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A S T U D Y OF L IN G U IS T IC , P E R C E P T U A L A N D PE D A G O G IC A L
C H A N G E IN A S H O R T -T E R M IN T E N S IV E L A N G U A G E P R O G R A M by
K aren W oodm an
B ach elo r o f Science (P sychology and C rim in o lo g y ) U niversity o f T oronto, 1988
M a ste r o f A rts (T eaching E nglish as a Second L anguage) Saint M ichael's C ollege, 1990
A D IS S E R T A T IO N S U B M IT T E D IN P A R T IA L F U L F IL L M E N T O F T H E R E Q U IR E M E N T S F O R T H E D E G R E E O F
D O C T O R OF P H IL O S O P H Y in the D epartm ent o f L in g u istics W e accept this dissertation as co n fo rm in g
the required standard
arbara P. H a m s
John H. E k in g , Ph.E^, S u p ef^ iso j (Q epartnjent o f L inguistics)
M em b er (D ep artm en t o f L inguistics)
M arg aret W a r b e j ^ h . D . , D ejiartm ental M em b er (D ep artm en t o f L inguistics)
______________________________________
R o b ert J. A n th o n y , Pm D ., O utside^M em ber (D ep artm en t o f C o m m u n icatio n a n d Social F o u n d atio n s)S tephen T. C arey, P h.D ., Eîcternar E x a m in e ^ ^ e p a r tm e n t o f L an g u ag e E ducation, U n iv ersity o f B ritish C olum bia)
© K aren W oodm an, 1998 U N IV E R S IT Y O F V IC T O R IA
A ll rig h ts reserved. T his dissertation m ay n o t be rep ro d u ced in w h o le or in part, by m im eograph or other m ean s,
S upervisor: D r. John H. Esling
A B S T R A C T
T h is study investigates linguistic, p erceptual and pedagogical change (L P P C ) in a sh o rt-term stu d y -ab ro ad E nglish im m ersion program . A conceptual and m eth o d o lo g ical fram ew ork, the LPPC Interactive M odel o f SLA, is proposed based on the S ocioeducational M odel (G ard n er, 1985) and W oods' (1996) B A K structure. The fram ew ork is ap p lied in a c ro ss-cu ltu ral co n tex t, focussing on the participants in the 1993 C am osun O sak a A o y am a E n g lish L an g u ag e Institute: 384 Japanese E nglish as a Second L anguage (E S L ) stu d en ts from A o y a m a Ju n io r C ollege in O saka (Japan) and 14 N on-Jap an ese ESL teachers at C a m o su n C o lleg e and the U niversity o f V icto ria in V ictoria. B ritish C o lu m b ia (C anada). T heoretical issues identified in this study include the defin itio n o f teach er achievem ent, the d istin ctio n b etw een language activation and lan g u ag e acq u isitio n in the short-term study- abroad context, the developm ent o f the constructs SB A K +, TBAK.-t- and C B A K + to describe interactions in "class fit," and the influence o f tem poral param eters on linguistic, perceptual and pedagogical change. Research findings support the hypothesis that change occurs in each o f the linguistic, perceptual and pedagogical dim ensions explored w ithin the C am osun O saka A oy am a E nglish L anguage Institute. Support w as also found for the constructs proposed for th e M odel.
T his study had three main goals: (i) the identification o f areas and types o f linguistic, perceptual and pedagogical change in a short-term or study abroad program such as the C a m o su n O sak a A o y am a E nglish L anguage Institute; (ii) the identification o f factors involved in linguistic, perceptual an d /o r pedagogical change; and (iii) the identification o f pro g ram o u tco m es such as teacher achievem ent and stu d en t achievem ent.
First, evidence w as found supporting linguistic, perceptual and pedagogical change. In general, statistically significant change was found in the analysis o f student data; w hereas n o n -sig n ifican t change w as observed in the analysis o f teacher data. S upport for linguistic change included teacher and student perceptions o f increased language co m p reh en sio n and p ro d u c tio n , and increased com fort in language use, as w ell as increased student language p ro d u c tio n acro ss the program . In addition, linguistic change occurred on a num b er o f
I l l
m easures w ith in id en tifiab le tem poral periods, w ith the m inim al period being identified as approxim ately one w eek. Early increases in production w ere interpreted as providing support for language activ atio n ; w hereas w eak support for language a c q u isitio n w as inferred from increases in curriculum -based and extracurricular know ledge over the course o f the program .
E v id en ce o f perceptual change w as also found. S tatistically sig n ifican t change included positive changes in student attitudes concerning language learning, use o f English, and understanding C anada and C anadian culture. E vidence o f p edagogical change included decreases on a num b er o f m easures w hich suggested that students' expectations (or C B A K +) o f class activ ities and class roles w ere not com pletely fulfilled. By contrast, teachers' expectations concerning both general and sociocultural co u rse goals appeared to have been realized. C hange o r accom m odation therefore appeared to o ccu r m o re from the stu d en t side o f the learning equation. O ther differences in teacher-student responses included differences in self-p ercep tio n as language learners, expectations co n cern in g stu d en t m o tiv atio n s for taking part in the p ro g ram , and stu d en t expectations o f the program (classroom behaviour, classroom techniques).
Second, a num b er o f teacher factors, w hich included gender and teaching experience, w ere fo u n d to in flu en ce class o utcom es. For exam ple, p rio r teach in g experience, teaching experience w ithin the C am osun O saka-A oyam a English L anguage Institute, and experience teach in g E n g lish to .lapanese stu d en ts were found to be significant. T em poral factors w ere also found to in flu en ce lin g u istic, perceptual and pedagogical change. In addition, sim ilarities in teach er and class styles (or T B A K + and C B A K + ) appeared to inlluence p ercep tio n s o f "class fit."
Finally, ev id en ce w as found to support the m u ltid im en sio n al d efin itio n o f "achievem ent." Individual d ifferen ces in perception an d /o r interp retatio n o f situational context supported the inclusion o f a "buttertly effect" (L arsen -F reem an . 1995) in the LPPC M odel, esp ecially w ith respect to the definition o f "teach er ach iev em en t" because teachers felt the purp o se o f short-term p rogram s w as "lighting fires." In g eneral, the resu lts o f the study suggested a relatively high level o f student and teach er ach iev em en t and success.
I V
E xam iners:
/ I / y \
Jo h n H. Eslingl, PH.D., S iipervisor (Departniejnt o f L inguistics)
B arb a ra P. H arris, Ph
M arg aret W^rbe
ntal M em b er (D ep artm en t o f L inguistics)
argaret Wmrbey, Ph.D ., D ep artm en tal M em b er (D epartm ent o f L in g u istics)
R o b e rt J. A nthony, Ph.D ., O u jsia e M em ber (D ep artm en t o f C o m m u n icatio n an d S ocial F o u n d atio n s)
Stephen T. Carey, o f B ritish C olum bia)
T A B L E O F C O N T E N T S Page N u m b er A B S T R A C T ... ii T A B L E O F C O N T E N T S ...v T A B L E S ... xi F I G U R E S ... xii A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T S ... xiii
O p e ratio n alizatio n o f key t e r m s ... xiv
R esearch sco p e and lim itations ... xvii
C h a p te r O ne: T h eo ries and C o n c e p ts ... 1
1.0 In tro d u ctio n ... 1
1 .0 .1 T h esis statem ent ... 3
1.0.2 C on trib u tio n s to the field: N ew areas o f research in the C am osun O saka A o y am a E nglish L anguage In stitu te study ...6
1.1 T h e o rie s and con cep ts ... 10
1.1.1 C oncepts and constructs: A c r i t i q u e ... 11
1.1.2 L anguage acquisition and lan g u ag e learning ...13
1.1.3 L an g u ag e acquisition and language a c t i v a t i o n ... 18
1.2 T h e S o cio ed u catio n al M o d e l ... 22
1.2.1 T e s t a b i l i t y ...24
1.2.1.1 T he S ocioeducational M odel and the C am osun O saka A o y am a E nglish Language In stitu te s t u d y ... 29
1.2.3 G e n e ra liz a b ility ... 32
1.2.4 L im itations o f the Socioeducational M odel ...33
1.3 F acto rs in second language a c q u i s i t i o n ... 34
1.3.1 L anguage c o m p e te n c e s ... 34
1.3.2 C om m unication s tr a te g ie s ... 36
1.3.3 L earner strategies ...37
1.3.4 L earning styles ... 39
1.4 T each ers, learners and classroom in te ra c tio n ... 40
1.4.1 ESL teachers: G eneral c h a ra c te ris tic s ...42
1.4.2 T each er style or teacher c h a ra c te ris tic s ... 44
1.4.2.1 C lass fit = Peas in a p o d ...?T h e sim ilarity f a c t o r ... 44
1.4.3 T each er styles/qualities and effects on stu d en t b ehaviour ... 49
1.4.4 C on stru ctio n o f ideology: A ttrib u tio n t h e o r y ... 51
1.4.5 Infiuence o f teacher b e lie f s y s t e m s ... 55
1.4.6 W oods ( 1996) and the B A K ... 57
1.4.7 T eachers, students and class f i t ...64
1.4.8 Student achievem ent and teach er a c h ie v e m e n t...66
1.4.9 Student and teacher ach iev em en t in the LPPC m odel ...70
1.5 G ender, language and culture: O ther issues in the developm ent o f class f i t ... 71
VI
1.5.2 G en d ered language ... 77
1.5.3 Ja p a n e se language and language use ... 79
1.5.4 G e n d e r and T E S O L ... 84
1.5.5 Ja p a n e se travel & education: T rends and characteristics ... 85
1.5.6 C u ltu re shock and perceptual c h a n g e ... 90
1.6 S tu d y -ab ro ad p ro g ram s ...94
1.6.1 S h o rt-term and study-abroad program s: L ength o f program ... 96
1.6.2 S h o rt-term and study-abroad program s: Focus o r purp o se o f program . . . 96
1.6.3 S h o rt-term and study-abroad program s: F o r m a t ... 97
1.6.4 S h o rt-term and study-abroad program s: F actors studied ... 98
1.6.5 S h o rt-term and study-abroad program s: R e s u lts ... 100
1.6.6 T em p o ral dim en sio n s ...101
1.6.7 S tu d y -ab ro ad program s and second language acq u isitio n t h e o r y ...108
1.7 T he L P P C m o d el ...1 ...109
1.7.1 G o a l s ... 110
1.7.2 P ro cesses in the LPPC m o d e l ... I l l 1.8 C h a p te r s u m m a r y ...114
C h ap ter T w o: R esearch D esign and M ethodology ... 115
2.0 In tro d u ctio n : Issues in m ethodology ... 115
2.1 D efin itio n o f t e r m s ... 117
2.1.1 D efin itio n and m easurem ent o f linguistic, p erceptual and pedagogical ch an g e ... 118
2.1.1.1 M easures o f linguistic change ... 118
2 .1 .1 .2 M easures o f perceptual change ...119
2 .1 .1 .3 M easures o f pedagogical c h a n g e ... 120
2.2 R esearch o b jectiv es and d e s i g n ...121
2.3 S electio n a n d d escrip tio n o f sam ple p o p u la tio n s ...122
2.3.1 S tu d en t q uestionnaire subjects ... 123
2.3.2 S tu d en t interview subjects ... 123
2.3.2.1 Interview ees: R e p r e s e n ta tiv e ? ... 124
2.3.3 T e a c h e r q uestionnaire and interview su b jects ... 125
2 .3 .4 R atio n ale for focus on Japanese ESL p ro g ram s ...125
2.3.4.1 Japanese sum m er E nglish language s tu d e n ts ...126
2.3.5 R atio n ale for focus on ESL te a c h e r s ... 128
2.3 .6 S ite s e l e c t i o n ... 129
2 .4 D ata co llectio n and adm inistration ... 129
2.4.1 D ata collection: G eneral description o f p u r p o s e ...130
2.4 .2 D ata co llectio n ... 130
2.4.3 S tu d en t considerations ... 130
2 .4 .4 T e a c h e r c o n s id e r a tio n s ... 132
2.4.5 Q uestio n n aires: G eneral purpose ... 132
VII
2.4.5.2 Q uestionnaire d e v e lo p m e n t... 133
2.4.5.3 Q uestionnaire a d m in is tra tio n ...134
2 .4 .6 T each er q u e s tio n n a ir e s ... 135 2.4 .7 Interview s: G eneral p u r p o s e ...136 2.4.7.1 C on d u ctin g the in te r v ie w s ... 136 2 .4.7.2 Student interview s ...137 2.4.7.2.1 S tudent interview f o r m a t... 137 2.4.7.3 T each er in te r v ie w s ... 138
2.4.7.3.1 T each er interview form at ...139
2.5 D ata an aly sis p rocedures ...140
2.5.1 S tudent q uestionnaire analysis p r o c e d u r e s ...140
2.5 .2 Student interview data analysis procedures ... 141
2.5.3 T each er q uestionnaire d ata analysis p r o c e d u r e s ... 144
2.5 .4 T each er interview data analysis p r o c e d u r e s ... 144
2.6 L im itatio n s o f research ... 144
2.7 R e lia b ility ... 146
2.8 V alid ity and the research m e th o d o lo g y ... 149
2.9 C h a p te r s u m m a r y ...151
C h ap ter T hree: S tu d en t Q uestionnaire and Interview R esults - E vidence for L P P C . . . 152
3.0 In tro d u ctio n ...152
3.1 E x p lo rin g C B A K + : Student style & LPP e x p e c ta tio n s ...154
3.1.1 S tu d en t style: R esults and d i s c u s s io n ... 154
3.1.1.1 D em ographic inform ation: A ge. SES and g e n d e r ... 154
3.1.1.2 M o t i v a t i o n ... 157
3.1.1.3 C o gnitive/learning s t y l e ... 159
3 .1.1.4 S tu d en t style: S u m m a r y ... 161
3.1.2 Student linguistic e x p e c ta tio n s ... 161
3.1.2.1 E ducation and language learning e x p e r ie n c e ... 161
3.1.2.2 A ttitudes tow ards language, language learning. and language use ... 164
3.1.2.3 L inguistic expectations: S u m m a r y ... 166
3.1.3 Student cultural expectations: R esults and d iscu ssio n ... 166
3.1.3.1 C ross-cultural e x p e rie n c e ...166
3.1.3.2 A ttitudes tow ards target language g r o u p ... 168
3.1.3.3 C ultural expectations: Sum m ary ...170
3.1 .4 Student pedagogical e x p e c ta tio n s ... 170
3.1.4.1 E xperience w ith C anadian teachers and ex p ectatio n s o f the c l a s s r o o m ... 171
3.1.4.2 P edagogical expectations: S u m m a r y ... 174
3.1.5 C O A E L l stu d en t pre-course CBAK-t-: S u m m a r y ...174
3.2 L in g u istic, perceptual and pedagogical c h a n g e ... 175
V l l l
3.2.1.1 Perceptions o f linguistic change ...178
3.2.1.1.1 L anguage use anxiety and language c o m fo rt ...178
3.2.1.1.2 Interest in foreign la n g u a g e s ... 180
3.2.1.1.3 S elf-assessm en t o f literacy/profieiency ...181
3.2.1.2 P erceived ch an g es in language ability - S tu d en t in terv iew s . . . 182
3.2.1.2.1 L anguage production and language percep tio n ...182
3.2.1.2.2 Increase in com prehension ...183
3.2.1.2.3 L anguage c o m f o r t ... 184
3.2.1.2.4 C h an g es in language processing: T r a n s la tio n ...185
3.2.1.2.5 C o m p reh en sio n variability and the language learning c u r v e ... 186
3.2.1.2.6 Perceived linguistic change: S u m m a r y ... 188
3.2.1.3 L inguistic change: F luency-based change in p r o d u c tio n ... 188
3.2.1.3.1 E vidence o f linguistic change: C hange over tim e . . . . 189
3.2.1.3.2 E vidence o f tem poral p e r i o d s ...194
3.2.1.3.3 L inguistic change: S um m ary ...196
3 .2.1.4 E vidence o f individual variation in linguistic change ...196
3.2.1.4.1 Individual variation: S u m m a r y ...198
3.2.1.5 Interview t o p i c s ...198
3.2.1.6 L inguistic change and the LPPC m odel: S u m m a r y ...203
3.2.2 P erceptual change: R esults and d is c u s s io n ... 203
3.2.2.1 A ttitudes tow ards target language g r o u p ...204
3.2.2.2 A ttitudes tow ards language learning ... 205
3.2.2.3 L anguage learning a n x i e t y ... 207
3.2.2.4 P erceptions o f the language learning en v iro n m en t ...209
3.2.2.5 P erceptual change: S u m m a r y ... 209
3.2.3 P edagogical c h a n g e ... 209
3.2.3.1 A ttitudes tow ard the learning situation ... 210
3.2.3.2 E xpectations o f classroom activities ... 212
3.2.3.3 E xpectations o f classroom r o l e s ...213
3.2.3.4 C o g n itiv e/learn in g s t y l e ... 215
3.2.3.5 Pedagogical change: S um m ary ...217
3.3 O ther issues in linguistic, p erceptual and pedagogical change ... 217
3.3.1 L anguage acquisition and language a c t i v a t i o n ... 217
3.3.1.1 K now ledge o f C anada: E vidence for language a c q u isitio n ? . . . 218
3.3.1.2 E vidence for a c tiv a tio n ? ... 221
3.3.2 S tudent a c h ie v e m e n t... 223
3.3.2.1 C on stru ctio n o f C lass B A K + ... 224
3.3.2.2 A reas o f p o sitiv e and negative change: LPPC categ o ries ... 225
3.3.2.3 LPPC categories: P ooled results ... 228
3.3.2.4 S tudent q u estio n n aire categories: Pooled r e s u l t s ...229
.5 C hanges in stu d en t linguistic, cultural and pedagogical expectations ...231 3.3.
IX
3.4 C h a p te r su m m a ry - C B A K + , L P P C , and student a c h ie v e m e n t...232
C h ap ter Four: T e a c h e r In terv iew and Q uestionnaire: E v id en ce for L P P C ...235
4.0 In tro d u ctio n ... 235
4.1 E x p lo rin g T B A K + : T eacher style, experience & e x p e c t a t i o n s ... 237
4.1.1 T e a c h e r style: R esu lts and d is c u s s io n ...238
4.1.1.1 D em ographics: A ge, g ender, co g n itiv e/learn in g style, nationality ...238
4 . 1 .1.2 T eachers, language learning and c o g n itiv e/learn in g s t y l e ... 240
4 . 1 .1.3 T heories o f language acquisition - T e ach er B A K ...246
4 .1 .1 .4 P references in ESL teach in g level an d age g ro u p ...248
4 .1 .1 .5 T each er self-assessm ent o f personal te a c h in g s t y l e ...250
4 .1 .1 .6 S elf-perception o f teaching skill ...251
4.1 .1 .7 E d u catio n and teacher tr a i n i n g ... 252
4 .1 .1 .8 T each er style: Sum m ary ...253
4.1 .2 T e ach er experience: R esults and d i s c u s s i o n ...254
4.1.2.1 G eneral e x p e rie n c e ...254
4 .1 .2 .2 T eaching experience: JE S L and th e C O A E L l ... 256
4 .1.2.3 T each er experience: S u m m a r y ... 257
4.1.3 T e ach er expectations: R esults and d iscu ssio n ... 258
4.1.3.1 P rogram go als ...258
4 .1 .3 .2 T each er perceptions o f stu d en t e x p e c t a t i o n s ... 263
4 .1.3.3 P edagogical em phasis, activities, and tech n iq u es ...265
4 .1 .3 .4 Successful C O A E L l stu d en t ch aracteristics ... 267
4 .1.3.5 T each er expectations: S um m ary ... 269
4 .1 .4 C o n stru ctin g T B A K + : Sum m ary ... 269
4.2 L in g u istic, p ercep tu al and pedagogical c h a n g e ...271
4.2.1 P erceiv ed linguistic change: R esults and d isc u ssio n ... 271
4 .2 .2 P ercep tu al change: R esults and d is c u s s io n ... 273
4.2.3 P ed ag o g ical change: R esults and d iscu ssio n ... 274
4.2.3.1 L inguistic and sociocultural program g o a l s ... 274
4.2.3.1.1 L inguistic and sociocultural p ro g ram goals: Sum m ary ... 280
4 .2 .3 .2 Pedagogical em phasis ... 280
4.2.3.3 T eaching activities and teach in g te c h n iq u es ... 283
4.2.3.3.1 T eaching activities and teach in g techniques: S um m ary ... 288
4 .2 .3 .4 S uccessful C O A E L l stu d en t ch aracteristics ... 288
4.2.3.4.1 Successful C O A E L l stu d en t ch aracteristics: Sum m ary ...292
4 .2 .4 L in g u istic, p erceptual and pedagogical change: S u m m a r y ... 293
4.3 P ro g ram su ccess and teacher achievem ent ... 294
4.3 .2 T each er d efin itio n s o f teacher a c h ie v e m e n t ... 297
4 .4 E v id en ce fo r situ atio n al, tem poral and participant factors in L P P C ...300
4.4.1 E v id en ce fo r situational and tem poral factors in L P P C ...301
4 .4 .2 E v id en ce fo r teach er factors in linguistic, perceptual and p ed ag o g ical c h a n g e ...302
4.4.2.1 T e ach er style, variation and class lit ... 303
4 .4 .2 .2 T e a c h e r factors in LPPC ...305
4.5 R eco m m en d atio n s fo r program change: R esults & d iscu ssio n ... 309
4.6 L inguistic, p ercep tu al and pedagogical change and T B A K + : S u m m a r y ...310
C h ap ter Five: In teractio n s and the LPPC M o d e l ... 314
5.0 Introduction ... 314
5.1 S tudents, teachers an d the 1993 C O A E L l ... 316
5.1.1 S tu d en t and teacher B A K s: R esults & d iscu ssio n ... 316
5.1.1.1 M o tiv atio n ...316
5.1.1.2 L earn in g style and strategies ... 320
5.1.1.3 T e ach er style, class style, teach er ach iev em en t and c lass f i t ... 321
5.1.2 E v id en ce for linguistic change: R esults and d i s c u s s i o n ... 324
5.1.3 E vidence fo r perceptual change: R esults and d i s c u s s i o n ... 325
5.1.4 E v id en ce fo r pedagogical change: R esults and d i s c u s s i o n ... 327
5.1.5 P rogram su ccess ...333
5.1.6 S tudents, teach ers and L PPC in the C O A E L l: S u m m a r y ... 334
5.2 Im plications an d c o n c lu s io n s ... 336
5.2.1 T h eo retical, pedagogical and adm inistrative im p licatio n s ...336
5.2.1.1 T heoretical and pedagogical im plications: C o n trib u tio n s to the field ...336
5.2.1.2 T heoretical im plications: C O A E L l ...340
5.2.1.3 P edagogical im plications: C O A E L l ... 343
5 .2 .1 .4 A d m in istrativ e im plications: C O A E L l ... 347
5.2.3 T he LPPC m odel o f second language acquisition in a sh o rt-term program ... 353
5.2.4 A reas for future r e s e a r c h ... 354
5.2.5 S um m ary and review ... 357
B IB L IO G R A P H Y ...362
A p p en d ix A: D escrip tiv e Statistics: Pre- and p o st-co u rse stu d en t questionnaires ... 377
A p p en d ix B: D escrip tiv e Statistics: Pre- and p o st-co u rse teach er questionnaires ...396
A p p en d ix C: W eek 1. W eek 2, W eek 3 and W eek 4 in terv iew q u estio n s: S tudents . . . 408
A p p en d ix D: Pre- and p o st-co u rse interview questions: T each ers ... 409
XI
T A B L E S
T able T itle P ag e N u m b er
T able #1 C o m p ariso n o f m o d e l s ... 29
T able #2 Student qu estio n n aire to p ic c a te g o rie s ...133
T able #3 T each er qu estio n n aire topic categories ... 135
T able #4 Student q u estio n n aire category re lia b ilitie s ... 147
T able #5 S tu d en t L P P C category r e lia b ilitie s ... 147
T able #6 S tu d en t L P P C category r e lia b ilitie s ... 148
T able #7 T each er L P P C category reliabilities ... 149
T able #8 S ocio eco n o m ic s t a t u s ...155
T able #9 M o tiv atio n ...158
T able #10 C o g n itiv e/learn in g s t y l e ...160
T able #11 A ttitudes to w ard s language learning ...164
T able #12 L anguage learning a n x i e t y ... 165
T able #13 L anguage use a n x ie ty ... 165
T able #14 S elf-assessm en t o f lite ra c y /p ro fic ie n c y ... 166
Table #15 A ttitudes to w ard s target language g r o u p ...169
T able #16 E xpectations o f the program ...172
T able #17 E xpectations o f classro o m activities ... 172
T able #18 E xpectations o f classro o m r o l e s ... 173
Table #19 Interest in foreign languages ...174
T able #20 L anguage use anxiety and language c o m f o r t...179
T able #21 Interest in foreign languages ...180
Table #22 S elf-assessm ent o f lite ra c y /p ro fic ie n c y ... 182
T able #23 C hange o v er t i m e ... 189
Table #24 W ith in -in terv iew co rrelatio n s ...191
T able #25 S um m ary o f sig n ifican t correlations ...193
Table #26 E vidence o f tem poral periods ...194
Table #27 T opic d iscu ssed ...199
Table #28 A ttitudes tow ards target language g r o u p ...204
Table #29 A ttitudes to w ard s language learning ... 206
Table #30 L anguage learning a n x i e t y ... 207
Table #31 A ttitudes tow ard the learning situation ... 210
Table #32 E xpectations o f classro o m activities ... 212
Table #33 E xpectations o f classro o m r o l e s ... 213
Table #3 4 C o g n itiv e/learn in g s t y l e ...215
Table #35 K now ledge o f C anada ... 218
Table #36 A reas o f L P P C c h a n g e ... 229
T able #37 A reas o f p erceptual change in student q u e s tio n n a ir e s ... 229
T able #38 A reas o f pedagogical ch ange in student q u e s tio n n a ire s ...230
T able #39 A reas o f changes in linguistic, cultural & pedagogical ex p e c ta tio n s . . 232
T able #40 P ercep tio n s o f language learning and strategies ...2 40 Table #41 Im portant influences o n language a c q u is itio n ...246
XII T able #42 T ab le #43 T able #44 T ab le #45 T ab le #46 T ab le #47 T ab le #48 T ab le # 4 9 T ab le #50 T ab le #51 T ab le #52 T ab le #53 T ab le #54 T ab le #55 T ab le #56 T ab le # 5 7 T ab le #58 T ab le #59 T ab le # 6 0 T ab le #61 F leu re F igure 1 F igure 2 F igure 3 F igure 4 F igure 5 F igure 6 Figure 7 D iversity o f teaching e x p e r i e n c e ... 255 G eneral program g o a l s ... 259
S ociocultural program goals ... 260
P edagogical em phasis ... 266
T each in g a c ti v i t i e s ...266
T eaching te c h n iq u e s ... 267
Successful C O A E L l student ch aracteristics ... 268
A reas o f student p r o g r e s s ...272
G eneral program g o a l s ... 275
S ociocultural program goals ...279
P edagogical em phasis ... 281
T each in g a c t i v i t i e s ...284
T each in g te c h n iq u e s ... 285
Successful C O A E L l student ch aracteristics ... 289
T each er factors in LPPC ...306
R eco m m en d atio n s for program c h a n g e ... 310
C o m p ariso n o f stu dent/teacher p erceptions o f program g o a l s ...327
C o m p ariso n s o f stu d en t/teach er exp ectatio n s o f technique u s e ... 330
C o m p ariso n o f perceptions o f successful student ch aracteristics ... 332
S um m ary o f f i n d i n g s ... 360
FIG U R E S Title Page N u m b er T he Socioeducational M odel (K raem er. 1993)... 26
T he T each er V alues M odel (S chm idt. B oraie. and K assabgy, 1996). . . 46
W oods' B A K M odel (W oods, 1996)... 58
T he L PPC Interactive M odel o f SL A ... I l l C O A E L l student pre-course C B A K + ... 175
C O A E L l teacher pre-course T B A K + ...269
X l l l
A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T S
T his research w as possible because o f the help and su p p o rt o f m any people. I w ould like to ack n o w led g e the cooperation o f the ad m in istrato rs, the teachers, and the stu d en ts o f th e 1993 C am o su n O saka A oyam a E nglish L an g u ag e Institute, In particular, 1 w ould like to thank D ennis O kada and Pam R ubidge for th eir en co u rag em en t, en th u siasm and help.
A special th an k s m ust go to Dr. John Esling for his patience, his p ro m p t and careful re ad in g o f v ario u s drafts, and his attem pts to keep m e focu ssed acro ss the country and acro ss the years. I w ould also like to thank all o f the m em b ers o f m y co m m ittee for th e ir in sig h t and p atien ce: Dr. B arbara H arris, Dr. R obert A nth o n y , and Dr. M aggie W arbey.
T h a n k yo u also to E ugene D een for his insights into the w onderful w orld o f statistics and to Dr. L eslie S axon fo r her guidance and en co u rag em en t on a m yriad o f acad em ic co ncerns. I th an k also Ms. D arlene W allace and M rs. G retchen M o y er o f the d ep artm en tal o ffice fo r th eir support.
I w o u ld also like to th an k Dr. T om Perry. Dr. G len Irons. Dr. Jo h n S ivell. and Je n n ifer H o u se for the o p p o rtu n ities they have provided. I w o u ld also like to
a ck n o w led g e fello w g rad u ate students, friends and co lleag u es in the past an d present for th e ir h elp and frien d sh ip : Evan W illiam s, Paul A gbedor. Paul H o pkins. S usan Fitzgerald, T adao M iy am o to , M u rray Schellenberg. A nn G ilbody. M arie L ouise W illet, M onica S anchez, R ita P arm ar, D iane L arsen-F reem an. Dr. R obert G ardner. R ebecca Hurst, R eb ecca C am ero n , and B renda O rser.
F in ally , th an k s to M om and Dad, for their love, u n d erstan d in g , and financial and m oral su p p o rt. A nd a special thanks to Daryl w ho m ade the final m arathon possible.
XI V
O p eratio n alizatio n o f Kev T erm s
(1) S hort-T erm Intensive L an g u ag e P rogram (ST IL P): A short-term intensive language p rogram is defined as a pro g ram w hich: (i) is approxim ately o ne m onth o r less in d u ratio n , (ii) takes place in the target language culture, and (iii) includes a m inim um o f th ree hours o f classroom instruction in the target language per day. T he sp ecific program stu d ied w as the C am o su n /O sak a-A o y am a E nglish Language Institute w hich took place in ■luly 1993 in V ictoria, B.C.
(2) L inguistic, Perceptual & P edagogical C hange (L PPC ): T he term linguistic, p e rc e p tu a l
a n d p e d a g o g ic a l change (LP P C ) refer to pre- and post-course change in (i) student
ex p ectatio n s and language p erfo rm an cse as m easured via q u estio n n aire and interview d a ta collection p rocedures, and (ii) teach er expectations and beh av io u rs as m easured v ia qu estio n n aire and in terv iew d ata co llection procedures, w ithin the context o f a Short-
Term Intensive L a n g u a g e P ro g ra m . E ach o f the three m ajor categories w ill be further
d efin ed below . S tudent-based linguistic, p e rc e p tu a l a n d p e d a g o g ic a l ch a n g e refers to ch an g es in student beliefs, attitudes, m otivations, know ledge, and p erceptions o f lan g u ag e perform ance as m easu red by pre-course and post-course qu estio n n aire item s, and changes in stu d en t p ro d u ctio n across four interview s. T eacher-based linguistic,
p e rc e p tu a l a n d p e d a g o g ic a l ch a n g e refers to pre-course to post-course ch an g es in
beliefs, attitu d es, m o tivations, k n ow ledge, and perceptions o f stu d en t progress and language p erfo rm an ce as m easu red by responses to questionnaire and in terv iew item s. (3) L inguistic o r language ch an g e (LC ): S tudent-based linguistic change includes ev id en ce o f perceptions o f linguistic change, linguistic change in production, the ex isten ce o f sig n ifican t tem p o ral periods, and inter-subject variation. T eacher-based lin g u istic ch an g e includes ev id en ce o f perceptions o f student linguistic change in p ro d u ctio n and com prehension.
(4) Perceptual o r p erception ch ange (PrC ): Perceptual or perception ch an g e refers to ch an g es in responses by teach ers and students in pre-course and p o st-co u rse questio n n aire and interview responses co n cern in g th eir expectations o f C anada. C anadian culture, language learning, an d /o r th e ir experience(s) in the C am osun O saka A oyam a E nglish
XV
L anguage Institute program . The category o f "P erceptual change" as defined here also should be understood to include v ariables w hich m ay be generally reco g n ized as "attitu d e v ariables" an d /o r "m otivational variables" [see discu ssio n in Section 1.1]. S tudent-based perceptual change includes evidence o f change in attitu d es tow ards target language group, interest in foreign languages, language learning anxiety, co g n itiv e/learn in g style, and in teg rativ e m otivation. T eacher-based perceptual change includes perceptions o f s e lf as teacher, and perceptions o f program and personal success.
(5) P ed ag o g ical change (PdC ); Pedagogical change refers to change in resp o n ses by teachers and stu d en ts in pre-course and post-course q u estio n n aires and interview s co n cern in g such "pedagogical features" as program form at, teaching tech n iq u es and focus, classro o m b ehaviours (student and teach er behaviours), an d /o r pro g ram goals. S tudent-based pedagogical change includes ev id en ce o f change o f altitu d es tow ards language learning and attitudes tow ard learning situation. T each er-b ased pedagogical change includes perceptions o f linguistic program goals, class activities, c lass roles, sociocultural program goals, pedagogical em phasis, and successful stu d en t ch aracteristics o f class roles.
(6) Student: A student is defined as an individual w ho: (i) w as en ro lled in the 1993 C am osun O sak a A oyam a E nglish L anguage Institute to learn E nglish as a Second L anguage, (ii) atten d ed daily ESL classes, (iii) participated in the org an ized ("O p tio n ") activ ities, and (iv) co m p leted both pre-course and post-course questionnaires. All stu d en ts p articip atin g in this study w ere from A oy am a .lunior C ollege in O saka, Japan,
(7) T eacher: A teacher is defined as an individual involved in the 1993 C am o su n O saka A o y am a E nglish L anguage Institute w ho (i) taught daily E nglish as a Second L anguage in the classro o m , and (ii) co m pleted pre- and post-course questionnaires, an d /o r p re course and post-course interview s.
(8) E xpectations: T he term "expectations" is defined as a response to any teach er or stu d en t response to questionnaire an d /o r interview item s o f a introspective n ature (or o p in io n ) concern in g anticipated (or "expected") program features.
XVI
on the q u estio n n aires, and responses to questions co n cern in g C an ad a, C anadian culture, o r C anadians in interview s.
(10) T each er style: T e ach er style is defined w ith respect to teacher responses to interview an d q u estio n n aire item s concerning types o f teaching tech n iq u es preferred, used, personal p ersp ectiv e w ith respect to theories o f language teach in g and lan g u ag e learning, etc.
XVII
R esearch Scope and L im itations
A lth o u g h this d issertatio n seeks to identify, to m easu re, and to ex p lain linguistic, p erceptual and pedagogical ch an g e in a short-term intensive stu d y -ab ro ad language im m ersio n program , th e scope is lim ited in at least three w ays. F irst, th e stu d y is b ased on an an a ly sis o f a single student and teach er p o pulation w ith in a sin g le p ro g ram . S econd, the research focusses on the effects o f a lim ited num b er o f v ariab les. T h ird , stu d en t interview d ata w as co llected o nly from a subset o f the total, d ue to pro g ram and tem poral co n strain ts. A lthough the use o f a su b set o f stu d en ts for in terv iew s could influence reliability an d /o r v alidity, the fo llo w in g aspects o f the research d esig n su p p o rt the ch oice o f the research design: (i) the ap p aren t hom o g en eity o f the stu d en t su b ject po p u latio n , (ii) the co m p reh en siv e n ature o f the q u estio n n aire ad m in istratio n , (iii) the relativ ely large n u m b er o f interview su b jects, and (iv) the m ultiple interview fo rm at. N o n eth eless, the ex ten t to w h ic h stu d en t interview su b jects m ay be con sid ered rep resen tativ e o f the su b ject p o p u latio n m ay have been in flu en ced by the fact that the stu d en t in terv iew p articip an ts w ere d raw n from p re-ex istin g g ro u p s by the ad m in istratio n o f A o y am a J u n io r C ollege.
F in ally , this stu d y d id not include input from the a d m in istrato rs o f the program or any su p p letn en tary personnel asso ciated w ith the C am osun O sak a A o y a m a E nglish L anguage Institute. T h is ex clu sio n w as due to research and a d m in istra tiv e concerns. G iven the ex tensive n ature o f the d a ta collection em ployed in th is stu d y , the co n trib u tio n o f input co n cern in g such non-acad em ic v ariab les w as co n sid ered m inim al. Future research, h o w ev er, co u ld attem pt to assess the relativ e im pact o f e x tracu rricu lar activ ities and co n tact on language and/or p ercep tio n change in a short-term in ten siv e language program .
Chapter One: Theories and Concepts
1.0 Introduction
It has long b e e n assum ed th at (the) co m bination o f im m ersio n in the native speech c o m m u n ity , integ rated w ith form al classroom learning, creates the best en v iro n m en t for learning a seco n d language. The strength o f this a ssu m p tio n is so pow erful th at th ere has evo lv ed a p o p u la r belief, o ne shared by stu d en ts and teachers, p aren ts and ad m in istrato rs, th a t stu d en ts w h o go ab ro ad are those w ho w ill u ltim ately becom e the m ost p ro ficien t in th e use o f th e ir language o f specialization. S u rprisingly en o u g h , there have been
relativ ely few em pirical stu d ies w hich have addressed, in a carefu lly -co n tro lled and in- d ep th m anner, the specific question o f the linguistic im pact o f study abroad.
B arbara Freed (1995b: 5) T he stu d y o f a short-term intensive language program such as the C am o su n O saka A o y am a E n g lish L anguage Institute w ithin the stu d y -ab ro ad context o ffers a unique o p p o rtu n ity to in v estig ate the inner w orkings o f lan g u ag e learn in g /acq u isitio n pro cesses an d language teach in g pro cesses by exam ining lin g u isiic\ p erc e p tu a l and p e d a g o g ic a l c h an g e (L P P C ) w ithin a lim ited w indow o f tim e.
In the co n tex t o f this dissertation, change is co n sid ered from the p ersp ectiv es o f b oth stu d en t a n d teacher participants. S tudent-based linguistic, p e rc e p tu a l a n d
p e d a g o g ic a l ch a n g e refers to changes in student beliefs, attitudes, m otivations,
k n ow ledge, and perceptions o f language perfo rm an ce as m easured by pre-course and p o st-co u rse q u estio n n aire item s, and changes in student prod u ctio n across four
interview s. T each er-b ased linguistic, p e rc e p tu a l a n d p e d a g o g ic a l change refers to p re co u rse to p o st-co u rse c h an g es in beliefs, attitudes, m o tiv atio n s, k n ow ledge, and p ercep tio n s o f stu d en t p ro g ress and language p erfo rm an ce as m easu red by resp o n ses to q u estio n n aire an d interview item s.
M easu res o f lin g u istic change in production are based on research on fluency and stu d y -ab ro ad p ro g ram s (Freed, 1995c; L ennon, 1990). and include variables such as c o m m u n icativ e strategies (e.g., topic changes), co m p reh en sio n (e.g.. in ap p ro p riate resp o n ses, in co m p lete responses), topic developm ent, n um ber o f g ram m atical erro rs and lexical errors, m ean length o f utterance (M L U ), total n u m b er o f u tterances (p er student p e r interview ), and range (difference betw een m ax im u m /m in im u m length o f u tteran ce per stu d en t per interview ). M easures o f perception o f lin g u istic change include language use.
language use anxiety, and ex tracu rricu lar contact.
P ercep tu a l or p e rc e p tio n change is defined in this study from the persp ectiv e o f
research o n the in flu en ce o f attitu d e and m otivation on language learners (G ardner, 1985), as w ell as for teach ers (B arkhuizen, 1998; Borg, 1998; W oods. 1996). W oods' (1996) research on the inlluence o f teachers' beliefs, attitu d es and k n o w led g e (B A K ) on classro o m interp retatio n and practice is o f particular interest to the teach er perspective. S tu d en t p erceptual change is m easu red by changes in responses by stu d en ts in pre-course and p o st-co u rse q u estio n n aire and interview responses concerning th eir ex p ectatio n s o f C anada, C anadian culture, and language learning. For \.esLc\\ers. p e rc e p tu a l change refers prim arily to P ercep tio n s o f P rogram G oals, and P erceptions o f S e lf as T eacher.
PmaWy, p e d a g o g ic a l change refers to change in responses by teach ers and
students in pre-course and p o st-co u rse questionnaires and in terv iew s co n cern in g such "pedagogical features" as teaching techniques and focus, and classro o m behaviours (student and teach er behaviours). S pecifically, subcategories o f pedagogical change found on C am o su n O saka A o y am a E nglish L anguage Institute stu d en t q u estio n n aires include P erceptions o f C lassro o m R oles, and Perceptions o f C lass A ctivities. F o r teachers,
p e d a g o g ic a l ch a n g e referred prim arily to P erceptions o f T each in g T ech n iq u es,
P erceptions o f C lassro o m R oles, and P erceptions o f C lass A ctivities.
W hile m o st theories o f language acquisition im plicitly reco g n ize the im pact o f tem poral variab les, little research has identified specific areas o f change, an d /o r specific tim e fram es, in w hich such change m ay occur. Even few er stu d ies have consid ered either the im pact o f tem poral constraints on the perceptions and activ ities o f the classroom teacher, an d /o r the infiuence o f the interactions betw een individual teach er d ifferences and differential classro o m o u tco m es w ithin a short-term program , fh e se g ap s in the research literature have effectively lim ited the ability o f th eo ries o f seco n d language acq u isitio n and second language pedagogy to identify critical p erio d s in language acq u isitio n an d /o r critical factors in language teaching, especially w ith resp ect to their im pact in sh o rt-term program s.
3 sh o rt-term intensive language program p resen ts a set o f u nique th eo retical co n sid eratio n s. S p ecifically , the constructs p roposed m ust be sufficiently (i) co n crete or testable to be em p lo y ed w ithin specified tem poral constraints, (ii) co m p reh en siv e in nature to cap tu re the m u ltid im en sio n al nature o f the language learning context, in cluding both teach er and stu d en t p ersp ectiv es, and (iii) op eratio n alized in a m an n er co n sisten t w ith current research in the field.
T h eo retical co n sid eratio n s also include the interw eaving o f theories o f language, language learning, and language teaching in to a single co m p reh en siv e theory and m odel o f th e stu d y -ab ro ad language learning experience. T o w ard s these g oals, this d issertatio n an aly zes featu res o f linguistic, perceptual an d pedagogical change w ith in the th ree-w eek
1993 C am o su n O saka A oy am a E nglish L anguage Institute.
1.0.1 Thesis statement
T h is study exam ines the theoretical and em pirical issues related to the ex p erien ce o f stu d e n ts and teachers involved in a sh o rt-term intensive E nglish as a Second L an g u ag e program . S pecifically, this research:
(1) ad dresses the current lack o f q u an titativ e and qu alitativ e d ata on linguistic, perceptual and pedagogical change w ithin the co n tex t o f a sh o rt-term intensive language program (ST IL P);
(2) com pares current theories o f seco n d (and other) lan g u ag e acq u isitio n in th eir ability to account for linguistic, perceptual and pedagogical change (L P P C ) w ithin a short-term intensive language program w ith in the follow ing areas:
(i) general cognition and learning, learning strateg ies and styles, general and culturally-based affective factors, accu ltu ratio n and culture shock, learning and ex p ectatio n s, the in llu en ce o f individual d ifferences in learning style. C anale & S w ain's four co m petences an d /o r C um m ins' B IC S /C A L P distin ctio n , and g en d er and cultural factors in stu d en t-teach er interactions; and
(ii) tem poral dim ensions o f a short-term intensive language
program , or tim etab les o f learning (critical w indow s in acq u isitio n ) w ith respect to the receptive and p roductive skills.
T he fo llo w in g h ypotheses w ere proposed:
(1) linguistic, perceptual and pedagogical change w ill occu r w ithin the three w eek period o f the 1993 C am osun O saka A o y am a E nglish L anguage
In stitu te;
(2) th e ab o v e lin g u istic, perceptual and pedagogical ch an g e w ill be m ea su ra b le and statistically significant;
(3) th e ab o v e lin g u istic, perceptual and p edagogical ch an g e w ill be found in th e fo llo w in g categories (as m easured by qu estio n n aire an d /o r interview to o ls):
(I) attitu d in al change w ith respect to language learning and use o f E nglish, and C anada and C anadian culture and custom s;
(ii) e x p ectatio n s w ith respect to classro o m activ ities and o rien tatio n s;
(iii) k n o w led g e o f Canada; (iv) lin g u istic com petence;
(4) d ifferen t te ach er styles an d /o r tech n iq u es w ill have m easu rab le and sig n ific a n t e ffe c ts on the stu d en t perform ance (the in flu en ce o f B A K + ); (5) d ifferen ces in teach er-stu d en t ex pectations w ill be m easu rab le and sig n ific a n t in th e follow ing areas:
(i) classro o m roles
(ii) classro o m activ ities and techniques
(6) th e above lin g u istic, perceptual and pedagogical ch an g e w ill show e v id en ce o f a co n v erg en ce o f student and teach er ex p ectatio n s (an d /o r a stro n g e r m o v e m e n t o f convergence from stu d en t to te ach er than vice versa);
(7) th e above linguistic, perceptual and pedagogical ch an g e w ill also relate to facto rs o u tlin e d in (4); and be m easurable and significant;
(8) in g en eral, ch an g e w ithin linguistic, p erceptual and p edagogical change w ill be g reater in the soeio-psychological co m p eten ces than in linguistic co m p eten ce (as p e r course/program goals);
(9) in d iv id u al d ifferen ces in learning strategies an d /o r sty les am ong stu d e n ts an d /o r teach ers will correlate to d ifferen ces in p erfo rm an ce as o u tlin e d above;
(10) .Japanese stu d en t and W estern/C anadian teacher d ifferen ces in culture an d /o r g en d er w ill correlate to factors outlined above; further, the
in llu e n c e o f the am o u n t o f experience eith er o f stu d en ts or teachers w ith m e m b ers o f the o th er group w ould be m easu rab le and significant.
T h is d issertatio n also p ro p o ses a m odel w hich attem p ts the integ ratio n o f theories o f lan g u ag e, language learning, and language teaching into a co m p reh en siv e th eo ry and m odel o f the stu d y -ab ro ad language learning exp erien ce: the L in g u istic P erceptual and P ed ag o g ical C h an g e (L P P C ) Interactive M odel o f Second L an g u ag e A cquisition.
5 the S ocioeducational M odel (G ardner, 1985) and o f W oods' (1996) B A K M odel. T he LPPC m odel in clu d es d ev elo p m en t and inclusion o f a cluster o f v ariab les d efin ed as T B A K + (teach er style, teach er ex p ectatio n s and teacher ex p erien ce) and S B A K + or C B A K + (stu d en t style, and student linguistic, cultural and p ed ag o g ical ex p ectatio n s). The m odel describ es the co n tex t o f linguistic, perceptual and p edagogical ch an g e in a short term intensive lan g u ag e program . A d istinction betw een language activ atio n and
language acq u isitio n in term s o f d escrib in g the language change in a sh o rt term program is also introduced.
T he L PPC m odel has three m ain goals: (i) the iclenlificalion o f a re a s a n d typ es o f linguistic, perceptual and pedagogical change in a short-term stu d y -ab ro ad p ro g ram such as the C am osun O saka A o y am a E nglish L anguage Institute; (ii) th e id e n tific a tio n o f
fa c to r s involved in lin g u istic, perceptual and/or pedagogical ch an g e; and (iii) the id en tifica tio n o f p ro g ra m o u tco m es such as teacher achievem ent an d stu d en t
achievem ent. T he factors inv o lv ed in linguistic, perceptual an d /o r p ed ag o g ical ch an g e are categ o rized as three ty p es o f factors: p a rtic ip a n t fa cto rs, tem p o ra l fa c to r s , a n d situ a tio n a l
fa c to rs. T he category o f "participant factors" includes three aggregates: (i) "T B A K + "
w hich includes teach er beliefs, attitudes, know ledge, language b ack g ro u n d , teach in g style and strategies, g en d er, cu ltu re, ed u cational experience and back g ro u n d , and o th er
dem o g rap h ic in fluences; (ii) "S B A K + " w hich includes student attitu d es, kn o w led g e, language back g ro u n d , learning style and strategics, gender, culture, ed u catio n al ex p erien ce and back g ro u n d , and other dem ographic infiuences; and (iii) "C B A K + ". or c lass B A K , w hich is d efin ed as the aggregate result o f a group o f stu d en ts' "S B A K + s". T h e category o f "tem poral factors" includes the am ount o f tim e in v o lv ed in a p articu lar p rogram , how the tim e w as used for cu rricu lar or ex tracu rricu lar a c tiv ities, and any infiuence the tem poral param eters m ay have had on the b eh av io u r o r p ercep tio n s o f p ro g ram p articipants. "S ituational factors" include the degree o f c la ss fit (or d eg ree o f sim ilarity or co m p atib ility b etw een T B A K + , SB A K + an d /o r CBAK-H), ad m in istra tiv e or cu rricu lar constraints, and pedagogical interactions (such as use and recep tio n o f specific tech n iq u es, activ ities, etc.).
6
T h erefo re, this study seeks to investigate both the L PPC m odel and the h y p o th e se s p roposed earlier. In this C hapter, 1 w ill review the literature relevant to the th eo retical and m ethodological issues addressed in this study. T his review w ill also serve as a b asis for the p roposal o f co n stru cts in the L PPC m odel.
1.0.2 Contributions to the field: New areas of research in the Camosun Osaka
Aoyama English Language Institute study
T he C am osun O saka A o y am a E nglish L anguage Institute study co n trib u tes to the d e v elo p m en t o f the fields o f second language acquisition and second language p ed ag o g y by "fillin g in the gaps" on a n u m b er o f issues w hich researchers have identified as "targ ets fo r future research" (Freed. 1995a, b & c; G ardner et al., 1974; G ard n er & T en n an t, 1998; G ard n er & T rem blay. 1994; L arsen-F reem an, 1998; O lshtain, 1998; O x fo rd . 1998; W oods. 1996). G ard n er and his colleagues, for exam ple, have id en tified the need fo r ex am in atio n o f the role o f "situational factors" such as teachers and the classro o m w ithin the Socioeducational M odel o n a num b er o f occasions (G ard n er, 1985; G ard n er & T ennant. 1998; G ardner & T rem blay. 1994). A n um ber o f o th er p rom inent research ers have also recently called for a shift o f focus tow ards the teach er an d /o r the learning situation (L arsen-F reem an. 1998; O lshtain. 1998; O xford. 1998; W oods. 1996).
T h e C am osun O saka A o y am a E nglish L anguage Institute study p ro v id es a global p e rsp ectiv e on the h um an (or participant) factors and situational factors influencing lin g u istic, perceptual an d /o r pedagogical change in a short-term study-abroad p ro g ram by e x am in in g the influences and interactions o f student, teacher and tem poral factors w ith in a sh o rt-term intensive language program w hich occu r w ithin a study-abroad co n tex t, and attem p ts to incorporate these co m plex interactions into a m odel o f linguistic, p ercep tu al and pedagogical ch an g e (the LPPC M odel).
By creating this inclusive theoretical fram ew ork and m odel, this study th erefo re attem p ts to address m any o f the "gaps" indicated by G ardner (1985) and others. For ex am p le, O xford (1998) suggests th at teacher-specific aspects w hich need to be stu d ied an d /o r integrated into a single th eo ry include: caring; classroom control (e.g., p o w er relatio n sh ip s in the classroom , including hum anistic versus custodial control, d ifferen ces
am o n g teach er co n tro l, shared control, student co n tro l); social d istan ce am ong in d iv id u als in an in teractio n ; teach er role (e.g., beliefs about w hat is appropriate fo r the teach er to do); style co n flicts (e.g., conflicts betw een teachers and students in term s o f approach such as ex tro v erted v ersu s introverted, analytic versus global, clo su re-o rien ted versus open); and co u rse-sp ecific aspects o f the language learning situation (e.g., interest, relevance, ex p ectan cy , satisfaction). She further proposes that these teach er-facto rs be com pared w ith co m p o n en ts o f language learning m o tiv atio n (e.g., interest, relevance, expectancy, in trin sic or ex trin sic rew ards, decision to learn, persisten ce, high
involvem ent) an d co m p o n en ts o f satisfy in g and m o tiv atin g w ork (e.g., variety, interest, relevance, d ifficu lt fo r attain ab le go als, feedback/rew ard).
In ad d itio n . F reed (1995b: 17) has proposed the m ost detailed list o f "th eo retical and practical" issues w hich need to be addressed by research on the stu d y -ab ro ad context (and by analo g y , short-term p ro g ram s as w ell). A n u m b er o f these issues are directly addressed or in d irectly ad d ressed in the C am osun O sak a A oyam a E nglish L an g u ag e Institute study, and they can th erefo re be considered to be c o n trib u tio n s to th e field. 1 w ill d iscuss F reed's list in so m e detail in ord er to identify those issues w hich w ill be addressed in th is dissertation. I w ill also indicate to w hich categ o ries used in this d issertatio n (e.g., linguistic, p erceptual or pedagogical change) the ad d ressed issues belong:
T h eoretical Issues
(i) Id en tify in g the actual linguistic benefits o f tim e sp en t in these study abroad p ro g ram s [Direct: L inguistic change]
(ii) Id en tify in g any specific differences betw een the linguistic skills o f students w ho participate in these study abroad p ro g ram s and stu d en ts in foreign language situations
(iii) D efining the roles o f com prehension, interaction, and n eg o tiatio n in the acquisition process in both in-class and o u t-o f class co n tex ts [Indirect: L in g u istic a n d p e d a g o g ic a l change] (iv) D escrib in g th e roles o f "com prehensible input" and "com prehensible output" in the second language com m unity (v) Id en tify in g any negative linguistic o utcom es (e.g.. fo ssilizatio n ) (vi) D ev elo p in g k n o w led g e o f linguistic u n iv ersals, the lin g u istic en v iro n m en t, and th eir interaction in language acquisition
[Indirect: P e rcep tu a l a n d lin g u istic change]
T hus, o f the six "theoretical" issues raised by Freed (1 995b), three issues are e ith er directly or indirectly ad d ressed in the C am osun O saka A o y am a E n g lish L anguage In stitu te study. F o r ex am p le, d im e n sio n s o f "actual linguistic benefits," Issu e (i), are exam ined in interview and q u estio n n aire data as "perceptual change" w ith re sp e c t to a ttitu d es to w ard s targ et language, language co m fo rt and use, etc., and "linguistic change" w ith respect to changes in type and am o u n t o f production. T he "roles o f co m p re h e n sio n , interaction, and neg o tiatio n ," Issu e (iii), are indirectly ad d ressed in the stu d e n t in terv iew s (topic ch an g es, p ro b lem s o f co m m u n icatio n , etc.) and q u estio n n aires (p ed ag o g ical changes). Issu e (vi), w hich includes "know ledge o f linguistic universals, th e linguistic en v iro n m en t, and th eir in teractio n in language acquisition" is in d irectly e x a m in e d w hen w e d iscu ss the role o f language activ atio n (versus language acq u isitio n ) in th e sh o rt-term stu d y -ab ro ad program [see Section 1.1.3 and 1.1.4], as w ell as by the in clu sio n o f the postu lated "ex tracu rricu lar contact" facto r in the proposed L P P C m odel, w h ic h also o v erlap s w ith G ardner's (1985) "situational variables."
T h e practical issues F reed b eliev es should be exam ined include: Practical Issues
(i) Iden tify in g the o ptim al tim e in a student's language learning career to benefit from a study abroad experience
(ii) In v estig atin g w h eth er p rio r exposure to the target language is n ecessary fo r su ccess in a stu d y abroad context [Indirect:
L in g u istic a n d p e d a g o g ic a l change]
(iii) E x am ining the re la tio n sh ip betw een level o f proficiency, type o f language in stru ctio n , and participation in a study abroad pro g ram
(iv) Identifying the m inim al am o u n t o f tim e spent in a study abroad context for students to benefit linguistically from the experien ce [D irect: L in g u istic change, tem poral fa cto rs - M ain
fo c u s o f this study]
(v) In vestigating w h eth er system atic and significant d ifferen ces in dem o g rap h ic back g ro u n d , m o tiv atio n , learning style, an d /o r m etaco g n itiv e ab ilities ex ist betw een students w ho ch o o se to p articip ate in stu d y abroad p rogram s and students who do not p articip ate [Indirect: P e rc e p tu a l change]
m e a su rin g progress in all skill areas and p ro ficien cy levels for stu d e n ts in study abroad contexts [Indirect]
(v ii) Id en tify in g m ethods to m easure and ev alu ate quality and e x te n t o f stu d en t social co n tact (or ex tracu rricu lar exposure) and lan g u ag e use in the study abroad context [Indirect]
(v iii) Iden tify in g the com bination o f ex p erien ces m o st valu ab le for stu d en ts w ho participate in study abroad p ro g ram s (e.g.. form al lan g u ag e co u rses and content-based courses, am o u n t o f interaction b etw een ex tracu rricu lar contact and form al instruction) [Indirect] (ix) E x am in in g techniques w hich encourage stu d en ts to m aintain and im p ro v e language skills upon return hom e
(x) Iden tify in g positive attributes o f the study abroad experience w h ic h can be replicated in the hom e learning en v iro n m en t
[Indirect]
O f the "practical issues" outlined by Freed (1995b), "id en tify in g the m inim al am o u n t o f tim e sp en t in a study abroad co n tex t for students to benefit linguistically from the ex p erien ce," Issue (iv), o r rather w ithin the term s o f this d issertatio n "id en tify in g areas o f linguistic, p e rc e p tu a l a n d p e d a g o g ic a l ehange w ith in a sh o rt term program " is the p rim ary focus o f this study insofar as the goal o f identification o f sig n ifican t tem poral periods. O th e r issues addressed indirectly include Issue (ii) "the in llu en ce o f prior ex p o su re to the targ et language" by questio n n aire and in terv iew item s; Issue (v) "in v estig atin g w h eth er system atic and significant d ifferen ces in d em ographic b ack g ro u n d , m o tivation, learning style, an d /o r m etaco g n itiv e ab ilities exist betw een students w h o ch o o se to participate in study abroad p rogram s and students w ho do not participate" in so far as the possible in n u en ce o f d em o g rap h ic background, m o tiv atio n , and learning sty le o f partieipants on perceptual ch an g e by qu estio n n aire item s; Issue (vi) "id en tify in g the m o st appropriate assessm en t tools for m easu rin g pro g ress in all skill areas and p ro ficien cy levels fo r students in study abroad contexts" by testin g the ab ility o f using ch an g es in fluency m arkers in student interview d ata to identify specific areas o f lin g u istic ch an g e, as w ell as student and teach er id e n tillcatio n o f perceived areas o f pro g ress an d /o r ch an g e over the three-w eek period; Issue (vii) "identifying m eth o d s to m easure an d ev alu ate quality and extent o f stu d en t soeial contact (o r ex tracu rricu lar ex p o su re), and lan g u ag e use in the study abroad context" by student q u estio n n aire and
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interview resp o n ses concern in g am o u n t and type o f ex tracu rricu lar co n tact an d language use; Issue (v iii) "ex p erien ces m ost valuable for students w ho p articip ate in stu d y abroad program s" by stu d en t and teacher interview responses; and Issue (x) "id en tify in g positive attributes o f the stu d y abroad experien ce w hich can be replicated in the h o m e learning environm ent" by an aly sis o f student interview responses, as w ell as teach er interview and q uestio n n aire responses and suggestions.
T he C am osun O saka A oyam a E nglish L anguage Institute study th erefo re co n trib u tes to both th eo retical and practical areas o f the field by addressing m an y o f the issues identified by Freed.
1.1 T h eories an d con cep ts
A n u m b er o f theories o f second language acquisition can be ad v a n c e d to explain language acq u isitio n w ithin a short-term intensive language program . H ow ever, only a few ap p ear to m eet th e necessary criteria o f predictive ability, testab ility o f co n stru cts, ap plicability to sh o rt-term intensive language program s, and th e scope o f p h en o m en a considered. In o th er w ords, few current theories address both teach er and stu d en t factors in language learning.
T h eo retical issues o f im portance to the analysis o f linguistic, p ercep tu al and pedagogical change in a short-term an d /o r study-abroad ESL pro g ram in clu d e learning strategies (C h au d ro n , 1988; O 'M alley & C ham ot, 1990; O x fo rd , 1990). learn in g styles (M cC arthy, 1987), W oods (1996) "B A K " m odel o f teacher co gnition, and th e
Socioeducational M odel (G ardner. 1985). T hese issues w ill be exam ined w ith in the context o f id en tify in g co n stru cts or co nceptualizations o f pro cesses relevant to the description o f linguistic, perceptual an d /o r pedagogical change w ithin a sh o rt-term study- abroad program , from learner an d /o r teacher perspectives.
F irst, the ap p licab ility o f concepts and/or constructs from a n u m b er o f theories o f second language acq u isitio n and second language pedagogy to the specific c o n te x t o f the short-term intensive language program will be considered. S econd, the ratio n ale for basing a m odel o f linguistic, perceptual and pedagogical ch an g e in a sh o rt-term an d /o r study-abroad pro g ram on a m o d ificatio n o f the S ocioeducational M odel (G ard n er, 1985)
11
and W o o d s (1 9 9 6 ) "B A K " w ill be offered. T hird, a discussion o f research on sh o rt-term p ro g ram s w ill be presented. Fourthly, a m odel o f interaction w ith in a short-term in ten siv e lan g u ag e p rogram , including a parallel c o n stru ct to student ach iev em en t, labelled "teacher ach iev em en t," and based on m o d ificatio n s o f the Socioeducational M odel, w ill be
d ev elo p ed .
1.1.1 C o n ce p ts and con stru cts: A critiq u e
A n u m b er o f current th eo ries pro p o se concepts o f interest to the study o f sh o rt term in te n siv e lan g u ag e program s w ithin the d im en sio n s o f second language acq u isitio n id en tified in this dissertation. It w ill be arg u ed that m any o f th ese con cep ts su ffer from a lack o f testab ility , and hence are o f lim ited utility to this research [see d iscu ssio n s in G ard n e r (1985) and O 'M alley & C ham ot (1990)]. and therefore, new o r m o d ified term s w ill be proposed. Such p roblem atic theories in clude K rashen’s (1 9 8 2 ) M o n ito r M o d el, an d O x fo rd 's (1990) Strategy M odel. A s w ell, lim itations to the S ocio ed u catio n al m odel (G ard n er. 1985) and W oods' (1996) m odel o f teach er cognition w ill be d iscu ssed , and a ratio n ale for the n ew m odel presented.
A cco rd in g to O 'M alley and C ham ot (1990), the d iv ersity o f ap p ro ach es to second lan g u ag e acq u isitio n and p roblem atic testab ility is prim arily the resu lt o f differin g m e th o d o lo g ies favoured by v arious d isciplines w h o se interests o v erlap in second lan g u ag e acquisition. For exam ple, in the area o f learning strategy research, they note:
T h e tw o b odies o f research, one in second language acquisition, and the o th er in cognitive psy ch o lo g y , (have) proceeded fully in d ep en d en t o f each o th er w ith little cross referencing o f concepts and approaches across to p ic areas. F urtherm ore, the m eth o d o lo g ies in the studies (are) different, the o n es in second language
acq u isitio n being d escriptive, and the ones in psychology being ex p erim ental and oriented to w ard s training learners to acquire strategies. T he lack o f th eo ry to ex p lain learning strategies (has been) co m pounded in seco n d language acq u isitio n studies by the lack o f a co m prehensive theory to ex plain how individuals learn the structures and functions associated w ith learning (O 'M alley & C ham ot, 1990: 2).
