 5
th, 2019 Marloes Lenters s1759205
m.lenters@student.utwente.nl University of Twente
Faculty of Behavioural, Management & Social Sciences (BMS) Educational Science and Technology
Supervisors:
Dr. H. van der Meij (first)
Dr. H. Leemkuil (second)
SUMMARY
Nowadays, internet plays a major role in the daily life and education of children (Tamilchelvi & Senthilnathan, 2013). There is an exponentially fast increase of digital information (van der Kaap & Schmidt, 2007) while the reliability of this information is decreasing (SLO, 2015; Thijs, Fisser, & Hoeven, 2014). Therefore, the primary school curriculum should include 21st century skills. More specifically the skill information literacy is needed. This skill includes the ability to find, select, and use relevant and reliable information from reliable sources (SLO, 2015). Since teachers feel uncertain about teaching 21
stcentury skills (Thijs et al., 2014) and the lack of time in primary education, learner-directed learning materials are needed.
Based on theoretical and practical analysis, learning materials including instructional videos based on the vlog-principle and an instruction booklet were developed and implemented in group 6. This design-based action research with control group was conducted to study the effects of these instructional videos in learning and on the level of self-efficacy.
Some results showed differences between the scores before and after implementation of the learning materials, especially in learning, but there were no significant differences on the level of self-efficacy.
Keywords: 21st Century Skills – Information Literacy – Primary Education – Learning Materials – Video Instruction – Vlogs
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I’ve been studying in Deventer since 2012 to become a primary school teacher. During this study I found that I’m very interested in developing learning materials. Therefore I wanted to follow the master ‘Education Science and Technology’. So, I have followed the pre-master programme during my minor. I started the master programme in September 2016: A time with new knowledge and challenges. I almost finished this master programme by completing my master thesis. The main goal of this master thesis was to develop learning materials for primary school students for developing information literacy.
Hans van der Meij, a lot of thanks for your good advice and sharing your knowledge.
Sometimes I was lost in all the information, analysis and work, but then you gave me the good advice to focus on what I like: developing learning materials. Henny Leemkuil, thank you for being my second supervisor. Finally, I want to thank the children of group 6 from primary school De Fontein in Westerhaar-Vriezenveensewijk for their cooperation. It was a pleasure to implement my learning materials at your school.
I hope you enjoy reading my thesis!
Marloes Lenters,
July 5
th, 2019, Vriezenveen
TABLE OF CONTENT
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ... 2
1 | INTRODUCTION ... 5
1.1 | Need for learning materials information literacy ... 5
1.2 | Background of the study ... 6
2.1.1 | 21
stcentury learning (in educational practice) ... 6
2.1.2 | Information literacy ... 7
2.1.2.1 | Importance of information literacy ... 7
1.3 | Research questions ... 8
1.4 | Research model and research design ... 8
2 | ANALYSIS ... 10
2.1 | Needs analysis ... 10
3 | DESIGN ... 19
3.1 | Learning theory... 21
3.1.1 | Motivational theory ... 21
3.2 | Video instruction ... 22
3.3 | Worked examples ... 22
3.4 | Vlogs ... 23
3.4.1 | Competition analysis vlogs ... 23
3.4.2 | Video instruction and vlogs ... 27
3.4.3 | Needs analysis vlogs ... 28
3.5 | Learning materials for mastering information literacy ... 29
3.5.1 | Instructional videos ... 29
3.5.2 | Instruction booklet ... 31
4 | DEVELOPMENT ... 33
4.1 | Pilot test ... 33
4.1.1 | Participants ... 33
4.1.2 | Instruments ... 33
4.1.3 | Procedure ... 34
4.1.4 | Results... 34
4.2 | Instructional videos ... 36
4.2.1 | Personal impression ... 37
4.2.2 | Preview of video content ... 37
4.2.3 | Worked example ... 37
4.2.4 | Action ... 37
4.2.5 | Tips ... 38
4.2 | Instruction booklet... 38
5 | IMPLEMENTATION & EVALUATION ... 40
5.1 | Goal of the implementation ... 40
5.2 | Participants ... 40
5.3 | Instrumentation ... 40
5.4 | Procedure ... 42
5.5 | Data analysis ... 43
6 | RESULTS ... 44
6.1.| Results ... 44
6.1.1 | Knowledge outcomes ... 44
6.1.2 | Self-efficacy... 45
7 | DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION ... 47
7.1 | Conclusion ... 47
7.1.1 | Knowledge outcomes ... 47
7.1.2 | Self-efficacy... 48
REFERENCES ... 51
APPENDICES ... 55
APPENDIX A | OVERVIEW ANALYZED VLOGS COMPETITION ANALYSIS VLOGS ... 55
APPENDIX B | SUMMARIZING TABLE COMPETITION ANALYSIS VLOGS ... 56
APPENDIX C | QUESTIONNAIRE NEEDS ANALYSIS VLOG ... 58
APPENDIX D | SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEW USABILITY TESTING ... 60
APPENDIX E | TRANSCRIPT ... 65
APPENDIX F | INSTRUCTION BOOKLET EXPERIMENTAL GROUP ... 76
APPENDIX G | INSTRUCTION BOOKLET CONTROL GROUP ... 87
APPENDIX H | CODE BOOK INSTRUCTION BOOKLET ... 96
APPENDIX I | RESULTS ONE-WAY ANOVA KNOWLEDGE OUTCOMES ... 100
1 | INTRODUCTION
1.1 | Need for learning materials information literacy
Nowadays, internet plays a major role in the daily life and education of children (Tamilchelvi & Senthilnathan, 2013). Due to the rise of internet and the continuously development of the internet people can publish and receive information from the internet easily (Hobbs, 2007). As a result, there is an fast increase of digital information (van der Kaap
& Schmidt, 2007). However, the reliability of this information decreases. Because it is getting easier to copy, manipulate, and spread digital information (SLO, 2015; Thijs et al., 2014).
Therefore, students need to be taught 21st century skills. Specifically the skill information literacy should be taught. This skill includes the ability to find, select, and use relevant and reliable information from reliable sources (SLO, 2015). These skills are needed to succeed in the current information society in this century (Voogt, Erstad, Dede, & Mishra, 2013) and to help students to become a lifelong learner (Tamilchelvi & Senthilnathan, 2013). Regarding lifelong learning, information literacy is an important skill to deal with the unending flood of information (Tamilchelvi & Senthilnathan, 2013). This skill is also important to become a confident and critical participant of the information society (Ala-Mutka, Punie, & Redecker, 2008).
Research has shown that primary school students have a lack of crucial information literacy (Chu, Tse, & Chow, 2011). It is proven that the current curriculum provides teachers space to give their own interpretation to the 21st century skills. However, this curriculum does not provide clear direction and stimulant (Thijs et al., 2014). Existing instructional methods focused on 21st century skills do not always contain the right guidelines for integrating information literacy (Thijs et al., 2014). Guidelines are needed for integrating the teaching of information literacy (Ala-Mutka et al., 2008). The main problem is that existing instructional methods and approaches mostly do not contribute to the level of information literacy by primary school students (Thijs et al., 2014).
The core objectives of SLO do not include the 21st century skills (Thijs et al., 2014), as
well as these skills are often wrong implemented in current education (Thijs et al., 2014; Voogt
et al., 2013). Primary school teachers often have the intention to teach their students 21st
century skills (Thijs et al., 2014), but it turned out that there is a lack of integration of 21st
century skills. This lack is due to insufficient preparation of teachers (Voogt et al., 2013) and their uncertainty about their capacities for shaping 21st century skills (Thijs et al., 2014).
Furthermore, it is due to the little attention for innovative instruction and learning methods (Voogt et al., 2013). Therefore, teachers need guidelines to solve the above-mentioned problems. Information literacy should be integrated in an effective way.
In regard of the previous, the following question is formed: How to integrate information literacy in the current curriculum? There are learning materials needed that provide concrete guidelines and practicing materials for integrating information literacy in the current curriculum. These learning materials have to focus mainly on primary school students with the aim of teaching them information literacy at their own level and pace. An effective pedagogical approach might contribute to the development of information literacy (Chu et al., 2011).
More insight in needs of primary education in the Netherlands is needed to develop appropriate learning materials for Dutch primary education. Also it is important that the best way of giving instruction and the details of this instruction is given.
1.2 | Background of the study
2.1.1 | 21
stcentury learning (in educational practice)
The current society is continuously changing. This means that ‘learning’ is also in
development in the 21st century (Thijs et al., 2014). Relevant social developments for
education are especially internationalisation, individualisation, flexibilization of the job
market, and the high development of technology. The high development of technology is
about the rise of the Information and Communication Technology (ICT), internet, and all
technologies based on that rise (Onderwijsraad, 2014). Because of these developments,
higher standards are set to children and adults. They require changes in learning materials,
teaching, and learning goals (Voogt et al., 2013). Many research is focused on knowledge, skills
and individual attitudes and attributes concerning our rapidly changing society (Thijs et al.,
2014). The skills are collectively referred to as the ‘21st century skills’, not incoming skills, but
skills that have gained in importance (Thijs et al., 2014). These 21st skills include critical
thinking, creative thinking, problem solving, computational thinking, information literacy, ICT
skills, media literacy, communication, collaboration, social and cultural literacy, and self- regulation (SLO, 2017).
The technical developments ensure an exponential increase of easy accessible information, and new communication capabilities arise (Onderwijsraad, 2014). The society of the 21st century is becoming an information and knowledge society. Consequently, people have to deal with this information daily (van der Kaap & Schmidt, 2007). Hence, this study is focused on information literacy.
2.1.2 | Information literacy
The many definitions for the concept information literacy are more or less the same.
Information literacy is about using information and the corresponding sources effectively and efficiently (van Veen, 2005). This skill is also about using information purposefully and systematically (SLO, 2015). A person who is information literate is featured by a critical attitude (Thijs et al., 2014) and is able to signal and analyse the information need. Moreover, he is able to search, select and use relevant and reliable information from reliable (digital) sources (Brand-Gruwel & Wopereis, 2010; SLO, 2015).
2.1.2.1 | Importance of information literacy
There are several reasons why it is important to become information literate. First, as a result of the high development of technology, the accessibility of information is significantly increased (van der Kaap & Schmidt, 2007; Onderwijsraad, 2014). Learning how and where to find the information you need, has become a skill that every civilian needs to own (Onderwijsraad, 2014). It is claimed that people nowadays do not need to know all the facts they learn in primary education, but need to learn how to find these facts (Beljaarts, 2006).
Research has shown that 87% of the students use internet as their primary information source for papers, (oral) presentations, and other school-related tasks (Beljaarts, 2006; Walhout &
Brand-Gruwel, 2009).
Second, knowledge about evaluating information is perhaps even more important, because next to the big amount of correct information, incorrect and manipulated information increases. (Hobbs, 2007; SLO, 2015; van der Kaap & Schmidt, 2007). Because of this amount of information, it is hard to determine which information is reliable (SLO, 2015).
Besides, information on internet is differently organised in comparison with information in
books (Walhout & Brand-Gruwel, 2009). In books, information is filtered and reviewed by
experts, but on the internet the learner has to do this by his own. This means that evaluating information has become an essential skill (Onderwijsraad, 2014; Walhout & Brand-Gruwel, 2009).
Finally, information literacy includes skills that are a basis for lifelong learning (Bruce, 2004; Tamilchelvi & Senthilnathan, 2013; Walhout & Brand-Gruwel, 2009). In the 21st century it becomes more important to learn lifelong and be capable of searching correct and reliable information instead of having all these information (Breivik, 1998). Lifelong learning strategies need to answer the growing need for advanced digital competence for all jobs and for all learners (Ala-Mutka et al., 2008).
1.3 | Research questions
The aim of this research is to design learning materials for developing information literacy among primary school students. This aim was two folded. First, this study aimed to find out the effects of instructional videos. Second, another aim was to find out whether the learning materials affect students’ motivation concerning information literacy. Therefore, two main research questions and two subquestions were formulated.
1. What are the effects of the learning materials on primary school students’ knowledge level concerning information literacy?
1.1 What are the differences in the effects per instructional video?
2. What are the effects of the learning materials on primary school students’ level of self- efficacy concerning information literacy?
2.1 What are the differences in the effects between the control group and the experimental group?
1.4 | Research model and research design
A design-based action research was deployed to investigate how information literacy could be implemented in primary education and to evaluate these learning materials. This action research was design-based: the research aims at designing an instructional intervention in real practice (McKenney, Nieveen, & van den Akker, 2006).
The generic model for conducting educational design research (Figure 1) was used in
this study (McKenney & Reeves, 2014). This ADDIE model, that includes five phases: Analyze,
Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation, presents the core elements of a flexible process in interaction with practice, offering a systematic way of conducting educational design research to theoretical understanding and application in practice. After exploring and understanding the problem, a literature study and different analysis were done to determine the guidelines for the design of the learning materials. After the implementation of the learning materials, a quasi-experimental design with a control group was used to evaluate the effects of the learning materials (RQ1). A pre- and posttest were used to get insight into the current level of motivation by primary school students from group 6, using a self-efficacy questionnaire (RQ2).
Figure 1. Generic model for conducting educational design research (McKenney & Reeves,
2014).
2 | ANALYSIS
In the analysis phase the problem is further explored (McKenney & Reeves, 2014). The problem is first explored from a theoretical perspective and afterwards from a practical perspective, from which guidelines for the design and construction of the learning materials follow. The guidelines are numbered for easy reference.
2.1 | Needs analysis
A needs analysis has been conducted with the target audience, primary school students from group 6, aged nine till ten.
The 21st century asks for education that is in line with the developments of this century. Since one of the developments in the 21st century is the fast increase of digital information, primary school students have to be able to deal with this enormous information load, which is in line with the core objectives of SLO (2015), regarding written education. So, students have to be able to retrieve information from digital sources, and to order, compare and use this information (core objective 4 – 9).
From practice, it has turned out that primary school teachers would like to teach information literacy, but they do not feel sufficiently proficient with teaching and integrating this skill (Thijs et al., 2014; Voogt et al., 2013). They also encounter high workload. Besides, it has turned out that primary school students generally are unable to find relevant and reliable information on the internet. They generally do not use the right search terms, select the first search result, and barely judge information and information sources, which is also in line with literature (Walraven, Brand-Gruwel, & Boshuizen, 2008). Informal conversations with primary school teachers have confirmed this problem and hence, the need for learning materials focused on learning information literacy. The learning materials could be used independently;
primary school students have to be able to learn without instruction of a teacher. Another
advantage of independently learning information literacy is the independence of fellow
students: they could work on their own level and pace. So, learner-directed instruction
provides students control in their learning (Ormrod, 2013).
Guidelines for the learning materials The learning materials should …
1. … teach primary school students information literacy in line with the core objectives of SLO
2. … be learner-directed
2.2 | Target audience
The target audience of this study includes primary school students from group 6, aged nine till ten, because since this school year students must increasingly use internet as information source. Moreover, students have to make their first oral presentation in this study year (Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap, 2006; SLO, 2015).
A lot of research is done about teaching information literacy to primary school students. It has been found that learning digital competence should start as early as possible and within context (Ala-Mutka et al., 2008). Information literacy includes complex skills, and primary school students have to effectively and efficiently use information and information resources in this century (van der Kaap & Schmidt, 2007). It is concluded that primary school students are able to learn information literacy in a very structured way. They do not always have the knowledge they need to effectively learn this skill (Ormrod, 2013). So, there is a need for more knowledge and insight into information literacy, examples of exercises, and other learning materials (Thijs et al., 2014).
Guidelines for the learning materials The learning materials should …
3. … fit the target audience aged nine till ten 4. … include different exercises
5. … be very structured
2.3 | Analysis of competitive methods
On the internet, several methods and online learning environments focussed on
information literacy can be found. Most of the Dutch methods are developed by the Dutch
Library. Besides, it has been shown that Media Rakkers, a knowledge centre, and Noordhoff,
a Dutch publisher, have developed learning materials to learn information literacy. These four
most-used methods are in line with the aim of this study. A comparison of these methods will give insight into the current situation about learning information literacy and where the gap is.
The first method that will be compared is Webdetective. This is a website with information and a game, developed in 2013 for the Dutch Library. The instruction is divided into four steps, based on the first four of six skills according to SLO (2015). Every step is explained in written text and in Prezi. After the instruction of the four steps, the students, aged ten till sixteen, can do a kind of game, an ‘internet search’. There is a lack of exercises for training the four steps separately and a lot of jargon is used. The website also includes a checklist for judging websites and information and instructions for teachers.
Second, Secret agent A.A.P., developed in 2014, is an extensive online learning environment including a lot of information in different forms and an online game, developed by ‘De Koninklijke Bibliotheek’, for the Library at school. The learning environment consists of information, links to websites, videos, pictures and more, with as consequence it is unclear what you have to do. The information for teachers and students is not separated. The game starts with an introduction video, afterwards, there are questions and videos with an explanation of the right answers. It is not possible to go for- or backward. The main part of the question is about reproducing knowledge instead of applying knowledge. The videos are different in length, varying between three and five minutes.
Third, Media Makkers, developed in 2008, is a small instructional method that is focused on media literacy with exercises for learning information literacy. There are questions about information literacy, but these are not action-based, the students do not learn how and why to take different steps. The written instruction about Google and search terms, and the importance of sources is clear.
Fourth, Op Expeditie, published in 2010, is an instructional method with a workbook
and copy sheets, developed by Noordhoff. The students will be guided step by step, from
nothing to an oral presentation. Many small questions and exercises help the students in the
right direction. The instruction is given on four levels. The exercises are mainly on paper, the
internet will not be used very often. The copy sheets are focused on the information and
knowledge students needed before they could actually search for the right information.
Guidelines for the learning materials
By comparing the previous methods, it can be concluded that the learning materials should…
6. … not include jargon
7. … include the possibility to go back- and forward at any time 8. … be action-based
9. … include a clear instruction before actually search information 10. … include exercises
2.4 | Learning objectives
To get better insight into the specific tasks, learning objectives are formulated based on the advisory curriculum of information literacy of SLO (2015) and the Big Six model (Eisenberg & Berkowitz, 2003), see Figure 2. The learning objectives in the left column of Table 1 are based on the ‘Big Four’, which includes the first four skills of the Big Six. These general learning objectives will be integrated into the current curriculum to achieve them. In this study, the objectives will specifically be integrated in preparing an oral presentation.
Figure 2. Big Six Skills (Eisenberg & Berkowitz, 2003).
Table 1
Learning objectives of the learning materials
Tasks The students …
Formulate information need are able to define the information problem are able to identify the needed information
Information seeking strategies have knowledge of reliable and relevant digital sources have knowledge of possible seeking strategies
are able to determine the best fitting seeking strategy Location and access are able to find the right information within sources
are able to judge information
Use of information are able to answer their information problem
Guidelines for the learning materials The learning materials should …
11. … include four skills: formulate information need, search information, select information, and use information
2.5 | Task analysis
The task analysis focuses on the content of the learning materials. As given in literature (Eisenberg & Berkowitz, 2003) and the curriculum of SLO (2015), information literacy includes six skills. The skills define the information problem, search information, scan information and process information can be seen as the analysis part of the process. Organize information and present information can be seen as the synthesis part of the process (Brand-Gruwel, Wopereis,
& Vermetten, 2005). This study focuses on the analysis part of the model, so there will be
taught four skills in the learning materials, the ‘Big Four’. Because there has been found that
videos are really effective, useful and easy as tool for learning (Kay & Kletskin, 2012), video
instruction will be further examined in the design part. From now it is assumed that the four
skills will be taught four different instructional videos. The content per instructional video is
presented in Table 2. An introduction video is added to the learning materials to introduce the
vlogger and the goal of the learning materials. This video might also influence to the
motivation of the students. This also will be further explained in the design part.
Table 2
Content per instructional video
Content per instructional video Skills Big Four Introduction video Introduction: make an oral
presentation
Video 1 Which information do I need? Task definition
Video 2 How do I search information? Information seeking strategies Video 3 How do I select information? Location and access
Video 4 How do I use information? Use of information
The four skills will be taught in four different instructional videos with corresponding worksheets. The task analysis is performed by comparing domain related literature and merge this information with the structure of the design. From the learning objectives and the Big Six model, the specific tasks can be explained. In total, there are four tasks with different steps.
These tasks include the first four skills of the Big Six model. The last two tasks are consciously left out of consideration, because these tasks are mainly focused on present the information and evaluate the process, while this design will mainly focus on searching correct information.
Each task consists of two or three steps to complete the task. More details of these tasks with corresponding steps are given below. An overview of these tasks is given in Table 3.
1. Which information do I need?
According to the Big Six model, students must have a clear understanding of what information is needed before they start searching information (Eisenberg & Berkowitz, 2003). In this task, students learn how to find out the information need for their oral
presentation in three steps. Students must take time to define their problem and determine their need (van Veen, 2005). For example, when assigning an oral presentation, a student needs to know what kind of information has to be found and how to find this information.
The subject of the oral presentation in the instructional videos is a cat. The students will
practice making an oral presentation about a rabbit. These subjects are chosen, because
most students choose to do their first oral presentation about their pet, practice has shown.
1.1 Make a mind map A useful tool to get more insight in the information need is a mind map. The knowledge the student already has about his subject will be used (van der Kaap & Schmidt, 2007). Mind mapping allows students to organize facts and thoughts in a map format containing a central word, the main subject (of the oral presentation), and key concepts radiating from this central word (Buzan & Buzan, 2006). Example: while thinking about a cat, words as birth, appearance, and things a cat need (litter box, scratching post, and food bowl) comes to mind.
1.2 Choose your subjects
Mind mapping enhances creativity and promotes students’ learning (Mento, Martinelli, &
Jones, 1999). Mind maps ensure students to recall knowledge and to show relations between different concepts (Evrekli, Balım, & Inel, 2009; Buzan, 2005). So, the key concepts in the mind map could be merged into subtopics for the oral presentation. It will help students to get more insight in their subject. Example: A litter box, scratching post, and food bow are all things a cat need. I merge these words into necessities.
1.3 Determine your order
After selecting the subtopics, the order of the oral presentation can be determined. This order will help finding information, because the entire search process is more framed. Hence, it is easier to save found information at the right place and to see which subtopics need more information (Eisenberg & Berkowitz, 2003). Example: First, I decide with which subtopic I want to start my oral presentation. That is birth. Here I write 1.
2. How do I search information?
A search engine like Google could be used to find relevant websites and articles on the internet. Google is the most used search engine in the world, so it will be used for the search tasks in this task. Finding the right information source is a real challenge, especially for primary school students (van Veen, 2005). This task involves making decisions and selecting appropriate sources fitting with the defined information need.
2.1 Type keywords in Google
The subtopics of the oral presentation could be used as search terms in Google. Corresponding
to the study of Bowler, Large & Rejskind (2001), it has shown that students who searched
exclusively with keywords were successful in all the search tasks. Concluded by Hirsch, search
strategy, search complexity and domain knowledge contribute to successful information retrieval (1999).
2.2 Choose source
After typing these search terms in the search bar of Google, a lot of search results will show up. Because everybody can add information freely, anywhere, at any time to the web, the range of possible information sources is always increasing (Eisenberg & Berkowitz, 2003;
Tamilchelvi & Senthilnathan, 2013). From all the search results on Google, students have to choose the source which fits their information need (Brand-Gruwel & Wopereis, 2010).
Because of the enormous information load, it is important to know how to deal with distractions and choose sources by using a critical view. When students understand the relevance and the degree of their engagement, they are more focused. With as consequence, they are able to stay on their task and are less distracted by the advertising links etc. (Bowler et al., 2001). Example: The source ‘Dry cat food cheap at Zooplus' seems less useful to me, because it is about buying food.
2.3 Save information
There is an exponentially fast increase of digital information (van der Kaap & Schmidt, 2007).
So, when the same search term will be used at a another day or point of time, it is possible really different search results will show up . Because of the new information on the web every moment, it is important to save your found information, in Google Docs for example (Lorie, 2001). Example: I save the information which seems useful to me.
3. How do I select information?
This task is where the information seeking strategy really begins according to the Big Six (Eisenberg & Berkowitz, 2003). The students now have to critically and competently question, challenge, evaluate and organize information (Hobbs, 2007; SLO, 2015). This task includes two steps that are formulated as a question, because the students have to ask themselves these questions to select the right information.
3.1 Is the information on this source relevant?
A lot of information can be found on the web, but not all the information fits the information
need (Belshaw, 2011; Hockly, 2012). Two questions could help the students with finding out
if the found information is relevant for the oral presentation:
1. Does the information fit my topic? Example: This piece of text is really about food. I read different kind of food and cat food. So, this information fits the subtopic food.
2. Do I understand the information? Example: I understand these words. So, I will use this information for my oral presentation.
3.2 Is the information on this source reliable?
Everyone can publish digital information. There is no check if this information is reliable. When the amount of digital information increases, the reliability of this information decreases. It becomes very easy to copy, manipulate, and spread digital information (SLO, 2015; Thijs et al., 2014). Hence, primary school students have to ask themselves the question if the text is reliable. Two questions could help the students:
1. When is the text written? Example: I go back to the website. I see on which date the text is written. The text is 2 years old, which is good. A text should not be over 5 years.
2. Why is the text written? Example: I cannot found why the text is written. Probably the text is written to share information, which is good.
4. How do I use information?
Students have to be able to extract specific information from the information they found on the internet (Eisenberg & Berkowitz, 2003). It is important to give the students insight into the difference between collecting information and presenting this information (van Veen, 2005).
4.1. Order information
All found information has to be saved at the right place in a document. All information is placed under the right subtopic. Prior to start writing text for the oral presentation, it is important to look critically at the information (Hockly, 2012). The following questions could help the students:
1. Is the same information given more often?
2. Which information can I use best?
4.2 Decide if the collected information is enough
When the student have collected enough information, he can start writing. But first, it must
be clear if there is enough appropriate information (Eisenberg & Berkowitz, 2003). The
following questions could help the students:
1. Do I have enough information about my subject?
2. Is it important to look for additional information?
Table 3
Overview of tasks
1. Which information do I need?
1.1 Make a mind map 1.2 Choose your subjects 1.3 Determine your order 2. How do I search information?
2.1 Type keywords in Google 2.2 Choose website
2.3 Save information
3. How do I select information?
3.1 Is the information on this source reliable?
3.2 Is the information on this source relevant?
4. How do I use information?
4.1 Order information
4.2 Decide if the collected information is enough
Guidelines for the learning materials The learning materials should …
12. … include four instructional videos with fitting worksheets
13. … include a first video ‘Which information do I need?’ with the following three steps: make a mind map, choose your subjects, determine your order in the first video
14. … include a second video ‘How do I search information?’ with the following three steps: type keywords in Google, choose source, save information.
15. … include a third video ‘How do I select information?’ with the following two
steps: Is the information on this source reliable?, Is the information on this
source relevant?
16. … include a fourth video ‘How do I use information?’ with the following two
steps: order information, decide if the collected information is enough
3 | DESIGN
3.1 | Learning theory
Learning results in a long-term change in mental representations or associations due to experience (Ormrod, 2013). Learners can gain skills by observing what others do. Modelling of such skills can be especially effective when the model demonstrates not only how to do a task, but also how to think about the task. Modelling is when one demonstrates a behaviour and another person imitates it (Ormrod, 2013). People watch and imitate what others do. A good example often has a better learning effect than unguided actions (Bandura, 1976). Social learning theories assume that these learning effects are influenced through informative functions. By learning through modelling, students acquire mainly symbolic representations of modelled activities rather than specific stimulus-response associations (Bandura, 1976).
According to Bandura (1976) four steps have to be involved in order to learn: attention, retention, reproduction and motivation. Students will learn if they pay attention to the model, remember the observed skills, have the capacity to imitate the observed skills, and are motivated to imitate these skills.
3.1.1 | Motivational theory
Students motivation to learn should be encouraged by motivational factors from the design. Keller (2014) has developed the ARCS model of motivational design for promoting and sustaining motivation in the learning process. This model contains four dimensions of motivation that stands for attention (A), relevance (R), confidence (C), and satisfaction (S):
1. Attention. Gain students attention by using novel, surprising, incongruous and uncertain events or stimulates curiosity by posing challenging questions or problems.
Methods to get learners involved are: real-world examples, humour, incongruity and conflict, active participation, inquire, and variability.
2. Relevance. Establish relevance to increase students’ motivation. Useful strategies to include relevance in the design are: immediate applicability, experience, future usefulness, needs matching and modelling, and choice.
3. Confidence. Students’ motivation will increase if the students believe they can
succeed. Activities to raise learners’ degree of confidence are: facilitate self-growth,
communicate objectives and prerequisites, provide feedback, and give learners control.
4. Satisfaction. Learning should be satisfying for students, because it increases students’
motivation. Useful strategies to satisfy students are: scheduling, positive outcomes, unexpected rewards, natural consequences, and avoid negative influences.
Guidelines for the learning materials The learning materials should …
17. … include a role model who gives good examples
18. … include a role model who also demonstrates how to think about the task 19. … meet the ARCS conditions of motivational design
3.2 | Video instruction
Video instruction has become a popular instructional method under the influence of the increased popularity of YouTube and the increased feasibility of using video production programmes. These instructional videos should meet certain guidelines. The following guidelines from van der Meij and van der Meij (2013), based on different studies are: provide easy access, use animation with narration, enable functional interactivity, preview the task, provide procedural rather than conceptual information, make tasks clear and simple, keep videos short, strengthen demonstration with practice.
Besides, according to the multimedia principles of Mayer (2014) students learn better when they receive worked examples in initial skill learning.
Guidelines for the learning materials The instructional videos should …
20. … be easy accessible including clear and simple tasks with demonstration and practice
21. … use animation with narration 22. … include preview of the task
3.3 | Worked examples
Worked examples provide an expert’s problem solution for a learner that the learner
can study and emulate (Atkinson, Derry, Renkl, & Wortham, 2000). The worked examples
include the problem description, solution steps, and the final solution (Renkl, Stark, Gruber, &
Mandl, 1998). These instructions aim to show how other similar problems might be solved.
Worked examples in a segmented format increase the efficiency of the process of learning, especially for low prior knowledge learners (Spanjers, van Gog, & van Merriënboer, 2012). It is in line with the segmenting principle of Mayer (2014): People learn better when a multimedia message is presented in learner-paced segments rather than a continuous unit.
Furthermore, when each step is clearly labelled and isolated and there are subgoals and subgoal tasks, the instruction will be more effective (Atkinson et al., 2000).
The core of the video includes the model solution. It is a capturing of the computer screen, where the taken steps are showed and the vlogger functions as voice-over. The thinking processes will be told by the vlogger.
Guidelines for the learning materials The learning materials should …
23. … be presented in learner-paced segments
24. … include a role model who provides the model solution and procedural information
3.4 | Vlogs
A vlog is a videoblog, an online diary, where the major part exists of technically simple videos with the headshot of the speaker as the visual element (Frobenius, 2014; Werner 2012). The person who vlogs, the vlogger, is trying to communicate on a personal level with his audience. These kind of videos are very popular among youth. Some vloggers take you into their daily lives, where other vloggers teach you something, which is called a tutorial (Snelson, 2015). The vlogger functions as role model in the instructional videos. Hence, different analysis have been conducted to get more insight into vlogs .
3.4.1 | Competition analysis vlogs
A competition analysis has been conducted to determine which guidelines a vlog must
comply. Eight Dutch spoken vlogs were analysed which were collected from YouTube. The
retrieved results were manually filtered by the number of views and genre. These selected
vlogs were all created by Dutch people, because the target group consists of Dutch speaking
students. The analysed vlogs range from real-life vlogs to tutorials, from popular to unpopular,
and they differ in target group, age and gender of the vlogger. Three vlogs varying in popularity were randomly selected by the amount of YouTube views. The popular vlog (EnzoKnol) had more than one million views, the intermediate popular vlog (Nino Wilkes) had in between 50 thousand and 100 thousand views, and the unpopular vlog (de Langeyoutuber) had been viewed less than 100 times. Five other vlogs were selected based on target group and genre.
Three of these vlogs were randomly selected because of their genre, these were tutorials in which the vlogger shows how to do something. The first vlog (Phalentine) is related to school, the second vlog (Beautygloss) is a typical how-to-vlog, and the last vlog (Shane Kluivert) is another typical how-to-vlog about cooking. The last two vlogs were selected because these vlogs were spoken and created by children and their target group is children. An overview of the analysed vlogs is given in Appendix A.
While watching these eight vlogs the characteristics, aspects, similarities and differences of vlogs were written down. To determine which guidelines vlogs should meet, a questionnaire consisting of 29 items that are scored on a 5-point Likert scale with values ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree), was developed. A summary of the results is given in Appendix B.
Every vlog is judged based on seven constructs based on studies of Chapple and
Cownie (2017), Jones (2012), and van der Meij (2017). These constructs including definitions
are displayed in Table 4.
Table 4
Constructs of Vlog Competition Analysis
Construct DefinitionPersonality
A set of consistent characteristics and tendencies that can express the similarities and difference among individuals (David & Stanley, 1989).
Structure
The order of elements in the video.
Content
Information the vlogger shares with the viewers with the aim of enjoyment or teaching.
Narration
The way of telling, word choice and intonation.
On-screen text
Typed or written text that is displayed in the video to highlight spoken text.
Design
All the added features (edits) of the vlog excluded the vlogger him/herself.
Camera position
The perspective of the camera (vlogger perspective or viewer perspective).
Justification of Constructs
− Personality. Mayer (2014) states that people learn more deeply when on-screen characters (vloggers), display humanlike gesturing, movement, eye contact, and facial expressions. The checklist focuses on personality to determine which personality traits the vlogger should meet.
− Structure. Expected is that vlogs use a fixed structure of an introduction, a body and a closure of the video (Jones, 2012). The checklist is conducted to determine whether the vlog should consist of a recognizable introduction, a preview of the content, a message to the viewers, and an outlook to the next video.
− Content. In order to keep the viewers motivated to watch the whole video, it is
important to adjust the content of the video to the interests and needs of the viewers
(Christensson, 2011; Kleinhenz & Parker, 2017; Riboni, 2017). From the results of the
checklist, it can be determined whether the content should be in line with the target
group, indicate the goal, highlight current affairs, and encourage viewers to take
action.
− Narration. According to Mayer (2014) people learn better when the words of a multimedia presentation are in conversational style rather than formal style. Vloggers host different strategies to involve the viewers (Frobenius, 2014). The checklist was made to investigate in which way the vlogger should speak to the students and the volume and intonation.
− On-screen text. People learn better when cues are added that highlight the key information (Mayer, 2014). Therefore, it is important to investigate if vlogs make use of on-screen text as the title and additional information such as tips and steps.
− Design. This construct can be divided into adding visual support and adding auditory support. Signalling (Mayer, 2014) is an example of visual support, it catches attention, such as animated transitions and stickers or emoticons. Adding background music is an example of auditory support.
− Camera position. Vloggers film out of different perspectives, but a vlog mostly features the head and shoulders of the speaker (Sanchez-Cortes, Kumano, Otsuka, & Gatica- Perez, 2015). The checklist gives information about those different perspectives.
Guidelines for the learning materials The instructional videos should …
25. … aim to motivate by the personality of the vlogger (confident appearance, enthusiastic speaking and body language)
26. … end with a request for watching the next video 27. … indicate the goal
28. … include a vlogger who speaks informally and adjust the language to the target group
29. … include an introductory text, a body, and a closure with message to the viewer
30. … include content that fits the interests or needs of the viewers 31. … include on-screen visuals to highlight spoken text
32. … include background music that is running during the video, especially when there is no narration.
33. … a camera position that is in line with the purpose of the video
3.4.2 | Video instruction and vlogs
Mayer (2014) conducted principles about developing educational videos. A vlog should be consistent with these multiple multimedia principles to have a possible effect on learning:
− Multimedia principle: People learn better from words and pictures than from words alone
− Segmenting principle: People learn better when a multimedia message is presented in learner-paced segments rather than as a continuous unit
− Voice principle: People learn better when the narration in multimedia lessons is spoken in a friendly human voice rather than a machine voice
− Personalization principle: People learn better from multimedia lessons when words are in conversational style rather than formal style.
− Redundancy principle: People learn better from graphics and narration than from graphics, narration and on-screen text
− Modality principle: People learn better from graphics and narration than from graphics and on-screen text
− Worked example principle: People learn better when they receive worked examples in initial skill learning
In the instructional videos of this study, the vlogger will teach the best way of searching, judging and using digital information. The viewer of the video will be involved in the learning process.
Guidelines for the learning materials The instructional videos should …
34. … include the ‘how-to’ vlog style
35. … be presented in learner-paced segments: steps
36. … include a vlogger with a friendly voice who talks in conversational style 37. … not include an overload of information, which means narration without on-
screen text
38. … only include on-screen text on pause moments, to use as a reference
3.4.3 | Needs analysis vlogs
From the competitive vlog analyses, there was no clarity about what age and gender the target group prefer. Besides, little to no research has been done about what gender is more effective or do students prefer. About age, it is stated that the peer (vlogger) should be from the same age or a bit older than the mean age of the target group (Boud, Cohen, &
Sampson, 1999). However, students do have a strong and decisive opinion about what type of vlogger they prefer. In order to indicate students’ needs and preferences regarding the layout, age, and gender a questionnaire was conducted (Appendix C). This questionnaire was used for the needs analysis regarding the layout of the vlog. Students were asked to give their preference for the gender of the vlogger (question 2 and 5), age of the vlogger (question 3 and 6) and colours used in the design of the vlog (question 7). The fourth question was to determine for what reason students look at vlogs in general. The information that flows out of this analysis is about the design and the layout of the vlog. This information does not influence the quality of the vlogs, only the motivation of the students.
Procedure
The questionnaire was taken in group 6 of CBS De Fontein (N=29). The researcher introduced the questionnaire shortly by mentioning the aim of the questionnaire: getting insights of the preferences of students of group 6 regarding vlogs. In 10 minutes, all students finished the questionnaire.
Results
The questionnaire has been filled in by 53.3% boys and 47.7% girls. From the results it can be concluded that 63.7% of the respondents watch vlogs frequently. From these respondents, 16.7% prefer a male vlogger in educational vlogs, 23.3% prefer a female vlogger in educational vlogs and 60% is neutral. The majority (36.7%) prefer a vlogger, in an educational vlog, aged six to twelve. With regard to the colours of the design of the vlogs, 23.3% prefer green, 33.3% prefer blue, 20% prefer orange and 23.3% prefer orange. Note that these results do not influence the quality of the vlogs, but gives information about students’
preferences regarding layout, age and gender. By adapting the vlog to these results, the students will be more motivated to watch the vlogs because of its design.
Guidelines for the learning materials
39. … include a vlogger between six and twelve years old 40. … have a blue design to motivate the students
3.5 | Learning materials for mastering information literacy
The learning materials include an introduction video, four instructional videos and an instruction booklet.
3.5.1 | Instructional videos
The four instructional videos are constructed the same way, based on the guidelines as result of the analysis (Jones, 2012; Mayer, 2014; van der Meij, 2017; Sanchez-Cortez et al., 2011). Below an overview of this structure is given (Table 5), even as a description of these different concepts with corresponding examples (Table 6). The description gives more information about the instructional videos, the role of the vlogger and what is displayed. The examples are found in different vlogs on YouTube.
Table 5
Overview of structure instructional videos 1. Title page
2. Introduction 3. Goal
4. Preview of video content 5. Information
6. Problem 7. Task
Repeat task, information, tracking, and worked example for every different task 8. Information
9. Tracking
10. Worked example 11. Review
12. Action
13. Preview of next video 14. Closure
Tips at different moments in video
Table 6
Description of concepts in instructional videos
Concept Description Example
Action Vlogger invites the viewers to exercise for themselves and refers to worksheet.
So, try it yourself now!
Closure Vlogger greets the viewers. I’ll talk to you guys later. I hope you’re doing well! Bye!
Goal Vlogger gives goal of the video. Today I’ll show you some lifehacks for learning your exams.
Information Vlogger clarifies some steps and gives extra information.
Every paragraph has two or three important sentences. All the other sentences are built around that.
Introduction Vlogger welcomes the viewers. Hi everyone, great that you’re watching this new vlog about my holiday in Thailand.
Preview of next video
Vlogger gives a small introduction of the following video.
The next time I’ll show you the power of makeup.
Preview of video content
Vlogger gives preview of the video by naming the steps that will be used in the video.
I have dedicating this entire video to vloggers, people who want to vlog.
Problem Vlogger gives description of what he wants to learn and makes sure that the viewer can identify with him.
Tomorrow I’ll leave for a four- month holiday and I have to pack all of my bags.
Review Vlogger names the goal at the end of the video.
I hope you have learned how to reach your study goals.
Task A video is divided into different steps, that are tasks. These steps must be completed to achieve the goal of the video.
I start with step 1: make a mind
map.
Title page First screen of the video with title of the video.
STUDY VLOG #3!
Tip At different moments, the vlogger gives a tip to make the process more easy or to remind the viewer of something.
Tip number 1 is organize your study area.
Tracking Vlogger gives short summary of previous steps. The viewers know at which point of the process they have to be.
So, once I have that foundation on.
It is now time for concealer.
Worked example
Vlogger shows how he performs the steps. He is a model, and performs on his own subject.
I’ll try to find the important
sentences, and I only highlight that.
Guidelines for the learning materials The instructional videos should …
41. … start with title page, introduction, goal, preview of video content, information, and problem
42. … end with review, action, preview of next video and closure 43. … include tips
44. … include task, information, tracking, and worked example for every different task
3.5.2 | Instruction booklet
Practicing is an important part of gaining procedural knowledge (Ormrod, 2013).
People will learn things better and remember them longer (Cepeda, Vul, Rohrer, Wixted, &
Pashler, 2008; Ormrod, 2013). Hence, the instructional videos have a corresponding
instruction booklet. This booklet is divided into four worksheets, matching with the four
videos. The booklet gives a step-by-step instruction that help students through the exercises,
questions and videos. The students have to be able to complete the exercises in these
materials with aid of the instructional videos. In the videos, a vlogger shows how to fulfil a
task and how to perform the different steps. The student has to make the corresponding
worksheet after watching this video to practice the learned skill. The subject in an exercise may not exceed one step from the subject in the video. For completing the exercises, students have to take the same steps as in the video. So, to be able to rewind and pause the video is a requirement and therefore, the segmenting principle (Mayer, 2014) is applied.
After completing all the instructional videos and corresponding worksheets, the students have found information for one key concept, that results in one chapter of their oral presentation. Thereafter, the students have to be able to make, with aid of the instructional videos, the other chapters of their presentation.
Below an overview based on the design phase is displayed with the structure of the instructional videos and worksheets for mastering information literacy (Table 7) . There is showed which strategies will be taught in which video.
Table 7
Structure of the learning materials for mastering information literacy
Introduction Skill 1
Which information do I need?
Skill 2
How do I search information?
Skill 3
How do I select information?
Skill 4 How do I use information?
Step-by- step instruction
Step-by-step instruction
Step-by-step instruction
Step-by-step instruction
Step-by-step instruction
Worked example
Worked example
Worked example
Worked example
Steps Steps Steps Steps
Questions Questions Questions Questions
Exercises Exercises Exercises Exercises
