A study of young SOS care leavers' transitional experiences from childhood into adult life in Nairobi, Kenya

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A Study of Young SOS Care Leavers' Transitional Experiences from Childhood into

Adult Life in Nairobi, Kenya

Sanita Lielbarde Student Number: 11234652

Master’s Thesis

International Development Studies

Graduate School of Social Sciences University of Amsterdam Supervisor: Dr. Nicky Pour

Second Reader: Dr. Michaela Hordijk July 7, 2017

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Abstract

The aim of this study is to investigate from a gender-aware perspective how the 'care background' is perceived to influence the young female and male care leavers' transitional experiences of social in/exclusion in Nairobi. An existing evidence recognizes the challenges that youths experience during their transitional phase from dependent to independent living due to the personality development limitation arising from in-care-experiences, unavailability of fallback mechanisms, and a lack of clear legislation on exit strategies. In developing countries, in particular, there is very limited research available on the care leavers' transitional experiences, and even less or no studies have been conducted to investigate how this transition is influenced by gender. Recognizing the knowledge gap in relation to the challenges associated with youth leaving care institutions in Kenya, as well as the strong cultural and societal norms related to the gender roles particularly, this study aims to address this gap by seeking new knowledge about young care leavers' transitional experiences and gendered understandings thereof. The research is qualitative in nature using a combination of mixed qualitative data collection methods, such as life history interviews, semi-structured interviews, focus group discussion, as well as social relation mapping exercise. The participants of this study included SOS care leavers as well as other stakeholders directly or indirectly linked to the care leavers, and thus well informed about the inquiry of this study. The main findings of this research revealed multiple in-care transitions, which in turn influences out-of-care transition of the youths. It also showed identity and belonging issues, difficulties in relating to the community, and gender-specific challenges of forming intimate relationships due to the institutionalization. The recommendation for institution includes review of existing strategies on facilitating a variety of in-care and out-of-care transitions, tailoring programmes that provides the youths with an exposure to the ''real world'' and build their confidence and self-esteem in order to promote their social inclusion.

Keywords: care background; care leavers; children's care institutions; gender; institutionalization; Kenya; social in/exclusion; SOS Children's Village; transitional period/phase.

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Acknowledgements

There are several people that I would like to express my gratitude for making this study possible. Firstly, I would like to thank my Thesis supervisor Dr. Nicky Pouw for guiding me throughout the research process. Also, I would like to thank Marielle Le Mat, a researcher from the University of Amsterdam, as well as local researcher Lucy Adoyo for ongoing support and advice during my fieldwork in Nairobi. Secondly, my thanks go to the SOS Children' Villages Nairobi administration and all wonderful staff members, who always warmly welcomed me at the SOS premises any time of the day. Here, I have to recognize the effort of the youth officers, who assisted me in the research process throughout my fieldwork. Thirdly, my very special thanks go to my research participants, the care leavers particularly, that they were able to find the time for me in their busy routines, to trust me with their life stories and share their dreams and ambitions. Finally, I want to thank my family and friends for ongoing encouragement and support during my studies in Amsterdam.

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Chapter 1: Introduction

“Recognizing that the child for the full and harmonious development of his or her personality, should grow up in a family environment, in an atmosphere of happiness, love, and understanding,” the Convention on the Rights of the Child [CRC] (1989, Preamble) also acknowledges the need for “special safeguards and care” in the case of an absence of the nurturing family surroundings. Unfortunately, there are many situations when the chance of growing up in a family has been denied due to a variety of social, cultural, political and economic factors. As a result, millions of children around the world have been placed into alternative care (formal and informal), which, as is widely acknowledged, can lead to significant challenges in their daily lives and have long term implications well into adulthood (SOS Children‘s Villages International, 2010, p. 4). Matters associated with independent living, such as building personal relationships, employment, and responsibility for their own decisions, must be acquired in order to meet the needs of an independent adult life outside the care setting. While some studies point out the personality developmental limitations arising from the “in-care experiences” e.g. as those of forming attachment (Smyke, Dumitrescu, and Zeanah, 2002) and sense of identity (Benbenishty and Oyserman, 1995), others have emphasized the challenges originating in the environment e.g. societal barriers that prevent the integration and inclusion of a vulnerable youth in society upon the exit of the care institution. The societal perceptions deeply rooted in culture also manifest within organizational or service cultures and practices that exclude certain people or groups, in this case, care leavers, from being equal participants in society. Additionally, the traditional conception of social justice and entitlements (Nussbaum, 2003, p. 48) for the most part are unfavourable towards girls and women. For example, restricted access to education, property, employment, and exposure to harmful traditional practices (The Word Bank, 2003) have made women “second-class citizens, if citizens at all”, argues Nussbaum (2003, p. 48). In the patriarchal society of Kenya, gender inequalities manifest themselves in a high maternal death, lower educational achievements, gender-based violence, and women's under-representation in formal jobs and the political realm (OECD Development Centre, 2014). Taking into account this notion of gender disparities that exist in Kenya, the challenges faced by young female and male care leavers will differ and most likely have a different impact on their experiences of acquiring the independent adulthood markers (Honwana, 2013) upon the exit of a care institution.

Based on empirical research among African youth (Honwana, 2013) and among foster youth in the United States (Mech, 1994), this process is referred as the transitional period - a critical period in one's life

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(Mech, 1994, p. 604), characterized by uncertainties that individuals face in learning to respond to a series of new and unfamiliar challenges. The phase of transition from dependency to autonomy has a tendency to become longer and more complex and is affected by many aspects, such as religion, class, disability as well as sexuality and gender (Ansell, 2005, p. 22). While this is a difficult period for all, youth growing up in care are the most vulnerable and very often find themselves stuck in a prolonged transition or so-called “waithood”- a period of suspension between childhood and adulthood (Honwana, 2013, p. 19). Accordingly, “this state of limbo” can become permanent and replace the adulthood if it is not overcome. This condition, Honwana argues, does not result from a failed transition on the part of the youth themselves, but rather from a breakdown in the socio-economic system that is supposed to provide them with opportunities, such as getting an education, finding employment and form meaningful and positive relationships (Honwana, 2013, p. 20). The essential question on this account is, to what extent an alternative care institution can prepare the young care leavers with self-sufficiency, independence, and effective social integration? Furthermore, considering that the care institutions reproduce gender relations, the majority of caregivers are female staff, sometimes of one religion only (e.g. catholic SOS mothers in Cote d' Ivoire and in Kenya), and girls and boys are separated in different houses/locations when they reach puberty, care leavers miss out the chance to interact with the opposite sex as well as to have a father figure or positive male role model to relate to (Ucembe, 2013, p. 37). Additionally, Ucembe has pointed out that the exclusion from interaction with the opposite sex (peers, caregivers) in a care institution needs more attention as it is an important factor that has an influence on the care leavers' transition period and beyond. The absence of interaction with the opposite sex while in care is also seen to contribute to “reduced social capital, deepened othering between genders, and affected interrelationships” (2013, p. 37).

1.1 Statement of Purpose

Considering the challenges that may arise upon the exit of a care institution, the importance of support during the transition period from care setting to independent living has been increasingly recognized (Ochanda, 2016; Ucembe, 2009). At the same time, it is essential to note, that young care leavers in developing countries in comparison to their peers in the developed world are less supported and prepared for independent living outside the institution partially due to the lack of clear legislation on the youth in transition (Dickens, 2016, p. iv) and unavailability of fall-back mechanisms. One of the reasons for this is that there is very limited research available on the care leavers and their transition, and even less or no studies have been conducted to investigate how this transition is influenced by gender. Recognizing the knowledge gap in relation to the challenges associated with youth leaving care institutions in Kenya, as well as the strong cultural and societal norms related to the gender roles, in particular, this study will address this gap by seeking new knowledge about young care leavers' transitional experiences and gendered

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1.2 Research Objectives and Main Question

The main objective of this study is to investigate from a gender-aware perspective how the “care background” is perceived to influence the social exclusion of young female and male care leavers in Nairobi, Kenya. This will be achieved by exploring the young female and male care leavers' transitional experiences and their self-perceptions on “care background” affecting their social in/exclusion. More specifically, this study aims to explore the influences associated with socially and culturally constructed gender roles and relationships of young care leavers during and after the transition period and its perceived effects on the current and youth's future expectations of social in/exclusion. The gender-aware perspective intends to focus not only on the differential opportunities available to young female and male care leavers but also on the lived experiences and inequalities that arise out of those differences. These call for further attention as they determine the youth's own imaginations and ambitions about future independence.

Based on the knowledge gap in relation to the care leavers and their social integration, as well as taking into account the specific development context and gender-aware perspective, the main research question is:

How do young female and male care leavers perceive their “care background” in relation to their transitional experiences of social in/exclusion and how does this differ among genders?

1.3 The Study Area

This research took place in Nairobi in cooperation with SOS Children's Villages located in Buruburu, in the Eastern part of the city. Buruburu SOS CV was built in 1973 and is the first village established in Kenya. The Village consists of 16 family houses and is home to 156 children. There are also 2 youth houses, 1 for boys situated outside the Village and one girls' youth house situated on the Village premises for the safety reasons. It is common practice that youth' transition from care setting to community occurs at the age of 23, however, it may vary depending on a number of factors. For example, being in full-time education prolongs a disengagement process, while misbehaviour or engagement in anti-social activities leads to youth' early disengagement. In many cases, there is an attempt made to re-unite the care leavers with their biological families and communities, however, on many occasions they choose to stay in Nairobi. The capital city, in comparison to the rest of the country in terms of economic development, is well developed as it hosts many local and international businesses and organizations. In recent decades the city has attracted the large masses of rural population, who are coming to the city in search for jobs and better life opportunities. This shift has

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greatly contributed to the expansion of Nairobi’s surrounding slums with high unemployment rates, a high prevalence of HIV infections, range of criminal activities, and prostitution (Imbeywa, 2016, p. 4), which in turn poses many challenges to young care leavers in their quest for independence and decent living standards.

Map 1: Study Area- SOS CV Nairobi

1.4 Thesis Outline

This research is divided into 9 chapters. The second chapter will explore the theoretical evidence available on the topic related to the children' care institutions and transition from care setting to a community while paying a specific attention to the issues in a development context. This includes the exploration of the literature on early childhood development, attachment, and the gender identity formation theories. The third chapter will present the epistemological approach of this study as well as the methodology used to collect the data. The empirical context of the study area will be presented in chapter four. This will include an overview of Kenya's socio-economic development, the policies, and guidelines in place that addresses the youth' issues in Kenya, as well as those in and from alternative care setting. Finally, this chapter focuses on SOS Childrens' Villages Nairobi, their strategies, and programmes aimed to facilitate the transition of the young care leavers. Chapters 5 to 8 will present the data analysis and findings of this research, aimed to answer the six sub-questions proposed by the study. Additionally, it will discuss the main results and draw concluding remarks on existent knowledge debated in Theoretical Chapter of the thesis. Finally, chapter nine will present the main findings and answer the main research question. It also will provide the recommendations for policy and practice and a further research.

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Chapter 2: Theoretical Framework

This section presents the main theoretical assumptions of this research: firstly it investigates the possible effect of childhood experiences, also an absence of parental care, on care leavers' transition period and its further implications on adulthood. Secondly, it explores the phenomena of social exclusion of youth coming from care institution, and specifically, it focuses on care leavers and their perspective on their transitional experiences of social exclusion based on their care background. Thirdly, this section looks into the aspect of gender roles and relations that have contributed to challenges associated with care leavers' transition and social in/exclusion. To visualise the main concepts of this study and to see the connection between them, this section presents the conceptual scheme, which depicts the hypnotised factors that influence transitional experiences of young male and female care leavers.

2.1 Early Childhood Experiences and Personality Development

The early childhood experiences play an important role in personality development. An absence or unavailability of nurturing family surroundings such as love, affirmation, guidance, and protection have long-term implications and the “child's ability to grow can take a course unfavourable to future personality development” (Bowlby, 1960, p. 27). Freud's believe that personality is mostly established by the age of five, stresses the importance of early experiences on personality development and its continuing influence on behaviour throughout life (Freud (1926) as referenced by Bowlby, 1960, p. 27). Consequently, Bowlby argued that early attachment styles are established in childhood through the infant-caregiver relationships and significantly influence the child's development and behaviour later in life. The concept of attachment, he describes as a “lasting psychological connectedness between human beings” and “the propensity to make strong emotional bonds to particular individuals is a basic component of human nature”. However, due to the absence of an attachment figure, the child will develop anxiety and fear that will have implications for the rest of the life (Bowlby, 1960, p. 9). The importance of the caregivers' role on child's development has been emphasized also by Hook (2004) and Nussbaum (2003). For example, the ability to develop trust is based on the dependability and quality of the child's caregivers' ability to provide a safe and nurturing environment. If a caregiver fails to provide adequate care and love, the child will fail to develop the ability to trust in his or her life (Hook, 2004, p. 270). Similarly, Martha Nussbaum (2003), whilst discussing ten Central Human Capabilities, points out to the capability to feel emotions as a crucial for one's development. Here, the emotions include the ability to form attachments to things and people outside of ourselves, to love those who love and care for us, and to grieve at their absence, to experience longing, gratitude, and justified anger. In an absence of one's emotional development, fear and anxiety will take place (Nussbaum, 2003, p. 41).

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Freud's theory of Psychosexual Development describes how personality develops over the course of childhood through the series of childhood stages. The failure to progress through a stage results in “fixation” or being stuck in the stage, which may, in turn, lead to difficulties in later stages (Hook and Watts, 2004, p. 63). Similarly to Freud, also Erikson believes that personality develops in series of stages or crisis (Hook, 2004, p. 267). Accordingly, a “poorly mastered” stage will manifest in the following stages and the child may not develop the essential skills needed for a strong sense of identity and self. While Freud's theory is mostly concerned with childhood experiences, Erikson's theory of Psychosocial Development emphasizes the impact of social experiences across the whole lifespan, e.g. the role of social interaction and relationships in the development and growth of human beings. In this respect, the childhood is socially constructed Ansell, 2005, p. 24), and therefore the influence of social relationships, as well as social variables such as gender among the others will play important role in forming one's identity.

The psychoanalytic theory employs different processes to explain gender development in boys and girls. For example, in the early years of their lives, both boys and girls are believed to identify with their mothers. Freud points out to the role of the child's attachment to his mother on personality development and the impact of separation anxiety, grief, and mourning that takes place due to the loss of the love object, e.g. mother during the infancy and early childhood (Freud (1929) as referenced by Bowlby, 1960, p. 27). However, at between the age of 3 and 5 years, this changes and children identify themselves with the same-sex parent and through this process of identification children become same-sex-typed (Bussey and Bandura, 1999, p. 677). Cognitive development theory emphasizes the gender identity “as the basic organizer and regulator of children's gender learning” (Bussey and Bandura, 1999, p. 677). Children develop the stereotypical conceptions of gender from what they see and hear around them. Once they achieve gender stability - the belief that their own gender is fixed and permanent - they positively value their gender identity and seek to behave only in ways that are appropriate with that conception (Bussey and Bandura, 1999, p. 677). Furthermore, Erikson acknowledges that the different gender identity statuses can be interpreted as a result of cultural influences, not as an outcome of different developmental capabilities between sexes (Erikson (1975) as referenced by Waterman, 1982, p. 344). While the environment and external factors have a role to play in one's gender identity development, Nussbaum goes a step further, arguing that this right to identity among the other capabilities are the basic entitlement of a life with dignity for each and everyone. Even more, they are “a measure of social justice with critical potential for gender issues. A society that does not guarantee this to all its citizens, falls short of being a fully just society” (Nussbaum, 2003, p. 40).

Although the nature of this study will not be purely psychological, the importance of psychosocial dynamics and behaviour patterns is recognized as important factors that influence personality development, which in turn plays a role in young care leavers' transitional experiences and therefore requires further investigation.

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2.2 Growing up in Care: Implications for Vulnerable Youth in Global South

Guidelines for the Alternative Care of Children adopted by the United Nations General Assembly states that,

“… alternative care for young children, especially those under the age of 3 years, should be provided in family-based settings. Exceptions to this principle may be warranted in order to prevent the separation of siblings and in cases where the placement is of an emergency nature or is for a predetermined and very limited duration, with planned family reintegration or other appropriate long-term care solution as its outcome” (UN, 2010, Para. 22).

Acknowledging that the best solutions for alternative care arrangements are those as stated by the UN, the statistics related to the children without parental care and homes in the Global South, in particular, speaks for themselves. The applicability of these guidelines is challenged by the reality on the ground and thus requires locally and internationally structured and well-coordinated action in order to reduce the number of children in alternative care and thus increasing the quality and standards of care practices worldwide.

According to Guidelines for the Alternative Family Care of Children of Kenya (The Republic of Kenya, 2014), there are an estimated 2,4 million orphans in Kenya, of which 47 % are due to parental deaths as a result of AIDS. An even greater number of children are made vulnerable due to the poverty, harmful cultural practices, family breakdown, abandonment, natural disasters, ethnic and political conflict and poor care arrangements and thus are in need of urgent care and protection. It is estimated that between 30-45 % of the 2,4 million orphans end up in charitable children’s institutions (The Republic of Kenya, 2014, p. 4). In this light, the care institution becomes the only home for a large number of disadvantaged children where their initial needs for nutrition, shelter, and security are met. Unfortunately, as children grow up, they have to leave the institution and lead an independent adult life outside the care setting. In this regard, the care institution is the main actor that influences the child's personality growth and development through the strategies and practices employed. The aim of this section is to explore the empirical research concerned with disadvantages and advantages of growing up in care while focusing on the Global South particularly.

The volume of research has shown the negative impact of growing up in an institution on a child's development, while at the same time it has been acknowledged that the outcomes vary and are context dependent. For example, the cross-national study conducted by Van IJzendoom, Luijk, and Juffer (2008, p. 356) showed a significant IQ delay for children growing up in care homes in comparison to a family environment. However, it also indicated that outcomes varied geographically, e.g. in poor countries, orphanages may provide care and cognitive stimulation equal to what (extended) families without resources are able to offer (p. 359). In Eritrea, children living in orphanages were better off than children reared by their parents who were not able to provide the basic necessities for the children. Also, the data showed that AIDS/HIV orphans in Kenya received better care in children's homes than in other forms of care, including care of the extended family (Van IJzendoom et al., 2008, p. 356). Another study aiming to investigate the attachment disturbances in young children argues that children in care had significantly more signs of

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disordered attachment than children growing up in a family setting. For example, the failure to form the attachment with others whilst in institutions and culturally specific linkages very often leads to marital break-ups in Zimbabwe, reported Dziro and Rufurwokuda (2013, p. 274). Both the emotionally withdrawn and the indiscriminately social pattern of attachment disorder were apparent in the children raised in care (Smyke et al., 2002), while the research conducted in Israel and Zimbabwe revealed that the more frequent problems that young care leavers encounter were those relating to a lack of a sense of identity and belonging, and self-esteem (Benbenishty and Oyserman, 1995; Dziro et al., 2013). The challenges related to the decision making have been proven to be common for children leaving institutions. Years of staying in an institution have a created dependency syndrome as every action the children have to take in an institution is pre-planned and every task is done according to schedule. Such reliance on caregivers weakens their ability to think critically and make decisions concerning their lives or relationships (Dziro et al., 2013, p. 275). For example, the study conducted in Eritrea (Wolff and Fesseha, 1998, p. 1319) found that children who lived in a setting where the entire staff participated in decision making, and where the children were encouraged to become self-reliant through personal interactions with staff members, showed significantly fewer signs of emotional distress than orphans who lived in a setting where the management made decisions, daily routines were determined by rules and schedules, and interactions between staff members and the children were impersonal.

While the consequences of poverty and the AIDS pandemic have led to constantly rising numbers of orphans and vulnerable children in Sub-Saharan Africa, the practices and conditions in children's care institutions (children's homes, orphanages) are lacking a detailed evaluation (Hermenau et al., 2011). For example, the patterns of staff interaction and styles of child care management have a significant impact on the children's behaviour and cognitive performance in Eritrea argues Wolff and Fesseha (1998). The bonding with a caregiver and living in a family-like group are important factors determining the well-being of children in the institution. However, secure attachment is hindered in the case of caregivers' adverse parenting styles or violence, which is a common feature in many African societies, and thus result in aggressive behaviour of the child and ill mental health (Hermenau et al., 2011). Furthermore, considering that nearly half of the children in the institutions are AIDS orphans, the necessity for psychological intervention whilst in the care has been recognized. Unfortunately, the psycho-social needs of children very often are overshadowed by concern about the basic and immediate needs of the children, such as blanket and food that “may be more appropriate than counselling”, concludes Foster and Williamson (2000). In this regard, this study aims to look into care leavers' in-care experiences, perceived advantages and disadvantages of being raised in an institution, and links them with their social and emotional well-being during their transition from the care into communities.

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dimensional processes driven by unequal power relationships interacting across four main dimensions - economic, political, social and cultural - and at different levels including individual, household, group, community, country and global levels” (SEKN, 2008, p. 7). Social exclusion manifests in the exclusion of particular groups of people from engaging fully in community and social life, e.g. paid work, education, and thus have a negative impact on human well-being in general. Additionally, social exclusion has been described as the existence of barriers (Stanley, 2009, p. 2), which make it difficult or impossible for people to participate fully in society or obtain a decent standard of living. While income poverty is the most commonly cited cause of social exclusion, other examples of barriers include disability, lack of educational opportunity, inadequate housing, belonging to an ethnic minority, unemployment, age, and gender.

Considering the focus of this study, e.g. the care leavers and their social inclusion, the importance to explore the existing knowledge on social exclusion of care leavers has been recognized. On the one hand, growing up in a care institution with no doubt plays a significant role in personality development, and thus has an impact on young care leavers' adulthood. On the other hand, the boundary between causes or drivers and outcomes of social exclusion is blurry and unclear (Bradshaw et al., 2004). Young people leaving state care are one of the most marginalized groups in society, argues Bran (2010). In comparison to their peers living with their own families, young care leavers face many challenges of acquiring independent living markers, and this leads to social exclusion as well as self-exclusion. The author argues that these challenges are created by a combination of poor pre-care, in-care and post-care experiences (Bran, 2010, p. 832). Another study conducted in the USA has shown similar results. Having not received the support and training to prepare them for the life's challenges, the young care leavers are often unprepared for life outside the institution. As a result, these young people encounter homelessness, difficulty securing employment, imprisonment, and unplanned pregnancies (Bell, 2002).

Similar patterns also have been reported in the developing world. While the care institutions in many African countries are the only “beneficial” option for many orphaned children, the effect of institutionalization is felt well beyond care. Many young people experience problems of adjusting to society as a result of institutional “military barrack-typed practices” that do not cultivate the local cultures and traditions. The study conducted in Zimbabwe (Zircon et al., 2013), focusing on young women, points to the fact that many care institutions are much in favour of western traditions and do not practice the local traditions thus making it very difficult for youth to re-integrate into society after care. Even more, they have been rejected by their communities as they unaware of the expected cultural values by society and they do not understand the local societal norms and traditions. Additionally, the study indicated that the care leavers were stigmatized and referred to as “children from orphanages” and that society did not accept them initially as any “other normal woman” (Dziro et al., 2013, p. 272).

Young care leavers who have lived for a long period of time within institutional care settings apart from their birth families represent a target group of persons at greatest risk of poverty and social exclusion in Kenya (Ucembe, 2009). Accordingly, care leavers faces multiple challenges after leaving care, such as continuing their education, finding a job, paying rent, and accessing health care, as well as difficulties in

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establishing relationships due to their perceived lack of social skills and inability to form attachments, says Ucembe in his report on the young care leavers in Kenya (2009, p. 11). Additionally, the study indicated that the young care leavers have experiences of stigmatization and discrimination due to their care background (Ucembe, 2009, p. 16). Furthermore, Ochanda (2016, p. 5) has stressed out that care leavers in Kenya have also been rejected by their extended families and communities, and they experience extreme difficulties in securing employment. Similar concern has been expressed in Kenya Careleavers Conference Report emphasizing that care leavers are poorly supported psychologically, emotionally and financially “in the society in their quest to become independent and successful adults” (KESCA, 2013, p. 18). Many young people are “somehow stuck in transition” (Roeber, 2011. p. 3) and are vulnerable to exclusion from society. Furthermore, the majority of young care leavers lack social and psychological coping strategies, as well as a lack of supportive network in the communities that could assist the young people when leaving a care institution, the study has indicated.

While the challenges may differ among young female and male care leavers, the role of the care institution itself should not be underestimated. In this respect, this study explores the care leavers' perceptions of the role of the care institution in preparing them for their departure. Furthermore, it explores the gender-specific perspectives in order to gain a deeper understanding of the supportive mechanisms that can be employed by care institutions and other stakeholders in order to promote the care leavers' social inclusion.

2.4 Gender Perspective and Kenyan Context

Very often the term gender has been misconceived and used as a substitution for the word sex. On the contrary, the concept of gender refers to the socially constructed characteristics of women and men – such as norms, roles and relationships of and between groups of women and men, the ways in which the roles of men and women are socially constructed and to the cultural interpretations of the biological differences between men and women (World Health Organization [WHO], 2016). Consequently, the gender roles, relations, and identity are socially constructed through the process of socialization. For example, many societies have believed that women are more nurturing than men, while men are considered to possess leader capabilities, argues Blackstone (2003, p. 337). Therefore, gender is a concept which implies what men's and women's duties and responsibilities are in society and “also embraces cultural ideas about “maleness” and “femaleness” and the structural inequalities which emanate from those differences” (Suda, 2002, p. 302). Although the expectations and assumptions associated with gender tend to vary and change over time, it is unfortunate that in societies that are experiencing the most gender-related disparities the change occurs more slowly due to the restricted access to education, employment, and resources, etc. While traditional views about gender remain dominant in many spheres of society, alternative perspectives on traditional beliefs

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argues that when gender roles are learned, they can also be unlearned and that new and different roles can be created (Blackstone, 2003, p. 337). In this respect, the traditional gender role orientation is influenced by the rules and rituals of the previous generations, by parents and grandparents, and thus have power over the individual perception on how women and men see themselves in relation to their current and future expectations. However, in the case of deviation from what is socially and culturally accepted, the individual may face stigma, discrimination, and social exclusion (WHO, 2016). The degree of the consequences of “being different” more likely will vary geographically and will depend on different cultural patterns and traditions.

Kenya is a country of strong traditional beliefs and practices associated with the female or male roles within the households, communities, and society at large. Although the degree of conformation tends to vary among the ethnic groups and from rural to an urban setting, these are seen to restrict the women from access to education, property, and employment, as well as allow the young girls and women being exposed to harmful traditional practices (The World Bank, 2003). It has been recognized that the gender disparities are very much present in Kenya, and the women are disadvantaged and marginalized in many aspects (KNBS & SID, 2013). For example, as pointed out by UNICEF (2016), the young women and girls also remain particularly vulnerable to HIV, mostly due to persistent gender inequality, including lack of economic opportunities for girls and women. Also, the study conducted by Suda (2002, p.302) recognizes that gender disparities in regards to employment opportunities and economic investment patterns in Kenya have continued to widen across all sectors of the economy and at various levels of development interventions, which in turn has increased unemployment, poverty, and powerlessness among many Kenyan women. The reason of this is the existence of social, cultural and structural barriers that prevent the effective female participation in the labour force (Suda, 2002, p. 302).

In August 2010 the new constitution on gender equality was passed in Kenya, thus declaring women the same legal rights as men. However, the implementation still remains an issue and women in Kenya continue to suffer economically, socially and politically from gender-related inequities. As an example here can be mentioned Kenya’s education policy which is gender-neutral and does not discriminate on the basis of gender. However, the education system is characterized by significant gender disparities due to the several factors such as teenage pregnancies, early marriages, social attitudes towards women, cultural practices, inadequate, family preferences to educate the boys, and heavy domestic workload for the girl as a child (Suda, 2002, p. 306). Accordingly, the 2014 OECD Development Centre’s Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI) rank has shown a high prevalence of domestic violence against women. Although Kenya's gender gap index for the year 2015 has been 48 (out of 145 countries) and has improved in comparison to the previous year (37 in 2014) (World Economic Forum, 2015, p. 218), women continuously have been disadvantaged in comparison to men in many areas, also in access to education and access to resources (OECD Development Centre, 2014).

Taking into account the evidence presented in this section on gender disparities that exist in Kenyan society, this research aims to examine the gendered divide in terms of perceived advantages and

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disadvantages of being young women or a man from the children's care institution in Nairobi.

2.5 Conceptual Scheme

The aim of the conceptual scheme is to visualize the main concerns of this study that has a direct influence on the young female and male care leavers' transitional period e.g. a role of childhood experiences in the adulthood, social exclusion of young care leavers, and gender disparities in the Kenyan context. In order to gain a deeper understanding of an inquiry of this study, the need to define key concepts adopted by this study was recognized.

Care background

This concept represents the condition of youth growing up in children' care institution.

Care leavers (young care leavers)

Youth (in transition and not only) who has left the care institution. In this study care leavers are youth – young women and man (aged between 22 and 30) who have left SOS Children's Village in order to start independent lives outside the care institution.

Gender

Gender refers to socially constructed characteristics of women and men – such as norms, roles, behaviours, activities, and relationships of and between groups of women and men (WHO, 2016).

Gender identities - a person's perception of having a particular gender, which may or may not correspond with their birth sex (English Oxford Living Dictionaries, 2017).

Gender relations - social relations between and among women and men that are based on gender norms and roles (WHO, 2016).

Gender roles - the role or behaviour learned by a person as appropriate to their gender, determined by the prevailing cultural norms. Refers to what males and females are expected to do (in the household, community, and workplace) in a given society (WHO, 2016).

Social exclusion

Social exclusion is exclusion from the prevailing social system and its rights and privileges, typically as a result of poverty or the fact of belonging to a minority social group. Social exclusion has been described as the existence of barriers which make it difficult or impossible for people to participate fully in society or obtain a decent standard of living (Stanley, 2009, p. 2). This study focuses on exclusion based on care background and the gender-based exclusion in particular, as well as to look at the self-exclusion of the care

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Social inclusion - the action or state of including or of being included within a group or structure.

Transitional phase

The concept of transition represents the condition or period between childhood and adulthood during which an independent living markers are acquired e.g. finding a job, building relationships. This research focuses on the care leavers' transitional period after the exit of the care institution. At the same time it explores a number of transitions that young children and youth experience while in care.

Image 1: Conceptual Scheme

The conceptual scheme of this research represents the main variables that influence care leavers' transitional period e.g. linking the childhood experiences to adulthood, social exclusion of young care leavers, and gender disparities in the Kenyan context. The childhood experiences and in-care experiences are depicted as the main cornerstones of personality development that assumed to have an influence on care leavers' transitional experiences. Here, in-care experiences arguably have the capacity to mitigate or partially reverse the damaging early childhood experiences as those of parental absence or neglect. However, after the data collection, the new attributes emerged and therefore required further consideration. For example, expanding

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the concept of “in-care experiences”, which is much broader and complex as it previously anticipated in terms of variety of transitions (mother retirement, moving from family house to youth house) and relationships that have a significant impact on the transition from care to communities.

Gender is another element that accordingly influences the personality development and thus has the impact on care leavers' transitions. However, it more likely manifests through the dynamics of a combination of factors, such as an absence of a father figure, which has an influence on building relationships, family life and how to relate to opposite sex at large. Not knowing how to deal in certain situations, or not being able to relate to the members of community and fear of being judged based on care background very often leads to self-exclusion. Upon the exit of the care institution, the care leavers are faced with new challenges, and social exclusion is one them. Gender-based exclusion and exclusion due to the “care background” is the main focus of this study. While the social exclusion of care leavers presumingly exists, the quality of the transitional period depends on interactive, dynamic, and resistant processes that are personal, agency dependent and supported by external structures such as the care institution, communities, local authorities and inclusive policies.

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Chapter 3: Research Methodology

This chapter describes the research methodology and methods as well as underlying epistemological approaches adopted by this research. The research is entirely qualitative in nature using a combination of mixed qualitative data collection and data analysis methods. The methods used include life history interviews, semi-structured interviews, focus group discussion, as well as a social relation mapping exercise. By adopting a qualitative research design it was expected to achieve a detailed, informative and, explanatory interpretation of participants' social meanings; how they see themselves within the community and how they relate to society, by “re-presenting their social world” (Snape and Spencer, 2010, p. 5).

3.1 Epistemology

This research aims to investigate from a gender-aware perspective how the “care background” is perceived to influence the transitional experience of social exclusion of young SOS female and male care leavers in Nairobi. In this respect, the focus of this study is to explore social phenomena of institutional background affecting the social integration of the youth after the exit of the care institution. Considering that the experiences, as well as perceptions, are a matter of subjectivity, this research is drawing on interpretivism as the underlying epistemological approach. Interpretivism provides an opportunity to gain knowledge and an understanding of social phenomena through an explorative and informative view in order to construct and to explain the reality of social actions and its subjective meaning to an individual. Respectively, it focuses on the details of a situation, the reality behind these details, subjective meanings that motivate the actions of, in this case, social inclusion and exclusion. Assuming that a care background tends to influence the transitional experiences of youth of social integration, the most appropriate way to acquire this knowledge is through an inquiry into the human capital itself e.g. through learning about care leavers' social reality. This process is rather complex, as indicated Bryman (2008, p.30), as it requires a researcher to gain access to people's “common-sense thinking'' and interpret their actions and their views from their point of view. Moreover, looking at the occurrence of social in/-exclusion that may be influenced by the institutional care background, an interpretive approach can be applied to connect young people's social actions to their social reality of social meaning. Here, the social reality of social meaning to care leavers manifests into their actions that may be or may not be meaningful to a particular individual as they act on the basis of the meaning they attribute to their acts and to the acts of others (Bryman, p.30). In this light, the interpretive view investigating the transitional experiences of social integration of youth from care is a very subjective matter for each care leaver and thus requires a very special inquiry into their experiences and perspectives, which in turn has an influence on their transitional experiences through care and of social integration after leaving care.

In response to epistemological consideration of this study, this research has adopted a qualitative research strategy, which is inductive in nature and thus more suitable to generate new knowledge in relation

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to the subject of inquiry. Acknowledging the lack of empirical evidence in relation to transitional experiences of care leavers, the study aims to serve as a credible and reliable source of information that is based on the care leavers' social reality and meaning attached to it, and thus, requires a further consideration and investigation.

3.2 Research Question and Sub-Questions

Based on the knowledge gap in relation to a theoretical and an empirical evidence on the care background influencing the transitional experiences of social integration of care leavers, as well as taking into account a specific development context and gender-aware perspective, the main research question is:

How do young female and male care leavers perceive their “care background” in relation to their transitional experiences of social in/exclusion and how does this differ among genders?

The following six sub-question are formulated to achieve the objective of this study and to contribute to the wider knowledge of the subject of inquiry of this study:

SQ1. What are the challenges that young female and male care leavers experience during their transition period from childhood to adulthood?

SQ2. What are the approaches/strategies employed by young female and male care leavers to overcome the difficulties during the transition period?

SQ3. How does gender affect the young female and male care leavers' transition phase (perceptions and experiences) and future expectations and ambitions?

SQ4. How are the young female and male care leavers being perceived outside the care institution by the members of society?

1. Potential/current employers 2. Teachers/caregivers 3. Local governance 4. Parents/family members 5. Friends/peers 6. Self-perception

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SQ5. How do young female and male care leavers perceive the role of the care institution in preparing them for living independently outside the care setting?

SQ6. How can care institutions contribute to a smoother transition and social inclusion of young female and male care leavers?

3.3 Sampling

This study employed two sampling strategies. Firstly, the purposive sampling or criterion-based sampling was used to identify the potential research participants. This kind of sampling, as indicated by Silverman (2010, p. 141), requires one to think critically in order to choose criteria that are most appropriate for a particular case. Secondly, the snowball sampling was applied where it is necessary to reach the potential participants.

15 life histories were carried out with the SOS care leavers. 9 out of 15 participants were selected by a purposive sampling technique, while other 6 were reached by using the snowball technique.

The participants of the life history interviews were invited to take part in a focus group discussion. Initially, it was planned to organize two gender-based focus group discussions. However, due to a variety of reasons only 9 out of 15 interviewees were able to attend the focus group discussion. Considering the small number of participants, it was decided to hold one mixed gender discussion, which, in turn, greatly contributed to a dynamic and well-debated session on the transitional challenges, social in/exclusion and women/men's role in family and society.

The participants of the semi-structured interviews were selected by using purposive sampling as well as snowball sampling. The snowball sampling was particularly useful to identify other stakeholders, such as friends of the young care leavers.

3.4 Research Methods

In order to answer the research question and sub-question proposed in the previous section, the qualitative data collection methods were chosen as the most suitable approach, which allowed to investigate the perceptions of the young care leaver's in a detailed manner and provided an opportunity for answering the “how” and “why” questions.

Life history interviews with care leavers

This in-depth inquiry has provided this research with anticipated as well as new information on “care background” influencing their social in/exclusion. Consequently, by using the life histories, this study has attained a deeper insight into the care leavers' transitional pre-care, in-care, and after-care experiences and

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also learned how gender disparities influence/shape the transitional phase. Additionally, it provided an opportunity to learn how the young female and male care leavers see themselves, how do they identify themselves within their social environment that has influenced or continue to influence their lives. During the life history interviews, the social relational mapping exercise (Radford and Neke, 2000, p. 4) was used to establish a value and importance of everyday interactions and relationships that have positive as well as negative meaning to a care leaver. Accordingly, the relational mapping can be viewed as a form of cognitive mapping technique, which allows for the depiction of an individual’s internal perceptions and or mental models while representing relationships and processes in a symbolic map – in this way aiding the communication of perceptions (Radford and Neke, 2000, p. 4).

Focus group discussions with care leavers

Following the life histories with the care leavers, the focus group discussion was initiated as it provides an opportunity to explore shared meanings and group interactions around a particular topic of common interest. As Cohen, Manion, and Morrison (2007, p. 376) have indicated that the strength of focus group discussions is that they look into a particular issue and, therefore, is able to yield insights that might not be available in one-on-one interviews as it generates themes and topics through group interaction. In this regard, the main themes related to a variety of transitional experiences were identified and explored during the focus group discussion. The focus group was mixed by gender, which provided an opportunity to discuss and cross-examine transitional issues in a more dynamic and gender aware environment. During this sessions, it was expected to learn their transitional experiences and to understand the expectations that are based on the gender-related assumptions. Additionally, it was insightful to learn, how care leavers perceive themselves (being a woman or man, and how they relate to opposite sex) within the community, society and the roles associated with that.

Semi-structured interview with stakeholders

Semi-structured interviews were carried out with caregivers, teachers, current/possible employers, civil society representatives, members of local governance, and friends in order to investigate the societal attitudes such as discrimination, stigmatization, exclusion on the basis of “care background” towards the care leavers. Semi-structured interviews were indicated as a most effective method as it provided an opportunity for detailed exploration of research participants' “personal position in relation to the subject of matter” (Lewis, 2010, p. 58) of this study. The close contact between a researcher and participant is also claimed to contribute to attaining the objectives of one's research, especially if it requires an understanding of “deeply rooted” and “delicate” matters (Ritchie, 2010, p. 36). Furthermore, the employment of the semi-structured interviews provided this study with the range of societal perceptions about the care leavers, e.g. in terms of their education and employment opportunities, forming friendships as well as intimate relationships.

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3.5 Research Process

This study was part of the larger research project commissioned by SOS Children's Villages to UVA researchers aimed to find out the driving mechanisms of the social exclusion of vulnerable youth, in and from care settings, and the impact thereof on their social acceptance, human well-being, and employment in 6 countries. This research was carried out in Nairobi in cooperation with SOS Children Villages Kenya between January and April 2017. During this period the data collection took place as follows:

1. 15 life histories with young care leavers (8 girls and 7 boys);

2. 1 mixed focus groups discussion consisting of 9 participants (4 female care leavers and 5 male care leavers);

3. 10 semi-structured interviews with stakeholders e.g. caretakers/teachers, potential/current employers, members of local governance, and friends/peers.

3.5.1 Data Analysis

Thematic analysis was used to identify, analyse and report patterns within data. Advantages of thematic analysis are seen in the fact that it can be used within different frameworks to answer different types of research questions, especially related to people’s experiences, views and perceptions (Braun and Clarke, 2006, p. 79). Atlas. Ti software was used to organize data and aid thematic analysis.

3.5.2 Quality of the Research

The quality concerns play a central role throughout all steps of the research process in a qualitative study. The concern about assessing quality has been discussed by a number of scholars as the nature of a qualitative study deals with human behaviours and social phenomena that are difficult to define and predict in general and thus are more prone to a variety of errors. At the same time, there are a number of ways of improving the quality e.g. validity, each of which requires the exercise of judgement on the part of a researcher as well as the reader (Mays and Pope, 2000). In this regard, the credibility of this research was achieved through a number of steps that allowed an understanding of the research participants' perspectives on their transitional experiences. For example, the environment including SOS policies was studied before the contact was established with potential interviewees. An interaction with the youth currently in the institution has helped to gain deeper insight into their lives and to learn how prepared they feel to transit from the care to communities. Also, the aspect of self-immersion has contributed to understanding the life in the institution in general, as well as to learn some of the common concerns and challenges that youth are facing, which, in turn, may have an impact on how they relate to communities outside. Furthermore, the contact with care

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leavers themselves was established and maintained during the research process, which allowed to develop a mutual trust and respect that is essential for the credibility of the data collection (Bryman, 2008, p. 377). During the research process, the researcher had a close support of other professionals e.g. the SOS staff and the SOS mothers. The use of multiple qualitative research methods greatly contributed to the credibility of the study. Triangulation of the findings was achieved by using life history interviews with care leavers, semi-structured interviews with stakeholders, focus group discussions with care leavers, as well as the policy analysis on the youth exiting the institution has helped to reduce the systematic bias and cross-examine the integrity of participants’ responses. Moreover, taking into account that this research project was part of the broader study, a local researcher on the ground was present to cooperate, consult and triangulate the data and results.

To ensure dependability of the study, a number of measures were applied. The examination and cross checks of an inquiring process and the appropriateness of methods chosen, as indicated by Bryman (2008, p.377) is a major concern during the research process, which, in this case, was openly discussed with the research supervisor and the fellow researchers on the ground. The data collected was evaluated and compared with the local researcher on the ground. It was a really helpful and insightful process that ensured the dependability of the inquiry process by comparing results and addressing the inconsistencies within the data. Additionally, during the data analysis and evaluation of the findings, the triangulation of various data collected by various methods was used.

Confirmability or objectivity was another concern that was considered during the research process. In this case, the close work with the research team and the local researcher on the ground greatly provided the reflection point that would ensure an objective interpretation of the research findings. Additionally, the recording journal of research activities, such as data gathering, including recordings and field notes, are safely kept for the cross-examination and reflection purposes. In order to ensure the integrity of the results, the rapport between the researcher and participants was established. Also, triangulations of the sources has helped to evaluate and sceptically assess the information provided by participants.

3.6 Unit of Analysis

Aiming to explore the young female and male care leaver's transitional experiences the unit of analysis of this research was the young care leavers themselves. It was expected that the youth who have left the care institution already and thus have experience of independent living, will provide the detailed and valid data for purposes of this research.

Care leavers (see Graph 1): 8 out of 15 was female and 7 was male participants aged between 22 and 30 with different length of independent living experience. Five care leavers (three male and two female) were early disengaged from the care setting and moved to the community due to disciplinary issues and early

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However, since then one of self-employed youth has found a full-time job. Four care leavers were unemployed, from which two of them were in full-time education and two were actively searching for work. Since then one of the care leavers has succeeded to secure a full-time employment. Education wise, ten care leavers have completed third level education e.g. have a degree or diploma, while other two were still in a college, and three have a basic education only. Nine care leavers were single at the time of the interview, which includes two single mothers. Another six were in relationships, this includes two relationships with a child. Biological family is present for ten care leavers, while the other five did not know anything about their roots. Nine care leavers were living alone or sharing their apartment. Three care leavers (those who were early disengaged) were staying with their biological relatives. One care leaver was living in a family environment with his partner and a child, while two other care leavers were single mothers living with their children (since the interview took place, one of the care leavers has moved together with her partner e.g. father of the child).

Graph 1: represents care leavers in transition (based on sample of 15 cases)

Gender: examining the data related to a variety of criteria presented (see Graph 2) there is only a slight difference between female and male care leavers' performances. For example, early disengagement was experienced by five care leavers, of which three were male and two female care leavers. However, it has to be noticed that the life history sample consisted of a greater number of female participants (eight female vs seven male). Looking at the unemployment among the care leavers, two male out of all four unemployed care leavers were in full-time education and were thus not available for work. Other two care leavers e.g. one female and one male were actively searching for a job. Since interview took place, one female care lever has managed to secure full-time employment. Additionally it has to be noticed, that being self-employed often means that the person have not been able to find full-time job, so that self-employed - having a small

Employed (self-employed)

3rd level education

In relationships

Parenthood

Biological family present 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 11 12 6 4 10 4 3 9 11 5 No Yes

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business - also means that this is the only choice they had in order to sustain themselves as the income from selling small things is very little and satisfies just a very basic needs. In this respect, out of three self-employed care leavers, two were female, and since interviewing time one female care leaver have found a full-time job. Looking at the educational attainment, only two female care leavers and one male care leaver did not complete third level education. Relationship wise four out of seven male care leavers were in relationships, including one care lever having a child. While only one female care leaver was in a relationship, and three female care leavers were single mothers at the time of data collection. Since then, one

of female care leavers has renewed the relationship with her boyfriend, which is also the father of her child.

Graph 2: represents care leavers in transition segregated by gender (based on the 15 cases: 8 female and 7male)

3.7 Ethical Considerations

The main feature of the qualitative research is contact with “human subjects in the field”, Silverman has indicated (2010, p.152), and thus requires awareness about possible issues and conflicts of interests that may arise when collecting the data. Considering the development context of this study, the work involves a completely different levels of social/economic/political/cultural power relationships between a researcher and participants as it addresses a variety of sensitive issues such as inequality, gender, and poverty (Sumner, 2007, p. 59), which, in turn, requires additional ethical considerations throughout the research process. On this account, Sumner argues (2007, p. 60), that an essential question to a researcher her/himself is how to build non-hierarchical relationships and how to recognize a power in their relationships with a participant

Employed (self-employed)

3rd level education

In relationships

Parenthood

Biological family present 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 7 6 2 3 5 4 6 4 1 5 Female Male

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during this ''intervention process”. Additionally, a dilemma of following the local ethics or universal ethical codes has been pointed out by Sumner (2007, p. 61) as the researcher intervenes in the lives of “the Others'' within a cross-cultural and cross-disciplinary environment.

This study aimed to touch upon sensitive issues of care leavers' lives. In this light, the ethical approval was sought and obtained from the Amsterdam Institute for Social Science Research (AISSR), while AISSR Ethical Review guidelines and SOS Codes of Conduct were practised at all times. The core principles such as voluntary participation and the right to withdraw, confidentiality, informed consent, assessment of potential risks and benefits to a participant, and not doing harm to the participant (Silverman, 2010, p. 154) was followed and applied throughout this research. Each participant of this study was treated with respect, as well as their values, attitudes, and opinions were taken into account. Considering that this research was carried out in Kenya, the cultural awareness and sensitive manner to cultural differences were maintained. To ensure the well-being of the participants, a safe environment was chosen for the purposes of this research e.g. life histories, focus groups, and semi-structured interviews. The participants also were introduced to the purpose of the study and ensured that their anonymity and confidentiality will be protected at all times.

While core ethical principles are the matter of importance that this research is based upon, the significance of a researcher's personal account and position within the research process was recognized. As indicated by Sumner (2007, p. 66), the researchers' self-reflexivity in the research process, reciprocity dialogue with research participants, flexible and open guiding principles are weighted upon guidelines that frame the research, which raises a “surprising depth of ethical complexity'' in development studies.

3.8 Limitations

There are a number of limitations that this research encompasses. Firstly, talking about the research findings, they are not representative to all facilitators of children's care institutions, and not even in a Kenyan context. This is because of unique model and strategies that have been adopted by SOS Children's Villages and thus the transitional challenges experienced by SOS care leavers are slightly different from the challenges that are encountered by care leavers from other children's institution. On the other hand, the detailed exploration of SOS youth's transitional challenges is expected to provide insights on transitional challenges and to open a debate on these issues, which hopefully will result in strategies that are tailored to promote the integration of the care leavers, which begins at the time when a child is transiting into care up until he or she transits out of care, and beyond.

Another limitation of this study is related to the sample e.g. care leavers and stakeholders. In relation to the care leavers, the data gathered indicated a tendency of care leavers being involved in drugs, prostitution and other types of anti-social behaviours after the exit of care. In this regard, it would be very interesting to talk to these particular youth who has gone or going through these experiences. Although two of care leavers interviewed talked about their involvement in this type of actions, the majority did not have

A study of young SOS care leavers' transitional experiences from childhood into adult life in Nairobi, Kenya