by
Mary Elizabeth Louise Ives
B.Sc. University of Prince Edward Island, 1974 M.Sc. A cadia University, 1976
M.A.A. G o n zag a University, 1992
A D issertation Subm itted in Partial Fulfillment of th e R equirem ents for th e D egree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
In th e D epartm ent of Curriculum and Instruction Faculty of Education
W e acc ep t this dissertation a s conforming to th e required stan d ard
Dr. LTE. Devlin, S upervisor (D ^partm en^qf Curriculum and Instruction)
Dr. B. Hall, D epartm ental M em ber (D e p a rtm e h W Curriculum and Instruction)
Dr. T. Fleming, D epartm em al M em bèr(D ep artm en t of Curriculum and Instruction)
_________________________________ ^ ^ [ . J r C u t t , O utside M em ber (School of Public Administration)
D n T . J. Sor){^/6(tefhal Exam iner (D epartm ent of Educational S tudies, University of British Columbia)
© Mary Elizabeth Louise Ives, 2003 University of Victoria
All rights reserved. This dissertation m ay not be reproduced in whole or in part, by photocopying or other m ean s, without th e perm ission of th e author.
ABSTRACT
Little h a s t)een written about opportunities for support staff to participate in professional developm ent. Most of th e related literature cites professional developm ent for middle and u p per m a n ag em e n t people. This study exam ined a particular in-service app ro ach to professional developm ent for support staff of th e G reater Victoria School District (#61). In this approach, em ployees w ere centrally involved in su ggestin g topics for c o u rs e s an d w orkshops, facilitating w orkshops a s resident experts, and e n g a g e d a s participants. T he purpose of th e study w as to: 1) und erstand voluntary participation; 2) exam ine th e relationship betw een w ork-related learning and learning for personal growth and, 3) com pare th e co st of th e in-service approach to two alternative options. T he re se a rc h e r g ath ered information from th ree sources: 1) a five-year d a ta b a s e which tracked participation activities in a
longitudinal quantitative study; 2) results of B oshier's Education Participation S cale (A Form) circulated to provide quantitative d a ta of a cross-sectional study of participation and, 3) a se rie s of interviews with twelve participants, recording their perspectives on th e staff developm ent program . A cost-effectiveness analysis w as also conducted to determ ine th e m o st econom ic approach to professional
developm ent. S o m e im portant findings of this study w ere th e similar p atterns of participation according to national figures of adult education participation in the Statistics C a n a d a 2001 report. Examining variables of g e n d e r and frequency, a) this study found 71 percent m ale and 74 percen t fem ale participation in w ork-related co u rses co m pared to national figures of 62 percent m ale and 62 percen t fem ale participation in w ork-related adult education. And b) nationally 30 percen t of adult C an ad ian s participated in adult education com p ared to 26 p ercen t of th e population in this study. Evidence supported th e fact th at staff developm ent participants preferred professional developm ent topics rath er than personal growth subjects. In th e school calen d ar year, 1995/96 participants e n g a g e d in 66 percen t work related courses, which evolved to 80 percen t by 1999/00. T he developm ent of co m petent professional developm ent program m ing involved m ore than predicting th e n e e d s of em ployees interested in remaining current in their job skills, or preparing for c a re e r advancem ent. C om petent practice of professional developm ent for support staff w as
personnel and training directors, em ployees, and others interested in w orkplace learning. It also show s th at em p loyees voluntarily su g g e s t both professional and personal growth topics a s im portant to their individual roles. T he collaborative model studied h ere m ay t)e of interest and value in a variety of organizational settings, even th o se within a hierarchical structure. T here a re so m e promising a v e n u e s of future research which could also b e explored.
Exam iners:
Dr. b rE Devlin, ^ p e f v i s o r (D ep artrm nt of Curriculum and Instruction)
Dr. n Hall, D epartm ent M em ber (D epartm ent of Curriculum and Instruction)
Dr. T. Fleming, D epartm ei^al M em ber (D epartm ent of Curriculum and Instruction)
" O W rC litt, O u tsid a M em ber (School of Public Administration)
Dr. T. J. Sork,^Sxfëmàl Exam iner (D epartm ent of Educational Studies, University of British Columbia)
TABLE OF CONTENTS Title P a g e ... ' A bstract... " Table of C o n te n ts... iv List of T a b le s ...vil List of F igures...viii
A cknow ledgem ents... ix
D edication ... x C h apter 1 Introduction... ...1 1.1 B ackground... ... 2 1.2 Initiai O b servation s... 4 1.3 F ocus of th e S tu d y ... 5
1.4 S tatem en t of the P roblem ... 8
1.5 P u rp o se of th e S tudy...11 1.6 Significance of th e S tu d y ... 11 1.7 O rganization of D issertatio n... ...11 C hap ter 2 Review of th e Literature 2.1 Introduction...12 2.1.1 O perational Definitions...13
2.2 Adult Learning and M otivation... 18
2.3 W orkplace L earning...23
2.3.1 G eneric W o rk p la ce... 25
2.3.2 Adult Education and th e political a r e a ...25
2.3.3 Adult Education and th e Union... 27
2.3.4 T ren ds in th e W o rk p lace...28
2.4 Individual and Self-Directed L earn in g...29
2.4.1 C o ncerns of Exclusion and B arriers...i... 33
C h ap ter 3 M ethodology
3.1 Introduction... 45
3.2 Reliability an d Validity... 45
3.3 Population S a m p le ... 46
3.4 Ethics and A pprovals...47
3.5 D ata Collection and T re a tm e n t... ... 47
3.5.1 T he Five Y ear D a ta b a se (1995-2000)... 47
3.5.2 Education Participation S cale S urvey... 49
3.5.3 C ost-Effectiveness A na ly sis... 50 3.5.4 Interviews 3.6 S u m m a r y ...53 C h apter 4 Findings 4.1 Introduction... 54 4.2 D ata P resentation 4.2.1 Participation P a tte rn s...55 4.2.2 W orkshop Profiles !... 59 4.2.3 G en d er V ariable... 64 4.2.4 Frequency V ariable... 66
4.3 Education Participation S cale D ata... 68
4.4 C ost Effectiveness A nalysis... 69
4.5 Interview R e s p o n s e s ... 76 C h apter 5. D iscussion of Findings 5.1 Introduction... 78 5.2 Participation P a tte m s ... :... 78 5.3 W orkshop P ro file s... 80 5.4 G en d er V a ria b le ...81
5.5 Education Participation S c a l e ... 82
5.6 C ost-Effectiveness A nalysis... 83
5.7 Interview R e s p o n s e s ...84
5.8 S u m m a ry ... 86
C hapter 6 C onclusions and R ecom m endations 6.1 Introduction... 87
6.2 Adult Learning and M otivation...87
6.3 W orkplace Learning...88
6.4 Individual and Self-Directed L earn ing ...89
6.5 Learning O rgan ization... 90
6.6 R ecom m end ation s... 91
R efere n ces...94
Appendix A: R esearc h Approval, G reater Victoria School District...104
Appendix B: Certificate of A pproval... 105
Appendix C: C o n sen t Form s C 1)...106
C 2)...107
Appendix D: List of W orkshop Titles, 1995 to 2 0 0 0 ... 109
Appendix E: Education Participation S cale E l) A -Form ... 115
E2) Scoring Key... 118
E3) Instructions to D istribute... 119
Appendix F: Interview Script and Q u e s tio n s ... 120
Appendix G: C om posite R e s p o n s e s to E ach Q u estio n ...121
Appendix H: S am ple from Shoreline Community School B rochure... 129 Appendix I: S am ple from C am osun Community College Continuing
List o f T ables
Table 1 : N um ber of Participants p er Y e a r ... 55
Table 2: Em ployee Participation R a t e s ... 56
Table 3: M ean Participation per Y e a r ... 57
Table 4: Em ployee Participation by T ype of W orkshop... 58
Table 5: Em ployee Participation R ate by W orkshop T y p e ... 59
Table 6: N um ber of W orkshop T o p ic s ... 60
Table 7: N um ber of W orkshop by T y p e ... 61
Table 8: N um ber of Hours by W orkshop T y p e ... 62
Table 9: Participation in Training Hours by W orkshop Type ...64
Table 10: Participation by G e n d e r ...65
T able 11: F requency of P a rtic ip a tio n ...66
T able 12: Ratio of G roup F requency by W orkshop T y p e ...67
Table 13: G roups 1, 2, and 3 Participation According to G e n d e r...68
Table 14: Determ ination of S u b set Hours of Training ...70
T able 15: S u b se t C o u rses a s P erso n H ours...71
Table 16a: Calculation of Instructor F e e s for Staff D evelopm ent O ption...72
Table 16b: Calculation of Instructor F e e s for Private A g e n c y ...73
Table 16c: Calculation of Instructor F e e s for Em ployee Incentive O p tio n ... 74
List o f Figures
Figure 1: Ratio of Training Hours in Professional and P ersonal T o p ic s ... 63 Figure 2: Participation by G en d er... 65 Figure 3: Education Participation S cale R esu lts... 69
A cknow ledgem ents
I w ant to e x p re ss special th an k s to th e com m ittee m em bers who provided their acad em ic expertise over th e last th ree years; to Dr. Larry Devlin, my supervisor, w ho saw th e possibility of this research and g av e en co u rag em en t and advice to s e e m e through this journey, to Dr. Jim Cutt who helped m e un d erstan d an d ap preciate th e field of econom ic analysis an d a ssiste d in the design of th e co st-effectiveness analysis of this study and Dr. Tom Fleming w ho helped s te e r th e re se a rc h to a broader m ore global a s p e c t and provided valuable insight into th e craft of writing. In particular I would like to thank Dr. Budd Hall who joined the com m ittee in time to introduce m e to his personal library of books an d research in adult education and programm ing.
T he research benefited from th e interviewing skills of S u sa n Belford who conducted th e twelve interviews in a professional m an n er expanding upon the know ledge of w hat individual participants had to say about their ex perien ces. Norton Lucyk w as also instrum ental in editing th e text to e n su re clarity and consistency in th e writing.
And special th an k s go to m em b ers of th e G reate r Victoria School District em ployees of CUPE Local 947, th e Office and Technical Staff, who participated in th e survey using th e Education Participation S cale on April 3 0 ,2 0 0 1 an d in a num ber of interviews conducted in Jun e, 2 0 0 2 .1 also w ant to acknow ledge th e contributions of Michelle P ark er who ask ed th e question th at started it all, and to Brian Mallory and H eather Stadel, th e H uman R eso u rces m a n ag em en t team who e n d o rsed the
concept, and the CUPE 947 volunteers who inspired all of us to develop th e staff developm ent program .
To E M Ives who always believed h er d au g h ters could an d would accom plish w hatever they s e t out to do and indeed ex pected our aspirations to b e noteworthy. Thank you for your con stan t support and inspiration and although w e could not com plete th e journey together, you w ere th e "raison d'etre". I benefited greatly from having enlightened parents, self-directed and highly accom plished adult learn ers in their own right.
Introduction
W orkplace learning is generally d e e m e d a social good in m odem
dem ocracies like C an ad a. S uch learning is alleged to have a direct and increasingly important effect on national econom ies, th e s u c c e s s of organizations and
corporations, an d on th e w ealth and mobility of individuals in society. G overnm ents in C an ad a and elsew h ere e n a c t legislation and establish program s encouraging individuals to learn in th e w orkplace and a s s is t corporations to rem ain competitive economically. For exam ple, th e Federal G overnm ent in C an ad a ann o u n ced in March 2001 th at im provem ents to th e C a n a d a S tu den t Loans Program would a s s is t working people to p ursu e part-time education in order to k eep their skills up to date. This initiative ad d ed positive incom e tax incentives to further o n e's education (Baxter,
2001).
It is alm ost universally assu m e d that em ployees who in crease their know ledge and skills through w ork-based learning a re better individuals, better a s s e ts to an em ployer and, indeed, better citizens b e c a u se they a re m ore likely to be econom ically self-sufficient.
Yet d esp ite the alm ost uncritical a c c e p ta n c e of w orkplace learning for em ployees, a s a social and national good, im portant questio ns relating to such learning rem ain u n ask ed and unstudied. For exam ple, re s e a rc h e s like Fenwick (2001), Mann (1997), and Marsick (1987) d iscu ss th e perspective of w orker a s worker, th at is, a s a corporate reso u rce w here c o sts and benefits a re a ssig n ed like any other fixed a s s e t. This view supporting w orkplace training implies em p lo yees should a s s is t their corporation to p ro sp er by maximizing profits and m arket sh a re . In this view, an em ployee h a s an obligation to e n su re th a t he or s h e is th e m ost
productive individual possible by virtue of th e em ploym ent conferred upon him o r h er by the em ployer. Em ployees owe it to em ployers to be productive.
This perspective is by definition narrow and confined. T he future of th e em ployee is d ep en d e n t on th e health an d future of th e em ployer and all learning should b e directed tow ard th e benefit of th e organization. This line of thinking guided th e rationale for m any governm ent initiatives in support of w orkplace training.
D ata from Statistics C an ad a reports, (1994, 2001) su g g e s t em p lo y ees do not s e e th em selv es a s fixed a s s e ts to be sh a p e d by a m anag em ent-d irected ag en d a. Quite th e rev erse a p p e a rs on exam ination of th e literature, which show s th at the expectations of individuals e n g a g e d in w orkplace learning hav e alm ost nothing to do with corporate or governm ental intent.
Further, th e corporate and governm ental approach to w orkplace learning conflicts with re se a rc h into adult education, showing adults learn for m any com plex reaso n s. In other words, it d o e s not a p p e a r possible to d ed u ce motive from content.
1.1
Background
My interest in professional developm ent for support staff, curriculum design and instruction, w as not surprisingly, sp ark ed by personal experience. In 1994, working for th e G reate r Victoria School District # 6 1 , 1 b eca m e aw are that
opportunities for professional developm ent w ere limited for support staff, memt>ers of the C anadian Union of Public E m ployees (CUPE), Locals 947 and 382. Local 947 included all technical an d office w orkers: school secretaries, special stu d en t assistan ts, acco u n ts clerks, lunch tim e supervisors, clerk typists, library a s s is ta n ts and receptionists. CUPE Local 382 consisted of grounds keepers, janitors and custodians, audlo-visuai technicians, painters and carpenters.
Before 1993, professional developm ent opportunities w ere provided to te a c h e rs and adm inistrators with occasional sem in ars for support staff su ch a s Em ployee First Aid produced s p e c if cally to m eet th e n e e d s of th e School District. As with m ost school districts in British Columbia, stan d ard practice w as to d esig n ate a num ber of "professional developm ent" d ays (pro-d days) ea c h y ear at which time te a c h e rs and adm inistrators can ta k e ad v an tag e of learning opportunities d esig ned to en h a n c e their professional developm ent. T he G reater Victoria School District w as no exception until a school secretary ask ed th e question, "Why not p resen t
professional developm ent opportunities to support staff on th e s a m e district-wide desig n ated days?"
T he question led to th e observation th at th e re w as an increasing n eed to provide learning opportunities for support staff to b ecom e m ore confident and
The School District H uman R eso u rces C oordinator circulated a survey to all CUPE 947 em ployees to determ ine w hat type of w orkshops or c o u rse s might b e of interest. T he survey indicated resp o n d en ts w ere ask e d to ch o o se specific topics relevant to the skill s e ts required for their positions within CUPE Local 947 and w ere en co u rag ed to m ake additional su g gestio ns. T he results of th e survey, an d the willingness of th e H uman R eso u rces departm ent to support th e results, m ad e this approach to professional developm ent unique and meaningful b e c a u s e topic su g g estio n s cam e directly from support staff, not m anagem ent. T he H uman R eso u rces m an ag em en t team en d o rsed th e co ncept to provide learning
opportunities for support staff, and th e prop osed m ethod of delivery by Shoreline Community Education staff.
Shoreline Community School (Shoreline) is o n e of five com munity schools within School District #61 with an ex p an d ed function t>eyond th a t of traditional school u s e for K-12 stu d en ts. A critical a s p e c t of community schools is th a t e a c h is unique to th e com munity it serv es. W ithout a recreation or community center, an d with a high proportion of single-parent, underem ployed, fem ale adults p er capita (NOW report, 1992), Shoreline Community School resp o n d ed by developing a community education program to provide adult evening c la s s e s in busin ess-related , com puter softw are, health, g eneral interest, and recreational courses.
T he community education com ponent a t Shoreline had provided adult learning opportunities for over twelve y ears by 1994, an d w as well estab lished a s a valued a s s e t to th e community. T h e idea of accom m odating professional or staff developm ent opportunities at Shoreline Community School during District-wide desig n ated professional developm ent d ays w as considered well within th e ran g e of possibility.
Initial d iscussio ns b eg an with Shoreline Community School staff; all staff including te a c h e rs, adm inistrators, and m em b ers of CUPE Locals 947, and 382. T ea c h e rs w ere consulted about th e u s e of their classroo m s during a pro-d day, and Administration approved th e u se of Shoreline a s th e principal location for th e new
Staff D evelopm ent program of w orkshops. After a positive reception a t th e school, th e idea of professional developm ent for support staff (staff developm ent), with a
A Staff D evelopm ent C om m ittee w as form ed with rep resen tativ es from CUPE Local 947, Hum an R eso u rces m anag em en t, and Shoreline com munity education staff (as facilitators of th e program ). T he C om m ittee m et quarterly to d iscu ss topics and th e m e s for four staff developm ent d ay s d esig n ated annually. T he C om m ittee pre-planned annual selections of topics b a s e d on su g g estio n s subm itted by support staff and relied on com m ents subm itted through evaluation form s circulated after e a c h w orkshop. In th at way, su g g estio n s m ad e throughout th e y ear w ere ad d ed w h enev er possible to accom m o date specific re q u e sts and topical issu es. E ach staff developm ent day offered 20 to 25 w orkshop topics an d on a v e ra g e approxim ately 80 w orkshops w ere atten d ed e a c h year. W orkshop cancellations occurred w hen
enrollment n um bers w ere few er th an eight participants.
The pilot program for support staff during the school y ear 1994-1995 resolved a num ber of minor logistical problem s and prom pted th e Staff D evelopm ent
Com m ittee to include w orkshops on professional growth, and personal growth topics.
1.2
Initial Observations
In 1998 I b eca m e intrigued with th e possibility that an im pact from th e w orkshops had occurred that w ent beyond participants simply learning w ork-related and personal interest topics, in group settings. I b eg an to look m ore analytically at the perceptions support staff attributed to staff developm ent w orkshops an d co u rses. From 1994 to 1998, my concentration had b een on th e delivery design and
curriculum developm ent of th e w orkshops th at g av e opportunities for support staff to upgrad e their skills to m eet th e ev er increasing d em an d s of their jobs, and to help prep are th o se seeking promotion within th e organization.
Designing th e program for staff developm ent w orkshops and c o u rse s w a s at th e outset ju st an o th er opportunity to develop a client specific program . A s w orkshop offerings ex p an d ed in su b se q u e n t years, participation levels ex p an d ed a s well. Participation levels in creased from just over 300 a tte n d e e s in 1994 to over 1,000 in th e school-year 1999/00. From th e very beginning, support staff w ere involved in determ ining w orkshop topics, participating a s instructors and facilitators, and attending a s adult learners.
significance, if any, th e staff developm ent program had. Finally I w anted to explore th e interest and com m itm ent to voluntary participation in w orkplace learning
activities, th e cornerston e in th e foundation of th e program.
It w as evident from talking to participants th at they w ere e n g a g e d In m ore than ju st learning som ething new or preparing for new expectations within a job classification. T here w as an energy and excitem ent going beyond attending a
workshop. Som ething w as happening th at w as collegial and unifying. I b eg an to look at the literature and research on adult learning and developm ent; to investigate th e voluntary participation of staff to discover th e reaso n for their com m itm ent to th e learning activities; and to try and ascertain th e d e g re e of im portance they a ssig n ed to th e staff developm ent program.
1.3
Focus of the Study
This study exam ined G reate r Victoria School District's ap p ro ach to professional developm ent for non-teaching, support em ployees. It explored th e patterns of course-taking over a five-year period and probed w hat effect, if any, this approach to w orkplace leam ing had on support staff a s em ployees, a s individuals, and a s m em b ers of the larger community.
Many organizations rely on their m a n ag em en t personnel to advise on and approve th e type of material n eed e d to in crease job perform ance. R esearc h for this study analyzed an app ro ach to professional developm ent for support staff that included acco u n ts clerks, secretaries, adm inistrative a ssistan ts, teaching a ssista n ts lunch supervisors, an d clerk typists.
T he actual num ber of support staff varied from year to year. For th e five-year period studied, th e num ber of support staff ran ged betw een 860 an d 890 em ployees. Local 382 m em b ers rep resen t m aintenance an d grou nds keepers, audio-visual technicians, janitors and custodial staff and w ere involved during th e 1995/96 school- year.
In general, w orkshops prom oted an opportunity to e n h a n c e existing
know ledge an d skills, or challenge em p loyees to experience new leam ing activities. Staff developm ent w orkshops w ere assem b led u nder the heading of non-formal or
discussion centered . The intent w as to provide leam ing activities to u p grade skills and know ledge in w ork-related topics, and to e n h a n c e w ellness and a re a s of general interest.
It w as generally a ssu m e d within the district organization th a t em p loyees of the school district m et certain qualifications to attain their jobs, and therefore no attem pt w as m ad e to p re-test or establish a skill level prior to taking a w orkshop. The exception cam e with com puter c o u rse s w here skill building w as b a s e d on prescribed prerequisites for optimum leam ing experiences.
S tudies abound with research on adults who for o ne reaso n or an o th er took training to en te r or re-enter th e workforce. However, em p h asis often cen tered on literacy program s and program s th at en abled adults to com plete high school graduation or a g rad u ate equivalency diploma (GED). Little h a s b een written about th e phenom enon currently faced by m any em ployees, who have already com pleted high school, or po st second ary education, to tak e additional training in order to upgrade their know ledge and skills to m eet technological ad v an ces, social and econom ic c h a n g e s in th e workplace.
O n e significant dem ographic shift which occurred over th e p a st 25 y ears is th at th e num ber of w om en in th e labour force h a s increased, particulary fem ale em ployees with scho ol-ag ed children. This heightened th e n eed for w orkers to b alance their work and family responsibilities. Many CUPE 947 em p lo y ees w ere single w om en working full-time and raising a family. A ttem pts by them to u p g rad e job skills or enrol in c o u rse s outside th e w orkplace w ere and are difficult w hen faced with th e responsibilities of raising children an d supporting family m em bers.
A social justice issu e h a s b een recognized to exist for adults with leam ing disabilities th at prevent them from participating in external training s e s sio n s or structured leam ing opportunities within an organization. S o m e adults w ere excluded from leam ing activities b e c a u s e they w ere d e e m e d to b e poor learners at so m e point in their earlier lives and they have carried th at label into adulthood. According to Eraut,, Alderton, Cole & S en k er (1997) a g re a t deal of incidental leam ing from p e e rs ta k e s place within an organization, an d this h a s co m p en sated for independent
training our w orkers within the firm th an m any of our com petitor n atio n s' (Hum an d Sim pson, 1996, p. 7). European and J a p a n e s e co m panies have distinguished th em selv es by ensuring a high d e g re e of com m itm ent to em ployees, w h ere labour adjustm ents a re dealt with inside an organization, referred to a s th e internal labour market.
In con trast C a n a d a 's low-commitment approach and unstable em ploym ent relationships and limited firm investm ent in em ployees c re a te s little incentive for em ployers to internalize th e adjustm ent p ro cess through reassignm ent, retraining or redistribution of working hours (B etcherm an, e t al, 1994. pp. 93- 94).
This problem of in ad eq u ate training a p p e a rs to b e reflected in th e n um ber of unem ployed C an ad ian s in se a rc h for new jo b s or training program s to acquire n eed e d skills. T he en d result m ay b e linked to high and persistent unem ploym ent, and th e su b se q u e n t co sts of em ploym ent insurance prem ium s paid by both em ployees and em ployers.
Training c o sts are a concern for governm ents an d em ployers, along with th e time com m itted to training and upgrading th e skills and qualifications of th e
workforce. Both em ployer and em ployee a p p e a r cau gh t in th e dilem m a of the information society, which is driven by constantly changing technology. T he problem of m eeting th e d em an d for training a p p e a rs to be com pounded by o ther m atters of equal im portance. Intertwined a re issu e s of em ployee relationships, cultural
sensitivities, econom ic strateg ies asso ciated with downsizing, or upsizing, and in th e c a s e of G reate r Victoria School District 61, th e ad d ed p re ssu re s of dim inished stud en t enrollment, sm aller operating b ud gets, and th e probability of school closures.
Yet in th e m idst of all of this, th e question to be answ ered, is why did CU PE 947 em p loyees voluntarily e n g a g e in adult leam ing activities? W as it self protection motivated by fear th a t se n t support staff to staff developm ent w o rk sho ps? For so m e perhap s, but seniority within an estab lished union elim inates th at expectation for most. O r w as it a m atter of future p rospects, th e p leasu re of leam ing, or being rew arded for having accom plished new skills relevant to the job?
C onsider th e reaction that occurred following th e decision of th e G reate r Victoria School District to replace all M acintosh com puter technology with P erson al C om puter units supported by Microsoft softw are applications. A cross th e District, this ch an g e ap p e a re d daunting to m any long tim e M acintosh u se rs an d resulted in confrontations abo ut having to learn to u s e new com puter equipm ent, an d softw are. Through a se rie s of w orkshops un der th e th e m e title Throw/ng a n App/e ou t the
i/V?ndow, a num ber of CUPE staff quickly gained th e know ledge an d skills to m eet th e challenge of a rapid roll-out of new equipm ent an d softw are program s. By th e en d of th e y ear of im plem entation, m any em p loyees who had tak en preparatory orientation w orkshops felt th at they could co p e with th e new system .
Technology h a s ch an g ed th e face of th e w orkplace to th e exten t th at all em ployees a re faced with making decisions about th e skills and c o u rse s they n eed to maintain or u p grad e in order to advance, or simply to rem ain current in an ever- changing w orkplace. Giving em p lo yees an opportunity to participate in setting th e a g e n d a for their personal and professional developm ent may b e th e new challenge for lead ers of an organization.
Em ployers, accu sto m ed to directing th e type of w ork-related c o u rse s for em ployees through hum an reso u rce d ep artm en ts or union m a n ag em e n t te am s, may require new ap p ro ac h es to em ployee training d u e to c h a n g e s affecting th e
w orkplace. Em ployers will h ave to rethink their position on retraining existing em ployees if they wish w orkers to k eep a b re a s t of technological ch an g e s.
Marsick and W atkins (1999) s u g g e ste d th at em ployers a re looking for
w orkers who are thinkers and learn ers with progressively m ore in terdep end ent skills, skills th at cro ss departm ental and functional boundaries. Further M arsick projected th e new leam ing organization would b e o n e that:
# integrated personal developm ent and technical or vocational developm ent « focused on group leam ing a s well a s individual leam ing
# em p hasized informal leam ing
# and, functioned a s a leam ing system at th e organizational level.
1.4
Statement of the Problem
Professional developm ent h a s b een a longstanding tradition of m any
in C h apter Two no tes a num ber of innovative and successful w orkplace education program s reserved for d epartm ent h ead s, supervisors, m a n ag ers an d top-level adm inistrators.
T he new reality of ad v an ced technology h a s p ressed the n eed for w orkplace leam ing program s for all em ployees, staff, a s well a s m anag em ent. O n ce th e question w as p o sed a s to why not provide leam ing activities for support staff, it b eca m e evident immediately th at re a s o n s to proceed toward a staff developm ent initiative w ere sound.
Administrative a ssistan ts, school secretaries, and clerical staff w ere having to leam new softw are applications, which prior to 1998, ten d ed to vary greatly from one school to another, an d one d epartm ent to another. A ccounts clerks working with a m anual system w ere suddenly ex p o sed to th ree different com puter softw are system s. In other a re a s, new regulations from th e W orkers C om pensation Board (WCB) challenged sen io r adm inistrators to find m ethods to Increase th e health and safety environm ent for w orkers, and red u ce escalating WCB in su ran ce prem ium s. Schoolyard supervisors and teaching a s s is ta n ts co n cem ed with stu d en t behaviours, w anted m ore Information on anti-bullying interventions and effective strateg ies to work with special n e e d s stud en ts, and stu d en ts with leam ing disabilities. For m ost situations listed here, th ere w ere a s m any valid re a s o n s to provide w orkplace education opportunities for support staff a s th e re w as for professionals, te a c h e rs, vice-principals, and principals.
O n ce investigation b eg an into w hat support staff w anted in th e w ay of professional developm ent, an applicable model of a staff developm ent program w as sought. I w ent to th e research s o u rc e s and found th e literature revealed sc a n t material on m eth od s to provide organized structured co u rses and w orkshops in a form at th at would reach a large num ber of recipients in a timely fashion. Most stu d ies relied on bringing in extem al expertise to design a custom ized program an d th o se cited in C h ap ter Two. Theoretical proposals to transform an organization into a "leaming organization" abound but th e prescriptive rem edies w ere for th e m ost part untested or in preliminary s ta g e s of research .
M em bers of th e Staff D evelopm ent C om m ittee took th e b e st elem en ts of w hat w as known to b e su ccessfu l in community education co u rses, and d esig n ed an in-service w orkshop form at for staff developm ent.
Em erging technologies have seriou s educational and training implications for n o n-m an ag em en t staff in any iarge organization. Em pioyees a sk e d to upg rade existing skills are often ex pected to find their own m e a n s of acquiring a different or broader skiil set. Yet for m any em ployees, finding tim e to u p grad e skills after work may be detrim ental to family obligations. Taking a leave from work to atten d a co u rse is not always an affordable option for everyone.
T h e s e situations m ay have unique applications relevant only to school districts, but I s u sp e c t th e re is so m e applicability to oth er organizations having to deal with similar challenges. In b roader term s, th e re a p p e a rs to b e equally pressing re a so n s for organizations to exam ine their com m itm ent to training a viable w orkforce recognizing that in the not too distant future, th e re m ay be a n eed to keep older w orkers in th e workforce longer. In creased opportunities for w orkplace education
p resen ts an alternative to laying-off experienced personnel. Quoting P e te r S en ge:
a s th e world b eco m es m ore interconnected and b u sin ess b eco m es m ore com plex and m ore dynamic, work m ust b ecom e m ore leamingful. It is no ionger sufficient to have o n e p erso n leam ing for th e organization ... to 'figure it out' from th e top and have everyone e lse following th e o rd ers of th e grand strategist'. T he organizations th at will truly excel in th e future will be
organizations that discover how to tap p eop le's com m itm ent an d capacity to leam at all levels in an organization. (Caldwell & Carter, 1993. p. 213).
Professional developm ent research a p p e a rs co ncentrated on m a n ag em e n t personnel and professional groups. Existing research is sc a n t abo ut th e dilemm a facing m any em ployees striving to achieve work security a s well a s job security. It se e m e d timely to p resen t information about a professional developm ent program that en h an c ed support staff training in a large school district rife with c h a n g e and
confusion d u e to technology and d e c re a se d reso u rces. W hat m otivated them to su g g e st w orkshop topics voluntarily? W hat m ad e them atten d ? W hat m a d e them com mitted to th e program to such an extent th at m any taught their p e e rs and helped fo ster a leam ing environm ent? All th e s e question s se e m e d worthy of Investigation.
1.5
Purpose of the study:
. To un derstand why su b jects of this study voluntarily e n g a g e d in w orkplace b a s e d c o u rse s and w orkshops
. To exam ine w hether th ere is a relationship betw een w ork-related leam ing an d the m ore personal interest topics of em p loy ees a s individuals
. To u n derstan d th e g eneral c o sts and benefits of th e professional developm ent w orkshops for support staff
# And, to determ ine w hether th e pro-d app roach being studied is unique in any way.
1.6
Significance of the study
W hat m ad e this staff developm ent app ro ach different and possibly unique w as that participants actively s u g g e ste d w orkshop topics and participated a s
instructors and facilitators along with other qualified instructors extem al to th e School District. A s well, participation for e a c h pro-d day se rie s of w orkshops rem ained high over th e five y e a rs of this study.
1.7
Organization of Dissertation
C h apter O ne h a s s e t th e sta g e for th e following ch ap ters by providing an introduction to th e interests and co n ce m s of th e research er, and form s th e design and plan of th e study, outlining th e focus and th e statem en t of th e problem. An extensive Review of the Literature follows in C h apter Two an d fram es th e study around five a s p e c ts or substructures: Adult Leam ing an d Motivation, W orkplace Leaming, P erson al or Individual Leaming, C ost Effectiveness A nalysis and finally, what is known abo ut Leam ing O rganizations. T he conceptual fram ew ork of individual and self-directed leam ing a s e s p o u s e d by Jo h n sto n e and Rivera (1965), Houle (1961) an d Boshier (1980) lead to th e question of w hether a leam ing organization can b e created and crafted or nurtured without much manipulation.
In C h apter T h ree th e m ethodology reports on th e th ree quantitative m ethods used and explores th e sum m ary d ata g ath ered from twelve em ployee interviews. R esearc h findings a re illustrated in C h apter Four, using tab les and figures to
organize th e data. D iscussion of th e results and th e conclusions of th e research a re p resen ted in C h ap ter Five and C hap ter Six respectively.
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
This C h ap ter no tes th e literature so u rc e s u sed to establish th e b asic principles of this study, giving a historical perspective on adult leam ing and developm ent. The ch ap ter is organized into five m ajor headings: Adult Leaming and Motivation, W orkplace Leam ing, Individual and Self Directed Leaming, C ost-E ffectiveness Analysis and th e Leaming O rganization concept. A brief sum m ary relates th e work of previous sch o lars to this study. In the opening Introduction I have clarified th e
operational definitions u sed in this research .
2.1
Introduction
Lorimer (1931) su g g e ste d th at w hen w e find evidence of adults involving th em selv es in organized form s of leam ing w e should also ex pect to find them en g ag e d in oth er form s of organized social, leisure-oriented, or ev en political
activities. Knowles (1970, 1975), Erikson (1985), and Dewey (1938) all s tre s s e d the role of experience, freedom to m ake jud gem ents, and tak e responsibility for the co n se q u e n c e s of choice and action, a s m otivators for adult leam ing.
Leam ing h a s b een generally acc e p te d to refer to the acquisition of
knowledge, skills an d affective c h an g e s, which a re so u g h t by individual adults often for u se in a specific way. This study describ ed a type of leam ing th at occurred am ong adults over th e a g e of 25 who w ere involved in educational activities beyond traditional schooling from kindergarten to high school ( K-12) completion. The study did not include adult leam ing related to formal educational pursuits su ch a s university d e g re e s, college diplom as or certificate program s. R ather it fo cu sed on the type of adult leam ing and education which reflects th e multiple roles th at adults hold an d th e interests and n e e d s that arise from th e s e roles. Thus, adult leam ing, adult education and adult developm ent m ay be viewed a s a continuum for th e p u rp ose of this study. The Leam ing Continuum
Formal Adult Informal Self-Directed Informal Incidental Education Education Education Education Education Education
Formal Education re p re se n ts time-lined d e g re e or diploma program s and Adult Education refers to credit an d non-credit program m ing found in Continuing Educational studies. This representation of leam ing along a continuum is m ean t to portray th e a re a u nder study and w here they align th em selv es along th e continuum; self-directed education, informal leam ing, and incidental leaming.
Joh n Dewey, o n e of th e m ost influential ed u ca to rs of th e tw entieth century, recognized that informal education on a lifelong continuum is inherent to adults and vital to th e co ncept of community an d dem ocracy (Campbell, 1995). This study is grounded in th e co ncept of informal education, intentioned leam ing in a group setting that, w hen viewed on an individual level, may b e supported by, self-directed leam ing, informal leam ing an d reinforced by incidental leaming.
2.1.1 O perational Definitions
O perational definitions u sed in this study com e from various s o u rc e s an d are provided h ere for interpretation an d clarification. An understanding of w hat is m ean t by th e term s, "adult leaming" and "adult developm ent" w as of param ount im portance to this study. Both term s have b een in u se by experts from John Dewey to p resen t- day sch olars and hav e b een variously applied to adult leam ers, a s p erso n s, a s workers, and a s m em bers of th e larger community. Clarifying th e m eaning of th e s e and other term s currently u sed to describ e typ es of leam ing taking place on a personal, organizational, or community level is th e su b sta n c e of this C h apter an d an important foundation for this study.
The following term s a re specific to this study:
1. Professional developm ent generally refers to continuing education opportunities through w orkplace leam ing and is usually reserv ed for professional staff, middle an d u pper m a n ag em e n t personnel. In this study staff developm ent is u sed to m ean th e s a m e thing but applied to support staff and to em ploy ees who work for middle and u p per m anag em ent.
2. S upport staff refers to all non-teaching and non-adm inistrative personnel within a school district.
3. School C alend ar Y ear is u sed to an ch or th e staff developm ent w orkshops a s they actually occurred for five y ears from O ctober 1995 to Ju n e 2000.
4. Staff D evelopm ent w orkshops a re defined a s either professional w orkshops, th o se th a t pertained to w ork-related curricula, or personal growth w orkshops which included topics of general interest. A com plete list of all w orkshop titles during th e five y ears being studied is attach e d a s Appendix D.
5. T h e term professional developm ent day or "pro-d" refers to th e annual d esig n ated d ay s assig n ed by District #61. Staff D evelopm ent is u se d to describ e th e program of continuing education opportunities developed for support staff, specifically CUPE Local 947.
O ther term s and p h ra s e s in this study w ere ch o sen from various auth ors and a re italicized within th e text.
Karpiak (1999) described adult developm ent a s a natural phenom enon, a p ro cess during which th e adult learner m oves along a progressive continuum until he or s h e h a s reac h ed a desired goal. Individuals achieved new capabilities while retaining form er capabilities in a continuous developm ent.
H oule's (1972) operational definition for adult education d en o ted a p ro c e ss in which individuals, groups, or institutions provided opportunities for adult le am ers to improve th e m selv es or their society by increasing their skills and knowledge. Statistics C an ad a (1997), in th e report on its 1994 survey of Adult Education and Training in C an ad a, considered all adult educational pursuits th at su pp lem ented or replaced initial education fell u nd er th e category of adult education w h atev er th e content, level, or m ethod of delivery (S tats C a n a d a Report, 1994, pp. 103).
E xperts in various fields of adult education differentiated su b -categ o ries to m ake m eaning of a particular su bject a re a (Statistics C an ad a Report, 1997 Appendix A). Formal Education or training w as defined a s structured and sequentially
organized, planned and directed by a te a c h e r or trainer, which can lead to formal recognition of perform ance. Informal Education d en oted leam ing ex p erien ces th at a re not structured an d not intended to be recognized in a formal m a n n er or with a formal aw ard a s in a diploma. L eam ers acquired "attitudes, values, skills and know ledge from daily experience, educative influences an d other re so u rc e s in his/her environm ent" (p. 103).
O ther term s in u s e in this study included Job -R elated Education, W orkforce Education, or W orkplace Leam ing defined collectively a s educational or training
reso u rces required by an em ployee to develop or upg rade skills in order to rem ain current in a particular job, or vie for future c a re e r an d em ploym ent options.
R eference to Union or W orker Education relates to th e provision of infomriation and practice within a union organization.
Grey an d H era (1998) depicted workforce education a s som ething th at prom oted individual opportunities for g re a te r em ployee com petitiveness an d productivity. They raised th e question of w hether w orkforce education prom oted econom ic efficiency, or served th e learn er by providing opportunities for advancem ent. In so doing, they fram ed an ev en m ore fundam ental question: Should hum an reso u rce d ep artm ent
personnel co n cen trate their efforts on solving perform ance issu e s or provide em ployees with c a re e r e n h an c ed skills?
S p encer, Briton and G ereluk (2000) m ad e th e claim that politicians an d b u sin ess lead ers had replaced educaf/on with /eam /ng and created em erg en t term s of /eam /ng soc/efy, /eam /ng organ/zaf/on, and w orkp/ace /eam /ng th at a re now recognized internationally. T he shift of focus aw ay from education (formal, non-formal, or
informal) led to a c c e p ta n c e of th e b ro ad er co ncept of learning on a continuum. Their ex p ressed concern related to th e removal of a re a s historically th e dom ain of
educational institutions, and th e su b se q u e n t problem of calculating educational worth of "informal learning" a s it com pared to th e traditionally understood worth of "informal education". They differentiated th e term s "learning society" and "educated society" stating th e latter conveyed formal learning had taken place in a traditional s e n s e , a s in K to G rad e 12 schooling, or a recognized institution, college or university.
This study is informed by previous research a n d literature on th e re a s o n s for adult learning and m otives for participating in specific educational activities. B eca u se su b jects of this study are adults over 25 y ears of a g e en g ag e d in informal education in the w orkplace, it is im portant to a d d re s s previous research which helps define and clarify key con cepts, issu es, and term s. Definitions e x p re sse d in this study have operational value for exam ining w hat often ap p e a re d to be naturalistic and random learning behaviour that w as inherently difficult to quantify, analyze and interpret. It w as n ece ssary , therefore, to draw broadly on existing literature about adult learning and motivation in order to establish th e foundation for th e p resen t research .
In School District #61, CURE Staff D evelopm ent W orkshops e n g a g e d Local 947 m em bers to voluntarily participate in topics of interest and relevance to them .
choosing w orkshops in professional an d personal growth subjects. Motivation factored into th e rationale to participate since th e re w as no ap p are n t a d v an tag e to
leave existing work un atten ded for a day or ev en half a day. Prior to th e formation of th e Staff D evelopm ent W orkshop Program , Local 947 em ployees u sed th e
desig n ated pro-d d ay s to catch-up on their work or participated in sch ool-b ased planning activities.
Houle (1972) believed that learning cen ters around m en o r wom en, alone or in groups, who "seek to improve th e m selv es or their society by increasing their skills, knowledge, or sen sitiv en ess . . . " (p.32). O ver 40 y ears ago, h e conducted a classic study of adult learn ers and w hat m otivated them to e n g a g e in continuing education learning and identified th ree distinct learner types. The "goal-oriented" learn er who participated to accom plish a distinct p urp ose considered im portant and n ecessary . T he "activity-oriented" learn er enjoyed educational activities for social contact and had a d esire to interact with others. T he "learning-oriented" adult so u g h t know ledge for its own s a k e an d w as m ore likely to b e an avid reader, exploring th e potential for growth w hen making life decisions.
A simplified version of H oule's typology su g g e ste d by Allen Tough (1971) placed adults in learning situations to: 1) in crease seif-esteem ; 2) to p le a se or im press others; and, 3) to gain p ersonal satisfaction an d pleasure. This breakthrough work originated with a study of 66 adults from various w alks of life (factory w orkers, university professors, m others in m iddle-class families) and their involvement in learning projects during a year. Tough discovered that on av erag e, 700-800 hours w ere sp e n t on eight learning projects e a c h y e a r and th at two-thirds of all projects w ere organized by learners th em selves.
Of im portance to adult ed ucators, w ere T ough's (1999) findings th a t adult learners only n e e d e d a s s is ta n c e to plan a learning project, and to se c u re th e reso u rces th at facilitated their specific learning goals. In 1999, at a co nferen ce on lifelong learning. Tough sta te d that although his sam ple w as small, over 50
replications of his early work had b e e n conducted in countries like F rance, Holland, and Zaire. T h e results confirmed th e im portance of informal learning and self directed learning a s very normal, an d natural hum an activities th at m ost adults are barely aw are of an d seldom m ake explicit.
David Livingstone (1999) found in a national survey of C an ad ian s th a t the num ber of people en g a g e d in so m e form of intentional learning during th e previous twelve m onths w as close to 90 percent. Of th e 10 percen t who declared they h ad not do ne any kind of learning activity in th e p ast year, th e survey found th at they w ere content with their lives and did not feel th e n eed to learn anything new for now. A nother finding w as th at adults w ere intentionally involved in a wide ran g e of
diversified informal learning ex p erien ces such a s learning a new sport; health-related learning: financial learning like investm ent information; and relationship building within th e family o r em ploym ent group. Of all th e learning activities carried out over twelve m onths, 20 percent w ere institutionally organized, leaving 80 percent a s informal or self-directed learning activities.
Motivation described by G ordon, M organ an d Ponticell (1994) "is a regulatory p ro cess covering personal n eed s, interests and values ... th at directs and guides hum an behaviour and learning" (p. 23). They stated th at "it m ay startle so m e re a d e rs to discover that a com prehensive theory of adult learning ... d o e s not exist" (p. 13).
"Informal learning" in this study is related to individual and collective learning activities conducted beyond the requirem ents or authority of an educational
institution. It occurred m ost often in a classroom setting, but w as so m etim es organized a s self-directed study, or a form of m entorship. In th e context of this research project, informal learning is m eant to hav e educational merit within th e organization and also have so m e g eneric and transferable benefit.
Livingstone, (1999) g av e a defining q uote th at determ ined adult learning a s it related to this study; "By virtually every m e a su re on every dim ension of learning, people a re now spending m ore tim e acquiring know ledge than ev er before in th e history of our continually learning species" (p 3).
T he following term s from Statistics C a n a d a (2001) provide clarity and context for this study.
a) Self-Directed Learning is a p h ra se u se d to determ ine how people direct their learning n e e d s for know ledge an d skill developm ent.
b) Informal Learning conveys intentional learning w here an individual attem pted to learn som ething in a conscious w ay with purposeful dialogue an d questioning.
c) Incidental Learning or random learning implies acquisition of know ledge a s an unplanned occurrence, a s som ething learned by watching an o th er perform a task, or a s th e result of making an error.
2.2
Adult Learning and Motivation
"I have n ever let my schooling interfere with my education" (Mark Twain).
Conklin and Eppel (unpublished w hitepaper, not d ated @ w w w .touchstdne.com ) illustrated th ree dom ains of learning depicted a s a pie graph: 1) cognitive blindness, that which w e don't know and we don't know w e don't know, 2) th at which w e know and 3) th at which w e don't know an d can therefore learn. Two-thirds of th e pie graph Indicated cognitive blindness with th e remaining third split alm ost evenly betw een th e other two dom ains.
3 16% _____ 2 & 18% •• ' 66%
L earners do not perceive m eaning in a p assiv e way. According to Gordon, M organ and Ponticell (1994), adult learners construct an d re s h a p e m eaning by interpreting new id e as that build upon prior know ledge and experience. Real
understanding cannot occur without relevant prior know ledge a s th e co rn ersto ne of a new idea.
Malcolm Knowles (1970, 1975) coined th e term , "andragogy", to differentiate th e education of adults (built upon prior know ledge) from "pedagogy" or th e
education of children. Tough (1971) ad d ed self-directed learning a s an adult learning attribute. An adult ed u cato r ste e p e d in andragological principles a c ts a s a guide facilitating th e adult learn er to develop his or h er co m peten cies and potential. Knowles, influenced by Carl R ogers, and b e st known for his work around "client- centred" learning, advo cated for an environm ent that w as conducive to learning and nurturing to th e learner (R ogers, 1983). S tep h en Brookfield (1992) coun tered th e notion th at th e re w as an exclusive theory of adult learning an d sta te d support for learning a c ro ss a lifespan a s som ething d ep en d e n t upon variables like culture, ethnicity, personality and political e th o s rather than chronological ag e. He alleged we a re far from a universal understanding of adult learning and explored four research area s: self-directed learning, critical reflection, experiential learning and learning to learn.
Joh n Naisbitt (1990) prescribed a possible solution for individuals,
corporations and g overnm ents in th e following quote; "In a world th at is constantly changing, th e re is not o n e subject or s e t of su b jects th at will serv e you well in th e fo reseeab le future, let alone for th e rest of your life. T he m ost im portant skill to acquire now is learning how to learn" (p. X).
Taking the a re a of self-directed learning a s an exam ple, Brookfield (1992) cited a lack of critical thinking around th e quality and criteria for self-directed learning and noted th at m ost stu dies w ere conducted with m iddle-class su b jects. He claimed th e wider social and political forces affecting self-directed learning had b een ignored and believed adult ed u ca to rs from th e dom inant A merican an d E uropean cultures n eed e d to exam ine m any of their assu m p tio n s about "natural" adult learning and adult education. He provided th e following exam ple: an em p h asis on self-directed learning in m ountain tribesm en might crea te d isso n an ce and anxiety in a society reliant upon collaboration and in terd ep en d en ce a s their m e an s of preserving cultural interests (pp. 79 - 93).
Brookfield w ent on to m ake a c a s e for m ore cross-cultural input th at challenged Eurocentric and North Am erican assu m p tio n s about adult learn ers and
th e nature of adult learning (p. 7). He believed em erg en t tren d s in technological adv an cem en t in distance-education and com p uter-assisted instruction have had a significant influence on p resen t th eo ries of adult learning (p.5).
This study reflects North Am erican views ab ou t adult learning, an d w as s e t within th e restrictions of th at culture. John D ew ey's philosophy of adult developm ent research on learning offered im portant clues for possibly closing th e g a p betw een rhetoric and reality about cultures. A pragm atist, Dewey arg ued for learning through experience, thereby increasing th e relevancy of w hat is learned. His view continues to find support from m any current re se a rc h e rs including Merriam and Caffarella (1991, pp. 303-304) who said "learning in adulthood is characterized by its
u sefu ln ess for im m ediate application to th e duties and responsibilities inherent in th e adult roles of worker, sp o u se , parent, citizen and so on".
In a national study of participation in adult education, Merriam and Clark (1991) found th at betw een 14 and 31 p ercent of adults e n g a g e in formal learning activities and th at upw ards of 90 percen t are learning som ething on their own (p. 67). W hether learning is considered formal or informal, task-oriented activities and relationship-oriented activities motivate and s h a p e learning. "Motivation to learn is a com plex phenom enon that psychologists and ed u cato rs are continually trying to better u nderstand. In adulthood, motivation is linked to th e n e e d s an d interests inherent in an adult's life situation" (p. 43).
A slanian and Brickell (1980) proposed a "triggers and transitions" theory to explain an adult's decision to p ursu e learning activities. Transitions referred to situations th at required new know ledge and skill s e ts related to changing job requirem ents or careers. Triggers w ere described a s ev en ts in an individual's life significant enough to c h an g e an existing pattern, m arriage, divorce, or at th e en d child-rearing years.
T he p ro c e ss of learning w as viewed a s a product of th e activity, context and culture in which it w as developed and used. Caffarella and Merriam (1999) assig n ed an interactive dim ension to learning th a t can n o t b e se p a ra te d from th e context in which th e learning h a s tak en place. T he interactive perspective com prised an a w a re n e ss of individual learners, how they learn and how th e context sh a p e d th e learner, th e instructor, and th e learning transaction itself.
Blaxter and Tight (1995) exam ined motivations for learning a s life transitions, events or turning points that trigger educational participation in adults. They sh ared two beliefs, notably that: 1) an individual's life w as s h a p e d by external factors and choices; and, 2) conscious decisions m ad e by individuals resulted in patterning their life. In a study of 36 stu d en ts in two different tim e-d egree program m es, th e re w as a 50-50 split betw een th o se who pu rsued education b e c a u se of a "triggered life" event and th o se who did not. According to Levinson (1979), specific ev en ts occurred betw een childhood and ad o lesc en ce, early adulthood ( 1 7 - 4 5 ) , middle-adulthood (40 - 65) an d late-adulthood (60+) th at are turning points linked to participation in education. C ross (1981) lists sev en "marker" events: leaving hom e (18 - 22), moving into the adult world and marrying (23 - 28), searching for stability (29 - 34),
becom ing o n e 's own person (37- 42), settling down (45 - 55), mellowing (57 - 64) and life review (65+).
Adult learn ers so ug ht further education in m om ents of personal c h an g e or crisis according to Karpiak (1999). Generally, it can be acc ep ted th at adults m ake decisions to learn intentionally in order to co p e with c h a n g e s in their lives, primarily d u e to c a re e r transitions, then family (getting married or divorced) or relocation.
Boshier (1973), C ro ss (1981), R ubenson an d Xu (1997) sh a re d th e belief that "motivation for learning is a function of th e interaction betw een internal psychological factors and external environm ental variables..." (Boshier 1973 p. 119). Boshier (1971) exp an d ed upon H oule's th ree learning orientations to d escrib e th e
motivations of adults to continue their learning activities. In his typology, learners provided varied re a s o n s for participating in educational activities ranging from improving com m unication skills to learning for the love of learning.
In his q u e st for th e c a u s e s of adult learning, Courtney (1992) s u g g e ste d two directions: o n e th a t leads to th e origins of the n eed for learning and o n e that
exam ines th e conditions adults a re likely to, or not likely to participate in adult learning. For th e p urpose of this study, his interpretation of w hat adult learning is satisfied a general concept.
Adult education conn otes adults freely going about th e b u sin ess of learning in th e context of th e b u sin ess of life. Adult learning m e an s self-directed learning, th e freedom to cho ose, to be a good co n su m er of educational products, to b eco m e involved or not depending on personally interpreted n e e d ... (p. 17).
T he Johari W indow model w as first illustrated a s a w ay of dem onstrating individual interaction by Jo se p h Luft and Harry Ingham in 1955. T he First quadrant, I. O pen referred to that part of our conscious self, our attitudes, behaviour, an d our way of life, of which w e a re aw are and which w e reveal to others.
T he seco n d quadrant, II, Blind referred to things about ourselves which w e do not know but o th ers can s e e . The third quadrant. III, Hidden rep resen ted th at which cannot b e known to o thers u n less w e disclose it, or th at which w e freely k eep to ourselves out of fear. The fourth quadrant, IV Unknown, revealed th a t w e a re m ore rich and com plex th an w e know about ourselves or th at others know ab out us. At tim es w e discover som ething revealed to u s th at previously w as not known, and th at w e never knew before. This fourth qu ad ran t is en larged during a learning activity and indicates personal growth.
The Johari Window:
W hat You S e e In Me
1. O pen II. Blind
W hat You Do Not S e e In Me
III. Hidden IV. Unknown
Learning a s a result of participation in CURE Staff D evelopm ent W orkshops m ay have substantially contributed to an individual's personal attainm ent of know ledge an d en co u rag ed th e participant to learn som ething about herself/him self that w as
hitherto unknown to self or others. T he "Unknown" qu adrant is o n e w here growth of know ledge h a s tak en place, of m aterial and self-aw aren ess.
2. 3
W orkplace Learning
"Never let formal education g et in th e way of your learning" (Mark Twain).
Learning in th e w orkplace, w hether intentional or incidental, h a s b een tailored to m eet both th e n e e d s of th e w orkers and th e em ployer since th e industrial ag e.
Emerging technologies levied serio u s educational and training implications for CUPE 947 em ployees and th e School District a s an organization. E m ployees ask ed to upgrad e existing skills and in so m e c a s e s ex pected to acquire different skill s e ts m ust have an opportunity to do so
G one for th e m ost part is th e notion th at o n ce a high school education or un derg radu ate d e g re e h a s b een attained, th at accom plishm ent is sufficient to s e e so m eo n e through their working lives without further education an d training. G one too, apparently is th e unwritten public c o n se n su s that public education is the cornerston e providing th e educational n e e d s required in the w orkplace. Public education is s e e n a s th e tip of th e educational iceberg that provides a small portion of the available options for individuals to upg rade and ad v an ce their learning, (s e e Knowles, 1970; a n d Brookfield, 1983a).
Em ployees have long a s s e rte d th at they do not have the time to leave their work to tak e structured co u rses. Em ployers con cerned with training co sts, an d th e tim e involved to u p g rad e skills and qualifications hav e b een restrained by reduced bu dg ets and in creased d em an d s for specialized knowledge.
To ap p reciate th e im portance of w orkplace learning, this study exam ined th e relevance of adult education from an historical perspective, with particular attention to th e evolution of w orkplace learning and professional developm ent. W orkplace learning h a s multiple m eanings, differentiated h ere in order to clearly identify context.
An overview of adult education in C an ad a an d British Columbia reflected th e situations, problem s, and m ethods u se d to relate to th e cultural, econom ic and social growth of th e country. According to Thorndike (1928) it is generally acc ep ted that adult education originated in G reat Britain and developed a s an institution during the period following the Industrial Revolution. Adult education groups included three groups: 1) th o se occurring in ch u rch es w here religious lead ers helped people learn to read th e scripture; 2) study g roups form ed to d iscu ss intellectual an d cultural
