Cross-cultural training for expatriates: how effective are the training methods?

Cross-cultural training for expatriates: how effective

are the training methods?

Abstract

Increased globalization has induced companies to send expatriates abroad to complete essential assignments. Because many expatriates did not succeed on their assignments, cross-cultural training was proposed by many scholars as a means to prepare expatriates. However, the effectiveness of cross-cultural training is still doubted by some scholars. An integrative literature review that concerns the effectiveness of cross-cultural training methods is presented. This literature review emphasized on identifying which cross-cultural training focus (affective, behavioural or cognitive) is considered to be the most effective. Moreover, the development of cultural training, the dimensions of cross-cultural training and the assessment of its effectiveness were discussed in order to find an answer. No study has been able to determine which cross-cultural training method is the most effective, but the literature clearly points out that behavioural-and affective focused training methods are in general more effective than cognitive-focused training.

Author: Sam Sarpong

Student number: 10642161

Supervisor: dr.N.A. Ghazaleh

Date: 3-6-2016

2

Statement of Originality

This document is written by Student Sam Sarpong who declares to take full responsibility for the contents of this document.

I declare that the text and the work presented in this document is original and that no sources other than those mentioned in the text and its references have been used in creating it.

The Faculty of Economics and Business is responsible solely for the supervision of completion of the work, not for the contents.

Index

1.1 Problem definition & relevance... 5

1.2 Objective ... 7 1.3 Research Question ... 7 1.3.1 Sub-questions ... 7 2. Theoretical Framework ... 8 2.1 Cross-cultural training ... 8 2.2 Intercultural competence ... 9 2.4 Effectiveness ... 10

2.5 Expatriate & international assignments ... 11

3. Methodology... 11

4. The development of cross-cultural training ... 12

4.1 The birth of cross-cultural training - cognitive focus (50-60s) ... 12

4.1.1 Cognitive aspects ... 12

4.2 Behavioural & affective aspects (‘70s) ... 13

4.2.1 Cultural-assimilators ... 13

3

4.3.1 Models ... 14

4.3.2 Theoretical frameworks ... 14

4.3.3 Towards culture-general assimilators ... 15

4.4. Evaluating cross-cultural training ... 16

4.4.1 Social Learning Theory ... 16

4.4.2 Sequential model ... 17

4.4.3 Recent trends ... 18

5. Dimensions of cross-cultural training ... 19

5.1 Timing of training ... 20 5.1.1 Pre-departure training ... 20 5.1.2. Post-arrival training ... 20 5.1.3. Sequential training ... 20 5.2 Scope of training ... 21 5.2.1 Culture-general ... 21 5.2.2 Culture-specific ... 21 5.3 Cognitive-focused training ... 21 5.3.1 Practical information ... 21 5.3.2 Area studies ... 22 5.3.3 Didactic training ... 22 5.3.4 Language training ... 22 5.4 Behavioural-focused training ... 23

5.4.1 Behaviour modification training ... 23

5.4.2 Experiential training ... 23

5.4.3 Interaction training ... 24

5.5 Affective-focused training ... 24

5.5.1 Cultural awareness training ... 24

5.5.2 Attribution training ... 25

5.5.3 Realistic Orientation Programs for Employee Stress ... 25

6. Assessment of cross-cultural training ... 26

6.1 Expatriate success ... 26

6.2 Expatriate failure ... 28

6.3 Assessment of cross-cultural training effectiveness ... 29

6.3.1 Aspects of assessment ... 29

6.3.2 Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity ... 30

6.3.3 Intercultural development inventory ... 32

7. Discussion ... 34

4

7.2 Future Research ... 35

8. Conclusion ... 36

9. References ... 37

10. Appendix ... 40

Appendix A – Location of Company headquarters ... 40

List of figures

Figure 1 – Conceptual model

Figure 2 – Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity

List of tables

Table 1 – Dimensions of cross-cultural training

Table 2 – Overview of expatriate failure rates

List of abbreviations

DMIS – Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity

IDI – Intercultural Development Inventory

ROPES – Realistic Orientation Programs for Employee Stress

5

1. Introduction

Due to globalization, technological developments and (transnational) migration, the possibilities for communicating with people from different cultures have reached unprecedented heights. Work places have become more multicultural and companies are sending employees to work in foreign countries more often (Littrell, Salas, Hess, Paley & Riedel, 2006). As organisations become more globalised, there is an increasing need to send employees abroad on international assignments to complete essential tasks (Chew, 2004). Due to these trends, cross-cultural training was developed to prepare the work force for adapting to a foreign culture (Black & Mendenhall, 1990). The main objective of cross-cultural training is to enable people to learn information and skills related to the host country, which will lead to effective cross-cultural interactions (Black & Mendenhall, 1990). Cross-cultural training has been an object of research since the 60s (Littrell et al., 2006). Since the 90s, research on expatriate employment began to flourish because there was an upward trend in the number of companies that sent employees abroad to work on international assignments. However, the failure rate on the assignments was high, which often resulted in high costs for companies. (Littrell et al., 2006).

1.1 Problem definition & relevance

Cross-cultural training initially seemed promising. In practice, however, expatriate exchanges with foreign cultures are not always successful (Kealey & Protheroe, 1996; Black & Mendenhall, 1990). Companies are often blamed for providing insufficient or even no cross-cultural training, which increases the chance of an expatriate failing abroad (Waxin & Panaccio, 2005). The consequences of the failure of an expatriate abroad are lower performance rates, premature returns and high costs for companies (Harzing & Christensen, 2004). In recent years, there seems to be a growing interest in finding out why the failure rate of expatriates abroad is so high, even when they were prepared by a cross-cultural training program. Due to this problem, literature reviews (e.g., Kealey & Protheroe, 1996; Littrell et al., 2006; Bhawuk & Brislin) attempted to assess the effectiveness of cross-cultural training. These reviews stated that investigating the effectiveness of cross-cultural training is still necessary because few advances have been made and multiculturalism in work places is still growing. The lack of advances is mainly caused by controversies concerning cross-cultural training.

6 For example, there is an ongoing debate about when cross-cultural training should be delivered to an expatriate. Proponents of pre-departure training state that training given before expatriates depart provides them with more realistic expectations about the host country (Waxin & Panaccio, 2005; Caligiuri et al., 2001; Forster, 2000). In contrast, other researchers state that post-arrival training is more effective because it addresses real-life issues (Sanchez, Spector & Cooper, 2000; Bennett et al., 2000).

Even though many theoretical studies have led to various frameworks and models, the empirical studies based on these theories have been questioned (Littrell, et al., 2006).

Moreover, meta-analyses conducted by Morris & Robbie (2001) and Black & Mendenhall (1990) showed that the effectiveness of cross-cultural training can vary widely. They claimed that this variability is caused by the chosen moderator variables; according to them there are more moderating variables that could have an impact on the relationship between cross-cultural training and successful performance and adjustment. However, they emphasized that the number of moderating variables chosen for research is limited due to the difficulty of converting data from studies to effect sizes or because too few empirical studies provide information on these moderator variables (Black & Mendenhall, 1990; Morris & Robbie, 2001). In addition, measures of expatriate performance are inconsistent, partially because no consensus has been reached about a unifying theoretical framework that is applicable to cross-cultural training research (Littrell et al., 2006; Black & Mendenhall, 1990).

Another problem is that research on cross-cultural training still largely approaches intercultural perspectives and experiences from a western perspective (Nam, Cho, Lee, 2014).

7 1.2 Objective

Based on what was discussed in the previous paragraph, one can state that empirical research still lacks evidence concerning the effectiveness of cross-cultural training (Littrell et al., 2006). The main cause of this lack seems to be the variability in perceptions of cross-cultural training. A possible reason for the variability in perceptions of cultural training is that cross-cultural training programs have so far not been sufficiently discussed in detail (Puck et al., 2008). Furthermore, various studies suggest that well-organized cross-cultural training programs are more likely to be effective (Black & Mendenhall, 1990; Deshpande & Viswevaran, 1992; Littrell et al., 2006). So what is missing in existing research is an in-depth study on the effectiveness of cross-cultural training methods.

Therefore, this study endeavours to elaborate on:

 The development of cultural training, which, will show the dimensions of cross-cultural training and why these were developed.

 The training methods, which will lead to a better understanding of which specific types of cross-cultural training are effective.

 The dimensions of cross-cultural training. There are many dimensions of cross-cultural training. However, previous research has not attempted to combine these dimensions and assess cross-cultural training based on its underlying focus (affective, behavioural and cognitive).

 The assessment of cross-cultural training effectiveness, which will lead to more insights that will help identify the most effective cross-cultural training methods.

1.3 Research Question

Which cross-cultural training focus(es) (cognitive, affective or behavioural) are the most effective for improving an expatriate’s performance on an international assignment?

1.3.1 Sub-questions

 How has research on cross-cultural training developed over the past decades?  What are the dimensions of cross-cultural training?

8 The main body of this study is organized into seven chapters. First, the theoretical framework and the methodology will be presented. Then, the development and dimensions of cross-cultural training, as well as how the effectiveness of cross-cultural training is assessed will be elaborated. The final chapters of this study consist of the discussion and conclusion.

2. Theoretical Framework

Figure 1 - Conceptual Model

2.1 Cross-cultural training

The first book on cross-cultural training referred to cross-cultural training as cross-cultural or intercultural orientation programs (Bhawuk et al., 2000). Orientation refers to acquainting (others) with the situation or environment (Bennett, 1986, citing Batchelder, 1978, p.4.). This book generally emphasized survival information, academic content areas and so-called cultural cookbooks of do’s and don’ts. In other words, the aim of cross-cultural orientation programs was to develop the required cognitive competencies.

The term evolved into cross-cultural training when researchers included practicing and introducing culturally appropriate behaviour. Numerous authors defined cross-cultural training as an educational process (e.g. Littrell et al., 2006; Morris & Robie, 2001).

As stated earlier, a cognitive training method is based on sharing information about a foreign culture. The affective method teaches an individual how to deal with cultural incidents. The behavioural method strives to improve an individual’s ability to change communication

9 styles and it teaches how to build positive relationships with members of a different culture. These competencies are essential for successful interactions in diverse cultures (Bennett, 1986).

In short, the main goal of cross-cultural training is to develop sufficient cognitive, affective and behavioural competencies. The total set of these competencies is known as intercultural competence, which will be discussed in the next section.

2.2 Intercultural competence

Intercultural competence encompasses a wide variety of terms; each discipline has its own term and places it in a different context (Bennett, 2013). Some examples are ‘’intercultural sensitivity, cross-cultural effectiveness, cross-cultural adaptation and intercultural skills’’. Due to the vast array of terms, this study will use the definition given in the SAGE Encyclopaedia of Intercultural Competence (2013), because it gives an encompassing definition based on numerous other definitions. Intercultural competence is the capability to shift one’s cultural perspective ‘aside’ to adapt one’s behaviour to cultural differences and commonalities (Bennett, 2013, p.483). It consists of two main components: (1) the cultivation of deep cultural self-awareness and understanding (how one’s beliefs, values, perceptions, interpretations, judgements and behaviours are influenced by one’s cultural community or communities) and (2) increased cultural understanding of others (i.e. understanding the various ways people from other cultural groups make sense of and respond to the presence of cultural differences). Mastering these components leads to a successful interaction of an expatriate with individuals from a foreign culture (Bennett, 2013).These two components are related to what Bennett (2004) defined as ethnocentrism and ethnorelativism. Ethnocentrism can be seen as a way to avoid cultural differences, either by denying their existence, raising defences against them or minimizing their importance. In contrast, ethnorelativism ‘seeks’ cultural differences through accepting their importance, taking into account an adaptive perspective or integrating the entire concept into a definition of identity (Bennett, 2004).

Bennett’s model has been influential for cross-cultural research since it was published (Deardorff, 2009). The importance of intercultural competence was already widely acknowledged prior to the development of the Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (DMIS). The DMIS provided a theoretical framework that identified and conceptualized the stages of intercultural competence (Hammer, Bennett & Wiseman, 2003). This model is often used by cross-cultural teachers to identify the different needs of each trainee and it provides particularly useful grounding for the intentional balancing of optimal learning (Deardorff 2009,

10 citing J.M. Bennett, 2008, p.24). Besides that, it was used as a conceptual guide for developing the Intercultural Development Inventory, which is nowadays widely used in practice for assessing the intercultural competence of employees (Intercultural Development Inventory, 2016). This assessment model will be discussed in section 6.3.2.

2.3 Cross-cultural training methods

The following training methods were found in the literature (Kealey & Protheroe, 1996; Kealey, Protheroe, Macdonald & Vulpe, 2005; Littrell & Salas, 2005; Ko & Yang, 2011 citing Ashamalla, 1998; Bhawuk & Brislin, 2000; Bennett, 1986; Morris & Robbie, 2001; Wanous & Reichers, 2001; Fan & Wanous, 2008; Mendenhall, Dunbar & Oddou, 1987).

 Area studies

 Attribution training

 Behaviour modification training

 Cultural awareness training

 Didactic training

 Experiential training

 Interaction training

 Language training

 Practical information

 Realistic Orientation Programs for Employee Stress (ROPES)

Each training method will be analysed extensively. Subsequently, the training methods will be categorized based on their focus: affective, behavioural or cognitive. Based on this division the focus of cross-cultural training methods and how this focus has shifted over the years can be identified.

2.4 Effectiveness

Defining the effectiveness of cross-cultural training is a complex process. Not only content of the cross-cultural training programs is important, but also the teachers and the motivation of the trainees which receives the cross-cultural training are factors which play a role (Black & Mendenhall, 1990; Kealey & Protheroe, 1996).

11 The effectiveness of cross-cultural training is commonly defined as the extent to which an expatriate succeeded or failed in executing an assignment. Completing a foreign assignment, the degree of cultural adjustment and an expatriate’s job performance are common criteria that define success (Caligiuri, 1997; Kealey et al., 2005). Premature return, low performance or adjustment problems are mostly considered as an expatriate failure (Harzing, 2004). This study will use this definition of effectiveness.

So who are the employees who are sent abroad and why are they sent abroad? The following section briefly discusses these questions.

2.5 Expatriate & international assignments

In this study, cross-cultural training for employees will be examined. Moreover, expatriates are usually defined as people who are sent to work in a foreign country for a period of at least 6-12 months (Littrell et al., 2006). Trainees will be referred to as expatriates.

So why do companies find it necessary to send expatriates to work in a foreign country? Expatriates are sent abroad to fulfil certain organizational goals. It is possible that there are no natives available in the host country which have the required technical competences. Therefore, it is necessary to transfer an expatriate who has these competencies which are needed in order to execute the international assignment (Wang, 2011, citing Laabs, 1991; Harzing & Reiche, 2011; Chew, 2004).

3. Methodology

In order to answer the research questions, this study used the integrative literature review method. An integrative literature review emphasizes a certain topic, in this case cross-cultural training, and a methodology clearly outlining topics to be included. The main ideas and themes from the literature were analysed by critically analysing competing perspectives (Torraco, 2005).

The main body of literature used to answer the research questions included literature reviews and, qualitative and quantitative articles. In addition to this, the SAGE Handbook of Intercultural competence (2009) and the SAGE Encyclopaedia of Intercultural Competence (2013) were used. Books and articles were found and retrieved from electronic databases, mostly via the scientific search engines ‘Google Scholar’ and ‘Web of Science’. No specific timeline was set because the emphasis was on searching for sources with the highest amount of citations. The criterion was a minimum of a hundred citations. The reason therefore is that a

12 high number of citations ensures the relevance and quality of a source. Through reading these journals, some major authors and key findings were identified. The majority of these articles were published during or after the 90s, with some exceptions of articles which were published before the 90s. The main keywords used for searching relevant articles were ‘cross-cultural training’, ‘cultural training effectiveness’, ‘cultural training approach’, cross-cultural training methods’, ‘intercross-cultural competence’ , ‘intercross-cultural competence training’, ‘expatriate’, ‘timing of cross-cultural training’, ‘expatriate adjustment and performance’ and ‘non-western expatriate’.

4. The development of cross-cultural training

This chapter gives a historical overview of the scientific views and topics that have dominated the field of cross-cultural training research. To be precise, its main concepts and relationships as well as the patterns between these concepts will be presented and discussed. In addition to this, theoretical frameworks that emerged will be included because these frameworks attempted to explain how and why cross-cultural training positively contributes to the preparation of an expatriate for a foreign assignment.

After this, it will be clear where the field currently stands and why the cognitive, affective and behavioural-focused training methods were designed.

4.1 The birth of cross-cultural training - cognitive focus (50-60s)

In the early years of cross-cultural training, various key problems were noticed that arose due to cross-cultural interactions with people living in a foreign country. Oberg (1954), one of the pioneers of cross-cultural training, noticed that many expatriates faced similar personal (physical or psychological) problems, such as depression, headaches and diarrhoea. The underlying cause of their illness is the anxiety that results from losing familiar signs and symbols of social intercourse. He defined this phenomenon as culture shock (Bhawuk & Brislin, 2000). The concept of culture shock showed the necessity for preparing expatriate’s through the means of cross-cultural training (Bhawuk & Brislin, 2000).

4.1.1 Cognitive aspects

Hall (1959, 1966) was one of the first researchers who largely influenced the development of cross-cultural training programs. His programs were based on knowing culture specific

13 behaviours. Moreover, he stated that any aspect of culture should be studied on three levels; formal, informal and technical aspects. Formal aspects are the set of boundaries that define what appropriate and in-appropriate behaviour is. In contrast, informal aspects are more flexible; they do not contain a set of boundaries and are learnt by copying the behaviours of other adults. This includes the set of (unwritten) rules each culture has in terms of privacy, face-to-face communication, eye contact and other related behaviours.

Technical aspects are passed on from teacher to student; this way of learning dominated in this period and was referred to as the lecture method (Bhawuk & Brislin, 2000).

In short, the emphasis was on developing enough cultural specific knowledge, and learning how to react affective and behavioural encounters through cognitive learning. This perspective of cross-cultural training changed in the 70s.

4.2 Behavioural & affective aspects (‘70s)

A study that evaluated training methods, conducted by Harrison & Hopkins (1967), concluded that cognitive-focused training programs were not very effective (Bhawuk & Brislin, 2000, p.168). Rather, behavioural and affective-focused training methods were seen as better ways to prepare expatriates. Several arguments given for their conclusion are, first of all, that behavioural-focused training require active learning whereas cognitive-focused training require passive learning. Second, it is a problem solving type of learning which includes emotional learning whereas cognitive learning excludes that. Third, cognitive training is mainly focused on written communication, whereas encounters in foreign countries strongly require verbal communication skills. The findings of this study triggered an increase in research on behavioural and affective focused training methods. It also led to the development of new training methods with a similar focus (Bhawuk & Brislin, p.168).

4.2.1 Cultural-assimilators

The studies that followed thereafter mainly led to the development and improvement of training approaches that reconstruct culture-specific scenarios for the expatriates. This approach was named cultural assimilator training. These scenarios are mostly situations in which an expatriate encounters a misunderstanding with a person from the host country. The expatriate is then given a few alternatives which depict behavioural choices (Kealey & Protheroe, 1996; Bhawuk & Brislin, 2000).

14 In this period, the developed training methods became more popular in practice. U.S. agencies, such as the army, used these training methods more often and what was learned from these programmes was compiled in technical reports. These technical reports contributed to the further development of cross-cultural training programs, which in turn also led to the first book on cross-cultural training programs (Bhawuk & Brislin, 2000).

4.3 Expatriate adjustment

The development in the 80s is more or less similar to what begun in the 70s. The main difference was that the focus of research shifted towards issues regarding the adjustment of expatriates (Schaffer, Ferzandi, Harrison, Gregsen & Black, 2006). Various authors tried to conceptualize and integrate findings by developing models and theoretical frameworks which were presented in books, articles and encyclopaedias. These trends led to the further development of cross-cultural training methods (Bhawuk & Brislin, 2000).

4.3.1 Models

Some well-known and widely accepted models concerning cross-cultural training are Bennett’s framework for reviewing models and the Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (see Subsection 6.3.2). Bennett (1986) noticed that there were some controversies concerning the goals, content and process of cultural training. After reviewing the literature on cross-cultural training she identified a certain pattern which she translated into a framework. This framework maps different training methods based on their goals (cognitive, affective and behavioural).

4.3.2 Theoretical frameworks

The new perspective of cross-cultural training led to the development of theoretical frameworks that attempt to explain why cross-cultural training should be successful in helping an expatriate adjust to the new culture. One of these frameworks is the culture shock theory. The existence of this phenomena was already known, but now it also presented phases that depict what each expatriate experiences over time. Culture shock is defined as a normal process of transition, adaption and adjustment (Littrell et al., 2006, citing Befus, 1998 & Church, 1982). Every individual who enters a foreign culture experiences cultural stress, which includes anxiety, confusion, disruption, helplessness and irritability. Due to this theory, cross-cultural training methods that aim at minimizing the effect of culture shock were devised (Bhawuk & Brislin,

15 2000). An example of such a training method is the Realistic Orientation Program for Entry Stress. This method will be discussed in Subsection 5.5.3.

However, there were also other authors who saw an expatriates’ adjustment as a function of time. The U-curve of adjustment theory was another important theoretical framework that was devised (Littrell et al., 2006; Deardorff, 2009). This theoretical framework describes an expatriate’s adjustment as a function of time. The first stage of an assignment is characterized by an expatriate who is optimistic and elated to be in a new environment. As the assignment progresses the expatriate suffers more from stress and other psychological factors. Finally, the expatriate recovers gradually and eventually becomes completely adjusted to the foreign environment (Deardorff, 2009; Littrell et al., 2006).

Subsequent research (e.g., Black & Mendenhall, 1991) argued that this framework does not explain how and why individuals move from one stage to the next. It also does not explain why a certain amount of time has to pass by before the full impact of culture shock is felt (Black & Mendenhall, 1991). Despite this critique, the U-curve of adjustment theory showed that an expatriate has different experiences at different times (Littrell et al., 2006). For this reason, the type of cross-cultural training given should take into account the period and phase of adjustment an expatriate is encountering.

4.3.3 Towards culture-general assimilators

Another topic that dominated in this period was the development of culture general assimilators. These prepare expatriates for differences across cultures and cover topics such as the roles of men and women, working attitudes, values and use of time and personal space. Moreover, culture-general assimilators allow expatriates to know more about themselves, which in turn will prepare them for interactions in any different culture. Numerous empirical studies supported the effectiveness of culture-general assimilators (Bhawuk & Brislin citing Broaddus, 1986; Bonner, 1987; Cushner, 1989; McIlveen-Yarbo, 1988).

A study conducted by Cushner (1989) examined whether culture-general assimilators would benefit the adjustment process of expatriates. The results showed that the group that received culture-general assimilator training was better at identifying and explaining cultural misunderstandings. Besides that, this group was more likely to take the initiative in tackling intercultural problems (Bhawuk & Brislin, 2000).

In addition, other studies (e.g., Hammer, Gudykunst and Hammer, 1978; Abe & Wiseman, 1983) also emphasize that dealing with psychological stress, pressure to conform,

16 communicating effectively and developing relationships are important factors which determine how the adjustment process of an expatriate will proceed (Gudykunst & Hammer, 1984).

4.4. Evaluating cross-cultural training

As stated earlier, due to the increased globalization of the economy in the 90s, research on cross-cultural training became more important. However, there was still no consensus about which training methods were truly effective. Numerous studies (e.g., Forster, 1997; Black & Mendenhall, 1990; Wang, 2011) also showed that many expatriates fail to accomplish their assignment abroad (see Section 6.2, Table 2). Furthermore, it also became clear that the failure of an expatriate abroad incurs high costs for companies. Due to these factors, the performance of an expatriate became a central topic in research (Bhawuk & Brislin, 2000; Chew 2004, Caligiuri, 1997).

To be precise, the focus between then and the present was on the evaluation of cross-cultural training programs (Deardorff, 2009). Various methods such as conducting meta-analyses, building theoretical frameworks, building theoretically meaningful models and setting criteria for evaluating training programs, were used to assess the effectiveness of these training programs. The measurement models that were developed at that time were based on more elaborate conceptual models that emphasized relevant contextual and personal aspects (Bhawuk & Brislin, 2000; Deardorff, 2009). The following subsections discuss two well-known theoretical frameworks.

4.4.1 Social Learning Theory

One of the best known theoretical frameworks was presented by Black & Mendenhall (1990). They argued that the lack of evidence for the effectiveness of cross-cultural training was caused due to the lack of an adequate theoretical framework. They tried to synthesize findings from the ongoing debate about the effectiveness of cognitive and behavioural training. They proposed the Social Learning Theory (SLT) as a theoretical framework to explain the effectiveness of cross-cultural training. SLT is based on two components: learning through observations and through experience. It consists of the following four central elements:

Attention: In order to learn appropriate and inappropriate behaviour of a different culture, an individual must notice the behaviour.

17

Retention: Refers to the moment in which an individual memorizes a certain behaviour learned through images or verbally.

Reproduction: This refers to applying the memorized behaviour in encounters in a foreign country.

Incentives and motivational processes: Behaviour is largely influenced by incentives. Motivational processes refer to self-efficacy and believing that certain behaviours will lead to a desired outcome (Black & Mendenhall, 1990).

4.4.2 Sequential model

This model views cultural adaption as a process and not as a one-time event. The sequential model of adjustment consists of four phases:

Ethnocentric: According to this framework, this is the first phase which an individual in a foreign country experiences. An individual in this phase is characterized by avoiding cultural differences by denying their existence, raising defences against them or by minimizing their importance. Thus, the expatriate in this phase has an idiosyncratic worldview.

Culture shock: As time passes, the frame of reference (the expatriate’s home culture) is confused with cultural elements of the host country. Consequently, an expatriate becomes confused and that usually results in a phase of culture shock.

Conformist: The expatriate eventually becomes used to the new elements from the host culture. He or she develops a flexible orientation; home-country elements are less dominant than those from the host country.

Culturally adjusted: The expatriate’s interpretations and behaviours become more adjusted towards the foreign culture, which eventually results in a successful adjustment of the expatriate (Selmer, Torbiorn & Leon, 1998; Littrell, 2006).

Proponents of this model state that the impact of cross-cultural training differs per stage due to the different psychological reactions of an expatriate in each stage. Consequently, a specific type of cross-cultural training should be given in each stage.

18

4.4.3 Recent trends

In the twenty-first century, researchers criticized existing models and assessment tools because they were developed from a western perspective. The cross-cultural generalizability was thus doubted (Deardorff, 2009). One of the main arguments given is that these assessments are translated into multiple languages and they are used in non-western contexts to assess local candidates (Nam et al., 2014). This short-coming influences the accuracy of the assessment. For example, questionnaires that regard people evaluating themselves is considered as a positive quality in the U.S. but is often valued negatively in Asian countries (Nam et al., 2014). Consequently, many non-western respondents criticize the instrument items and question the assessment results.

Perhaps this new viewpoint arose due to the economic emergence of numerous Asian countries, which led to sending expatriates to non-Asian countries (Nam et al., 2014, citing Khanna, Song, & Lee, 2011; Yeung, Warner, & Rowley, 2008). The Brookfield Global Mobility Trends Surveys (2010, 2012 & 2014) also provide a possible indication of the rise of non-western countries. Since 1999, they have been asking 159 respondents (companies), with facilities located worldwide, to identify the location of their headquarters. The results showed that the number of headquarters in Europe, the Middle-East, Africa and the Asian-Pacific Region rapidly grew in the period of 1999-2013 (see Appendix A). By contrast, the amount of headquarters in the Americas has diminished from 92% in 1999 to 47% in 2013 (Global Mobility Trends Survey, 2014, p.8).

In summary, the early years of cross-cultural research mainly focused on culture-specific cognitive aspects of training. This perspective shifted towards a focus on behavioural and affective training methods. Thereafter, research focused on topics concerning expatriates’ adjustment. Finally, from the 90s until the present, the emphasis has been on evaluating the effectiveness of cross-cultural training methods. In the twenty-first century, research criticized existing models because their only based on western cultural values. The western perspective limits the accuracy of these models when it is applied to non-western individuals. Moreover, it is still not clear how non-western companies train their expatriates to work abroad. In addition, it is also not clear what cultural issues needs to be addressed for non-western companies (Nam et al., 2014).

19

5. Dimensions of cross-cultural training

This chapter will elaborate on the cross-cultural training dimensions that were partially discussed in the previous chapter. As stated in Chapter 4, many studies have defined various dimensions of cross-cultural training by integrating various skills and approaches. What these studies have in common is that they present the attitudes, skills and knowledge of an expatriate as key components of intercultural competence (Deardorff, 2009; Bennett, 2000). These competencies are reflected in the training methods, which can be categorized based on their underlying focuses: affective-focused training (attitudes), behavioural-focused training (skills) and cognitive-focused training (knowledge). In addition, various theories also identified the timing and scope of cross-cultural training as important factors. Table 1 gives an overview of these dimensions.

Training method

Focus Scope Timing Length

Practical information

Cognitive Culture-general Pre-departure < 1 week

Area studies Cognitive

Culture- general/culture- specific Pre-departure < 1 week

Didactic training Cognitive Culture-general/ culture-specific Pre-departure and/or post arrival < 1 week Language training

Cognitive Culture-specific Sequential < 1 week – 1-2 months+ Behaviour modification training Behaviour Culture general/culture-specific Pre-departure/and or post-arrival 1-2 months Attribution training

Behaviour Culture-specific Pre-departure 1-4 weeks

Experiential training Behaviour Culture-general and culture- specific Sequential 1-2 months+ Interaction training

Behaviour Culture-specific Post-arrival -

Culture awareness

training

Affective Culture-specific Pre-departure 1-4 weeks

R.O.P.E.S Affective Culture specific Pre-departure 1-4 weeks

20 5.1 Timing of training

5.1.1 Pre-departure training

Cross-cultural training is mostly given before an expatriates departs for the host country (Littrell & Salas, 2005). Pre-departure training consists of training approaches which are based on developing self-awareness, a positive orientation regarding different cultures, appropriate behaviour responses and essential skills (Puck, Kittler & Wright, 2008). Proponents of pre-departure training stated that this approach is useful because it helps an expatriate create realistic expectations of the host culture (Waxin & Panaccio, 2005; Selmer, 2005; Caligiuri et al., 2001 & Forster, 2000).

5.1.2. Post-arrival training

In contrary, there are also many researchers which argue that post-arrival training is more effective. Post-arrival training gives expatriates the opportunity to evaluate their stressors after encountering them (Sanchez, Spector & Cooper, 2000). This is also its main advantage; it can address real-time issues (Bennett et al., 2000). Post-arrival training usually starts 3-6 months after arrival (Sanchez et al., 2000).

5.1.3. Sequential training

Since there was no consensus on whether training should be given before departure or after arrival, an alternative was proposed that combines the advantages of both types of training. As stated in Subsection 4.4.2, this was presented as the sequential model. This model led to the development of sequential training. This training approach is based on giving cognitive-focused training in the pre-departure phase, because that prepares an expatriate for culture shock and for the changes in their frame of reference. Behavioural and affective focused training should be given after arriving in the host culture because it would lower an expatriate’s ethnocentrism and it would teach them how to deal with encounters of cross-cultural real life issues (Selmer, Torbiorn & Leon, 1998; Littrell, 2006)

21 5.2 Scope of training

Cross-cultural training can also be categorised based on its scope. This section will briefly elaborate on both orientations.

5.2.1 Culture-general

Culture-general training aims to increase an expatriate’s understanding of the concept of culture which is applicable in any cultural environment (Johnson & Lenartowicz, 2006). Moreover, it provides expatriates with self-awareness and competencies that can be applied in various cross-cultural situations (Gertsen, 1990). It also aims to increase an expatriates’ understanding that culture influences behaviour (Graf, 2004). For example, expatriates are made more aware of their own cultural background and the ways in which it affects their feelings, thoughts and attitudes.

5.2.2 Culture-specific

Culture-specific training teaches participants about numerous aspects of the culture in question. This type of training includes general information about a certain country in terms of geography, economics, laws and, appropriate and inappropriate behaviour. Besides that, it includes role games, simulations and other experiential exercises which enhance the intercultural competence of an expatriate (Gertsen, 1990).

5.3 Cognitive-focused training

As explained in the previous chapter (Section 4.2.), a cognitive-focused training method corresponds to the passive learning of information or skills. It is usually provided in the form of lectures, conferences or non-participative sessions.

5.3.1 Practical information

The provision of practical information was the original focus of cross-cultural training programs and it is still one of the most popular forms of cross-cultural training. It is usually part of a pre-departure training. The content of this method mainly consists of providing information about living conditions, job realities and travel arrangements. This is mostly done in the form of

22 meetings with recently returned expatriates or host nationals and through country reports. Expatiates are often sent abroad for short-term assignments. By providing practical information, the adjustment period of most expatriates is shortened (Kealey & Protheroe, 1996).

5.3.2 Area studies

Area studies consists of all training programs that educate expatriates about the history, culture, social structure, economy and political behaviour of the host country. In addition, it also considers the strategic goals of the sending and receiving companies. This type of training is provided through audio-visuals, reading materials and lectures. Area studies are essential because an expatriate is also influenced by the political and social environment of the host country (Kealey, Protheroe, Macdonald & Vulpe, 2005). It also helps an expatriate in building a good relationship with host country colleagues, since such information enhances adaption to the new work environment. Moreover, the expatriate will recognize and understand basic cultural traditions, which will give the expatriate a better understanding of what forms of behaviour are likely to be encountered (Kealey & Protheroe, 1996).

Thus, area studies are a culture-specific type of training given before an expatriate departs.

5.3.3 Didactic training

Didactic training is nearly identical to the area studies training method. It emphasizes on providing factual information regarding working conditions, living conditions and cultural differences. In contrast to area studies, didactic training mainly encompasses practical issues such as job characteristics, shopping and appropriate dress requirements for work (Littrell & Salas, 2005). This training method has a more culture-specific focus and is also given before an expatriate departs.

5.3.4 Language training

Language training is essential because knowing the language of the host culture prevents potential misunderstandings and misinterpretations (Ko & Yang, 2011 citing Ashamalla, 1998) Mastering a foreign language also leads to an easier adjustment for an expatriate, partially because it causes more positive expectations. Empirical research has shown that expatriates

23 tend to create stereotypes based on language similarity before departing. Expatriates who spoke the language of the host country expected to adapt more easily. In contrast, expatriates who did not speak the language were more likely to expect a more difficult time on the assignment. This negative expectations, in turn, affects the adjustment process of expatriates (Caligiuri, Phillips, Lazarova, Tarique & Burgi, 2001). Language training is given prior to the expatriate’s departure and usually also continues in the host country.

5.4 Behavioural-focused training

Behavioural-focused training methods consist of experiential techniques that provide realistic simulations or scenarios. This types of training are practice-oriented and mainly focused on teaching the trainee how to handle in specific situations.

5.4.1 Behaviour modification training

Behaviour modification training is based on the Social Learning Theory. This type of training shows typical behaviours of which an expatriate normally is not aware of. Proponents of this training method state that the only way to learn these behaviours is by observing a specific behaviour and then practising the behaviour many times. Studies have shown that people who received behaviour modification training combined with culture-specific assimilator training were better in learning and performed better in role-play tasks compared to people which received other types of training or no training. Even though this type of training is proven to be effective, it is barely utilized in practice due to two reasons. First of all, it is expensive. Secondly, it is a very intensive training method which requires a trainer to constantly work with a trainee on each specific behaviour at a time (Bhawuk & Brislin, 2000).

5.4.2 Experiential training

Experiential training educates expatriates by letting them participate in activities that they are likely to encounter during their assignment abroad (Littrell & Salas, 2005). This type of training is provided by combining cognitive and behavioural techniques. It is typically provided in the form of simulations of real-life scenarios. The goal is to obtain intercultural effectiveness skills, which enhance work performance overseas. These skills include stress management, relationship-building, cross-cultural communication and negotiation techniques. Moreover,

24 these skills do not aim to transform a person’s personality. Instead, they aim to provide the expatriate with cross-cultural competency skills (Kealey & Protheroe, 1996).

5.4.3 Interaction training

Interaction training is a typical form of post-arrival training (Esbach, Parker & Stoeberl, 2001). In this type of training an expatriate is educated by an older expatriate. The older expatriate provides the new expatriate with culture-specific practice-oriented training regarding business practices, introduces the new expatriate key people at work and within the community and shows demonstrates how to carry out daily-life tasks (Littrell et al., 2006).

5.5 Affective-focused training

Affective-focused training is based on educating an expatriatethrough techniques which evoke affective responses by the trainee. For example, expatriates might become angry or uncomfortable because their beliefs are challenged (Ptak, Cooper & Brislin, 1995). This type of training teaches expatriates how to deal with their emotions. This in turn will ensure that they will get more cultural insights (Mendenhall, Dunbar & Oddou, 1987).

5.5.1 Cultural awareness training

Cultural awareness aims to teach an expatriate about his or her own culture by emphasizing on affective aspects (Bennett, 1986). This will help them appreciate the cultural differences between their own culture and the culture of the host country. More precisely, it helps expatriates to notice and to respond appropriately to culture-specific aspects by contrasting between their own culture and the encountered cultural aspects. The aim of this training method is to improve performance-enhancing interactive skills. Furthermore, it strives to create enough cultural knowledge and insight which helps to avoid offending the sensibilities of host nationals and to enhance the likelihood of fruitful collaboration.

The most popular technique that is used with this training method is practicing with cultural specific assimilators. It permits trainees to choose from various options which they might encounter in a host country. Subsequently, the choice of the expatriate is evaluated by an expert which will provide feedback by stating what the most appropriate behaviour is in the specific situation.

25 Cultural awareness training is provided through realistic role play games and simulations which require thoughtful considerations for solving a certain problem (Kealey & Protheroe, 1996).

5.5.2 Attribution training

Attribution training strives to provide the expatriates with competencies which allow them to identify situations and make attributions as if they were members of the host culture. This ability to analyse social situations from the perspective of a native is thought to be crucial for helping an expatriate adjust successfully (Morris & Robbie, 2001; Littrell et al., 2006). Affective training can be categorized among the affective-focused training methods because it raises affective responses by the expatriate (Esbach et al., 2001).

5.5.3 Realistic Orientation Programs for Employee Stress (ROPES)

The main objective of the ROPES is to train expatriates to improve their ability to cope with stress that occurs when they enter a new environment. It provides expatriates general support and reassurances because many expatriates fear that they will not be good enough to succeed at their assignment. This is done by teaching them various stress coping techniques. Expatriates are also provided with realistic information which lowers several pre-entry expectations so that it will be more in alignment with the post-arrival reality (Fan & Wanous, 2008).

Expatriates are trained on how they might feel in a specific situation compared to how an individual of the host country would feel in that situation. For example, it is insufficient to know that your first boss doesn’t tolerate any mistakes, expatriates should also know how they would feel when they make a mistake. Moreover, they should know how to cope with such situations by making plans, setting goals and taking action. Expatriates are also trained on their contextual job performance, because specific tasks differ among each other and often include these indirect task. Indirect tasks include:

 Informal job task such as helping voluntarily

 Putting in extra effort to finish a job

 Helping and cooperating with others

 Following organizational rules or procedures, even when it is not necessary (Wanous & Reichers, 2001).

As can be seen from this analysis, studies on cross-cultural training have mainly led to the development of training methods with a cognitive focus. The advantages of such training methods are that they are relatively easy to implement and execute, compared to the affective-

26 and behavioural-focused training methods. In addition, cognitive-focused training methods have a shorter training length and require less material which makes it less expensive. This are the reasons why many companies prefer giving only cognitive-focused training (Mendenhall et al., 1987; Deardorff, 2009)

According to Deardorff (2009), some aspects of cognitive-focused training are not essential for an expatriate to know. One of these aspects is information about the host country, which is provided through area studies. Such information is helpful in explaining cross-cultural fundamentals, but it does not contribute to preparing an expatriate to interact successfully with the locals of that country. It is thus nice to know rather than necessary to know.

6. Assessment of cross-cultural training

This chapter will first of all discuss how the success and failure of an expatriate’s assignment is commonly defined. Next, the aspects of assessment models, that were developed to measure the effectiveness of cross-cultural training, will be examined. The Intercultural Development Inventory (IDI) will be discussed as an example of an assessment instrument. Based on these findings, the most important criteria which are used to assess the effectiveness of cross-cultural training can be identified. This will hopefully provide more insights to help identifying which cross-cultural training focus is the most effective.

6.1 Expatriate success

The selection of an expatriate who is suitable to fulfil the assignment is a priority for most companies. A landmark study which was conducted by Tung (1981) identified several criteria which were commonly mentioned in literature on the selection of expatriates. Two of these criteria consists of essential competencies and skills that an expatriate is required to have:

Technical competence: This factor is seen as a crucial determinant of an expatriate’s success by many companies. When expatriates are working abroad, they cannot easily consult colleagues or managers at home on problems concerning the assignment. A survey conducted by International Orientation Resources found that 90% of all international companies base the selection of an expatriate on their technical competence (Wang, 2011, citing Laabs, 1991; Harzing & Reiche, 2011; Chew, 2004).

27

Relational skills: Another important factor which is mentioned in various studies is the ability of an expatriate to co-operate effectively with superiors, business associates and clients. Having affective competencies such as caring about colleagues, showing empathy and being emotional stable is considered to be essential in transferring knowledge (Wang 2011, citing Kealey 1989; Harzing & Reiche, 2011; Chew, 2004; Bennett, 2000).

Defining what can be considered a success is complicated. Each company determines what constitutes success based on its global strategies and how well international assignments fit into those strategies (Bennett, 2000). Nevertheless there are some criteria which most companies utilize. Caligiuri (1997) found that there are three criteria that are widely used. These criteria do not specifically distinguish between working for an office with relatively more expatriates or more host country nationals.

Completing the foreign assignment is the first and foremost criterion. Success is herein defined as staying in the host country until the scheduled end date. Another criterion is the extent to which an expatriate is cross-culturally adjusted to the encountered culture. This also focuses on the interpersonal relations between people with different cultural backgrounds in a project (Kealey et al., 2005). The amount of time an expatriate needs to cope with internal, psychological and emotional states gives an indication of the likeliness of successfully completing the assignments. As discussed earlier, the amount of time needed for adoption is partially determined by the extent to which an expatriate is willing to be open to the host culture. Besides this, an empirical study conducted by Waxin & Panaccio (2005) found that the degree of cultural distance between the country of origin and the host country also influences the effects of cross-cultural training. A bigger cultural distance makes it more difficult for an expatriate to adjust.

The third criterion is an expatriate’s job performance. Every international assignment consists of technical and contextual performance aspects. Technical performance refers to the aspect of work performance which are represented by tasks or duties that expatriates perform. In contrast, contextual performance refers to the jobs that are indirectly related to an expatriate obliged duties such as being a good team player or helping co-workers.

28 6.2 Expatriate failure

Numerous studies have provided estimates of expatriate failure rates. Some of these rates can be seen in Table 2. Failure rates vary widely per study and the accuracy of their measurement has often been questioned. Harzing (2011) has argued that these studies have no empirical foundation for these claims, because most studies that present these high failure rates are based on poor referencing to previous studies that are also based on more older and outdated studies. Even though expatriate failure rates might have been exaggerated, they are still a severe problem for companies, mainly due to the high costs they cause (Harzing, 2011). The costs for each failed assignment ranges from USD $40,000 to $1 million (Okopora & Kabongo, 2011, citing Hawley, 2009 & Vogel & van Vuuren, p.22; Black & Mendenhall, 1990). The inaccuracy of the average failure costs is caused mainly due to the indirect costs. The direct costs are salary, reallocation and training costs which are estimated to be around $80.000 (Harrison, Gregersen & Schaffer, 2006). Indirect costs, such as damage to customer relationships and contacts with host government officials, are often underestimated by companies and can be very high (Harzing, 2011).

Author Failure

rate

Country Forster (1997), citing Tung 1981 <5% European & Japanese

expatriates Okpora & Kabongo (2011) , citing Chew

2004

5-25% -

Forster (1997), citing Tung 1981 10%> American expatriates Black & Mendenhall, 1990 16-40% Mostly American expatriates

Harzing & Reiche, 2011 16-50% Developed countries Forster (1997), citing Buckley & Brooke 25-40% Developed countries McNulty &Tharenou, 2004 44% Asia-Pacific region

McNulty &Tharenou, 2004 63% Europe

Forster (1997), citing Buckley & Brooke ~70% Developing countries

Table 2 - Overview of expatriate failure rates

So, when is an expatriate’s assignment considered a failure? In recent literature a premature return, low performance rates and adjustment problems are the main indicators of an expatriate’s failure (Christensen & Harzing, 2004). The most common indicator mentioned in the literature is the premature return of an expatriate; which is defined as returning before the official end of a term abroad. However, some remarks can be placed on this ‘criterion’. Some

29 expatriates are sent abroad without clear goals concerning the duration of the assignment, either in terms of time or project goal. Organizational factors may also force an expatriate to return prematurely; an organization might recall the expatriate because it wants to focus on a different market or to use an expatriate’s skills in a different location. Furthermore, personal factors, such as an ill family member, may also affect the duration of an expatriate’s stay abroad (Caligiuri, 1997).

Suffering from adjustment problems is another frequently mentioned reason for an expatriate’s failure abroad. Adjustment problems are ascribed to an expatriate’s state. The decision whether to stay on the assignment is especially negatively influenced during an ethnocentric or culture shock phase (Caligiuri, 1997).

Based on the above-mentioned remarks, the most accurate way to assess premature return is by evaluating an expatriate’s decision state or attitude regarding whether to remain on the assignment (affective criterion). This is also reflected in the measurement models, which are often presented as self-report questionnaires. This topic will be discussed in the next section.

6.3 Assessment of cross-cultural training effectiveness

As stated in the theoretical framework, intercultural competence is the ability to communicate successfully and adapt one’s behaviour to the extent in which it is considered to be appropriate in a foreign culture. There is a vast array of instruments that were developed to measure the intercultural competence of an individual. Therefore, this section will first describe how cross-cultural training is assessed. Subsequently, it will elaborate on the Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (DMIS), which is considered to be very important for cross-cultural research. For example, this model led to the development of the Intercultural Development Inventory (IDI), which according to literature is one of the most popular assessment instruments for cross-cultural training. The IDI will be discussed as an example of an assessment instrument.

6.3.1 Aspects of assessment

As stated earlier, there are various tools (e.g., Intercultural Development Inventory, Intercultural Sensitivity Scale and the Behavioural Assessment Scale of Intercultural Communication Effectiveness) which measure the effectiveness of cross cultural training (Matsumoto & Hwang, 2013). In order to assess the effectiveness of cross-cultural training it is important to clearly define what one wants to measure with the concerning measurement

30 tools (Deardorff, 2009). More specifically, it is important to identify which areas of intercultural competence – attitudes (affective), skills (behavioural) or knowledge (cognitive) - are being addressed (Deardorff, 2009). Moreover, the Intercultural Communication Institute emphasizes that before selecting an assessment instrument it is essential to determine the goals that one wants to measure (e.g., pre-and post-measurement of training impact or the individual development) (Intercultural Communication Institute, 2016). It is also essential to consider questions about the quality and logistics of the instrument: Is it reliable? Are the items based on well-recognized theories and models? And is it effective for pre- and post-testing? (Intercultural Communication Institute, 2016).

Assessing intercultural competence can be executed by a variety of different techniques. An assessment instrument that combines multiple methods and perspectives provides the most accurate assessment of intercultural competence (Deardorff, 2009). More specifically, top intercultural experts stated that an instrument that uses quantitative and qualitative methods, such as interviews, analysis of narrative diaries, observations and judgements by self and others is considered to provide the most accurate assessment of intercultural competence (Deardorff, 2009, p.465).

However, assessment instruments are usually only based on self-reports which in turn is known to have some short-comings (Nam et al., 2014). For example, participants may not be able to respond accurately when asked to answer self-report surveys before departing. This inaccuracy is caused by the participants’ lack of experience with cross-cultural situations. This could affect the pre-training results that are used as a guideline to determine an individual’s points of improvement in intercultural competence. Despite these limitations, self-report surveys are still widely used due to the speed and ease of data collection and analysis (Sinicrope, Norris & Watanabe, 2014; Nam et al., 2014).

6.3.2 Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity

The Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (DMIS) was developed by dhr. Milton J. Bennett (2004). He wanted to explain why some individuals seemed to be better at communicating across cultural boundaries whereas other people didn’t seem to progress at all. Bennett argued that as people become more interculturally competent, their quality of experience improved. He made two types of distinctions regarding an individual’s experience, which are known as ethnocentrism and ethnorelativism. These two categories are each subdivided into three stages.

31 Figure 2 - The DMIS model

Ethnocentrism

Ethnocentrism can be seen as a way to avoid cultural differences, either by denying their existence, raising defences against them or by minimizing their importance. Ethnocentric individuals experience their own culture as central to reality in some way.

In the denial stage, people consider their culture to be the only real one; the beliefs, behaviours, norms and values of their culture are thus experienced as unquestionably real or true. People with a denial worldview are not interested in cultural differences. Individuals with this worldview often cannot make the distinctions that allow cultural facts to be recognized, for example: the inability to distinguish national culture. The main issue that needs to be solved at this stage the need to acknowledge the existence of other cultures.

In the defence stage, individuals tend to even see their culture, or an adopted culture, as superior and other cultures as inferior. People in dominant cultures may see/interpret this view as an attack on their values. Another characteristic is that they tend to negatively stereotype other cultures and positively stereotype their own culture.

In the minimization stage, aspects of a person’s own cultural worldview are considered to be universal. For instance, the person might have certain generalized belief, such as ‘everyone is a child of God’. People within this stage can partially differentiate cultural differences, but do not appreciate other cultures mainly because they are not capable to identify their own culture clearly. Moreover, these people tend to overestimate their own level of intercultural competence (Bennett, 2004).

Ethnorelativism

In the ethnorelativism stages people experience their culture in the context of other cultures. This can be done through accepting the importance of other cultures, taking into account an adapting perspective or through integrating the entire concept into a definition of identity (Bennett, 2004).

32 In the acceptance stage, people see their cultural worldview as one of the many others. People in this stage are able to construct a self-reflective perspective; people with different cultures are seen as different, but equally human (Bennett, 2004). They are able to construct culture-general categories that allows them to identify how cultural differences work in various human interactions. However, it is also possible that they have some behavioural or cognitive skills regarding another culture without knowing how to use those skills in culturally appropriate ways. These set of skills are only useful when they are combined with an acceptance or adaptation view (Bennett, 2004).

People in the adaptation stage can extend their own worldview by including relevant constructs of other cultural worldviews. Furthermore, people in this stage can, besides showing appropriate behaviour, also engage with others on an affective level; they can shift their frame of reference relative to other cultures.

The integration stage is characterized by individuals which are capable of ‘wearing’ different cultural worldviews. People in this stage are integrated to such an extent that they cannot identify a dominating cultural worldview. They live on the edge of cultures and others might even think they have a multicultural identity (Bennett, 2004).

The core idea of this model is that people’s potential competence in intercultural interactions increases when their experience of cultural differences becomes more sophisticated (Bennett, 2004; Bennett, 2013). The DMIS is seen as one of the most influential models for intercultural competence research and has formed the basis for the development of the most popular

measurement models.

6.3.3 Intercultural development inventory

The Intercultural Development Inventory (IDI) is based on the DMIS. It was designed to measure the orientations toward cultural differences as described in the DMIS. The most recent version of the IDI consists of a 50-item questionnaire which can be supplemented with six customized questions. The items are divided as follows: Denial/Defence (13 items), Reversal factor (9 items), Minimization (9-items), Acceptance/Adaption (14 items) and Integration (5 items) (Hammer, Bennett & Wiseman, 2003). The IDI includes questions that allow respondents to describe their cross-cultural experiences, their goals, challenges they faced when encountering cultural differences and the ways they handled those cultural differences. After completing the IDI, the results are analysed and presented in reports. These reports depict