Dantean Influence on the Pairs in Beckett's Trilogy: Molloy, Malone Dies, and The Unnamable

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Beckett’s Trilogy: Molloy, Malone Dies,

and The Unnamable

Name: Barbara Pennock Student number: 12423033

MA: Literature, Culture and Society (English Track) Humanities: Literature Studies

First Reader: Prof. De Rooij

Second Reader: Dr. S. M. E. Van Wesemael University of Amsterdam (UvA)

Year: 2018-2019 Date: 10-8-2019

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Introduction

To an unfamiliar reader the work of Dante Alighieri (1265-1321) and Samuel Beckett (1906-1989) may appear to contrast; wherein Dante’s Comedy there is no room for salvation, in Beckett one is confronted with seemingly unprogressive dialogues (see En Attendant Godot, Endgame). There is a common interest that both authors shared – namely, to become a better author than their literary idol, to whom they looked upon as an expert in the craft. For Dante, this author was Virgil1, and his Comedy may be taken as his improved version of The Aeneid. For Beckett, Dante was his source of inspiration ever since he studied the Comedy at University (Ferrini 13)2. Another similarity between Dante and Beckett/the authors is the presence of pairs3 that can be found in the Comedy as/and the trilogy (as some minor studies have touched upon, see Carrière, Caselli). Some scholars (Caselli, Haughton) have noted Beckett’s ability to adapt ‘Dantean elements’ or characters such as Belacqua4 and appropriate them into his writing. Therefore, this thesis approaches the topic from the perspective of Beckett and aligns with Dante to discover if any patterns or similar developments can be discerned in the usage of the couple in the selected works: Dante’s Comedy (1307-1321) and Beckett’s trilogy – Molloy (1951), Malone Dies (1951), The Unnamable (1953).

The selected works were chosen because they share a common denominator: both consist of three parts that belong together and combined form a unit. If one were to follow this thought, one might perceive the epic as a sort of trilogy, despite the difference in their format types (Beckett’s are novels whereas Alighieri’s is a three-part epic)5

. This thesis aims to produce an overview of the concept of the couple in Dante’s Comedy and Beckett’s trilogy through textual analysis. In doing so, it uses Daniela Caselli’s Beckett’s Dantes (2005) as a case study and for its intertextual framework.6

Dante Alighieri & The Divine Comedy

Dante may be the only author that is better known by his first name than his last name. His popularity has continued through the centuries7. He also wrote The Vita Nuova, inspired by his love

1_{The importance of Virgil as a literary mentor throughout Dante’s life and example role the Aeneid had for}

Dante is described by Hollander (2000), ‘It was Virgil’s Aeneid (…) which served as model for the poem; it was Virgil who, more than any other author, helped to make Dante Dante’ (Introduction, xxxv).

2

Ferrini in Dante et Beckett (13).

3_{For a denotation of the concept and interpretation of the pair or couple, see my methodology section in Chapter}

1 (14).

4_{For a textual analysis of Beckett’s Belacqua see Caselli (Beckett’s Dantes ).}

5_{The definition of an epic is described in the Norton Essential Literary Terms (2007) as: ‘a long narrative poem}

on a serious and exhalted subject’ (Hamilton 13).

6_{This book, Beckett’s Dantes (2005) will be discussed in more detail in the literature review included in Chapter}

1.

7

For a chronologic overview of Dante’s popularity through the centuries see Nick Havely ‘Chronology of Significant Events in Dante’s Afterlife 1322-2006’ in Dante (2007), for full reference see Works’ Cited List.

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for Beatrice, as well as other contributions8. He is best known for his Comedy. The strength of the Comedy may lie in its approachability for the reading audience, for example, even readers who do not have a literary background can still relate to the visual aspects of the narrative. As Hollander noted, ‘Along with conquering the allegiance of scholars, Dante won the hearts of less-erudite Italians ’(Inf. Introduction, xxvii). Dante wrote the Comedy for a broad audience, the public, one linguistic aspect that indicates this is the fact that Dante chose to write in the vernacular language rather than the academic lingua franca of the time, Latin. This is described by Hollander, ‘What he did do was to deploy Italian as a literary language on a major-scale, incorporating the “serious” subjects that had hitherto been reserved to Latin’(xxvii).

The Divine Comedy is an epic poem and consists of three instalments: Inferno, Purgatory, and Paradise. In the first, the character Dante is given a second chance to prove himself to God by showing that he can become a good man with the right guide. Dante even informs the reader that this is his account of his journey and has tried to reciprocate the events he witnessed on paper as best he was able to. In the first part of his pilgrimage through the afterlife, Dante learns all the rules and is re-educated in his values by Virgil. The second part of his travel takes him to purgatory, where his newly learned values are tested. For part of the journey, Virgil remains his guide, but Beatrice replaces him. The final part of his journey ends in Paradise, where he is witness to the miracles of Heaven. But because of his humanity, he struggles to absorb all the wonders of Heaven fully. The Comedy ends when Dante, wishes to wake up and God grants him the wish, which is indicated in the story like a lightning bolt, this concludes the final scene.

Beckett and His Oeuvre, the Trilogy

Samuel Beckett is perhaps most recognised for his plays, (i.e., Endgame, andEn Attendant Godot). In March 2019, an opera based on Beckett’s Fin de Partie was directed by György Kurtág9. This recent production is an example of how Beckett remains popular with his readers. The main difference between his popularity and that of Dante is that Beckett has a select following, whereas Dante appeals to many. Beckett’s oeuvre consists of a variety of literary formats, i.e., essays, short stories, and plays. He was involved in all aspects of his narratives; when he started to write plays, he educated himself on all stages of the production process. Gontarski (2010) describes how Beckett became invested in each part of the staging – from acting to directing – and was able to achieve his vision and translate it into the performance because he knew each of the separate stages (7-8). The trilogy has a few overlapping themes, such as an unidentified narrator, couples and an omniscient narrator.

The trilogy has his share of couples, in order to place the couples into perspective, a brief context is provided. The first novel is the most extensive volume; the other two novels decrease in size. The

8_{For a list of Dante’s other works, see Robert Hollander’s list in Inferno (xvii).}

9_{The Opera, ‘Fin de Partie’ was performed from 6 to 10 March 2019 in Amsterdam as part of the Opera Forward}

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opening novel Molloy consists of two parts. The first part centres around the narrator, who is later revealed to be Molloy himself. At the beginning of the story, the narrator, Molloy, does not remember his name. Instead, he starts to tell the reader about his wishes. His foremost wish is to find the money he knows his mother is in possession of. This scene presents us with the first pair in the novel: Molloy and his mother10. His mother lives in a different place than Molloy, and thus he goes to find her. He is determined to get the money which he considers his own. The problem is that Molloy does not remember the location of his mother’s accommodation, and thus, he tries to find it by cycling through the city in the hope that he finds it. While he attempts this, he shares his thoughts and memories. He does not care for his mother. She can no longer recognise him or anyone else, and he calls her ‘Countess Caca.’(15) During his search, he accidentally runs over a dog and nearly gets arrested. It is during the interrogation by the police that he realises his name (21). After he is released, the woman whose dog he killed invites him to stay with her- which brings us to a possible second pair. He lives with her in her house for a time until he runs away because he feels trapped. He ends up in the woods and meets a man who tries to build a relationship with him (a possible third couple), but he refuses. He is left in a ditch in the forest.

The second part of Molloy focuses on Moran and follows his perspective. This new character is almost a complete opposite of Molloy. He (Moran) knows his name, has a house, a job, and a

comfortable life. This comparison presents us with one of the most important couples in my analysis: Molloy and Moran. The latter’s life is interrupted at the beginning of part two, as Moran is visited by Gaber, a colleague who gives him a message from their boss (104). Moran needs to find Molloy. However, Moran first tries to see if there is a possibility that someone else can do this task by talking to Gaber. When this proves useless, he resigns to it. Before Moran can leave, he needs to close up his home and make preparations for the journey. Instead of going alone, Moran decides to bring his son with him. In the end, this turns out wrong as his son becomes ill as a result of the journey. Thus, the story ends with Moran writing at a desk about everything that has occurred, concluding with ‘It is raining.’ However, an omniscient narrator informs the reader that there is no rain at all (199). This interruption is an example of how Beckett introduces an unreliable narrator through the use of an omniscient narrator (for an explanation of the concept of an unreliable narrator, see Hamilton 157).

In Malone Dies, the main character is the narrator who later remembers his name to be Malone. The story begins with Malone’s thoughts, memories, and observations about himself. Through his description, one discovers that he is living in a religious institute where others like him are being tended. Because he is bedridden, and he describes his physical state as no longer functioning, he needs constant care. As Malone reminisces about certain memories, he has flashbacks of other people. Thus, an ever-shifting focus of topics becomes apparent in Malone’s thoughts. In following his thoughts, we

10_{Although the relationship is promising, there is no active interaction between both characters in the story, thus}

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are introduced to certain memorable people of Malone’s past and present. It is here that we find several couples, such as Macmann (261) and Moll (292), (Macmann and) Lemuel (303). The people that Malone remembers all have specific character traits, behaviour, and physical appearances.

Somewhat unexpected is the portrayal of the romance between Macmann and his caretaker, Moll. As a spectator, Malone describes the beginning, height, and decline of the romance. Moll’s death, however, does present an opportunity for introducing Macmann’s new caretaker: Lemuel. As the story draws to a close, we learn that Malone has killed people, which might account for his unsurprised reaction to the brutal turn the patients’ excursion led by Lady Pedal takes when Lemuel snaps and starts to kill staff members.

In the third novel, The Unnamable, the narrator addresses himself using the first-person pronoun (331), but more importantly, shows that he is familiar with Beckett’s other characters from previous novels. This familiarity is indicated by his ability to name the characters by their first name (333). The narrator seems to be fixated upon being himself in relation to the other characters. In his attempt to identify himself, he uses the pair to establish a self by opposing the other’s identity. He constantly renews the discussion with himself about the others and himself, despite proclaiming that he wants to rest. Thus, he contradicts himself in his actions and words. More importantly, the narrator seems to be unable to identify himself. He switches between identities from Mahood and Basil to Malone and Worm (395). This continuous debate leads one to question whether these conflicting thoughts might be due to multiple personalities or – as he once states – that he was created by others and has imagined memories (395). This last novel ends with the narrator stating that he will stop – ‘I can’t go on’ (476) –only to conclude with ‘I’ll go on’ (476) as if all his previous thoughts have been erased and he continues as he always has.

The Works

I have chosen Robert Hollander’s edition of the Divine Comedy (2000-2007) because it is regarded as one of the most accurate and acclaimed recent translations of the Comedy into the English language, it is used in academic courses at Universities11. An additional benefit is that the volumes are bilingual and possess both the original Italian and the translation. The Beckett edition I have used is an edition combining the trilogy in its entirety by one translator. This note is significant because Beckett’s novels are often published separately. Furthermore, Beckett’s stories have not been published in the order they were written. Thus, there exists a discrepancy between the order of writing and publication. A point of interest is that not all of Beckett’s works were written in one language. In the case of the trilogy, the original language was French, and translations into English were not immediately available. For convenience the English translations were used.

11_{For example, at the University of Amsterdam it was used in a course titled: Dante’s Divine Comedy and Its’}

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The Significance of the Couple

Some scholars have noted that Dante and Beckett use similar motives in their narratives. Another recurring motif is the use of the couple, which has an important function in the works of both authors. For Beckett, in some short stories and plays, couples have a main role/presence. In comparison, the Comedy is full of pairs. For example, in Inferno alone, there are various types of couples, from lovers (Francesca and Paolo) to political opponents (Cavalcanti and Farinata), enemies (Ugolino and Ruggieri), guides (Dante-Virgil as well as Dante-Beatrice), etc. Thus, it would be interesting to examine if Dantean influence can be identified in Beckett’s trilogy; as of yet, no other research has focused exclusively on the couples in the trilogy. Although, some scholars – such as Caselli (2005, 2014) and Carrière (2013) have noted that the couple is a significant element in the works of both authors as part of their research. For example, Carrière identified and related pairs in Beckett’s theatre plays to Alighieri’s iconic couple; Dante and Virgil (207). However, the pair was not yet the topic of an analytical overview or close reading the relation of the couple in general. Thus, although the ‘couple’ has been recognized as a recurring theme in both Dante and Beckett by several scholars, up until now in the field of Dante-Beckett research no analysis of ‘couples’ in relation to these literary works (Molloy, Malone Dies and The Unnamable) has been made according to Haughton (144). Thus, there exists a niche within existing research on the Dante-Beckett relationship, that my research may lead to new insights and new inquiries within the field.

Thesis Layout

This thesis is structured like a funnel, therefore it follows a broad to narrow approach. In order to structurally answer my research questions, the first step is to provide a clear overview of the fields relevant to this thesis, that of Beckett and Dante research. The first chapter provides an overview of prominent studies in both areas. In order to contextualize my thesis into the existing research, the second chapter presents the most prominent themes in Dante-Beckett studies, as well as presents grounds for the necessity to include my perspective to the existing topics. The third chapter focuses on the results and discusses these in relation to the findings of Caselli and others. Finally, the conclusion presents the results in the context of current recent research, evaluates the procedure, discusses the limitations of this thesis, and concludes with final recommendations.

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Chapter 1: Beckett and Dante

1.1 Introduction

This chapter introduces a general overview of Beckett studies, in order to maintain some clarity, the overview is divided into two parts: Beckett studies and Beckett-Dante studies. This will help in contextualising most of the research as there is a little variation in the method. Chapter one will function as a foundation for Chapter two, which will explore a thematic approach. This chapter begins by explaining the bond that Beckett had with Dante during his lifetime and how the Italian author remained a continuous influence in Beckett’s writing. Subsequently, the differences between the English and Irish Dante’s are given more context in section 1.3. The next section 1.4 consists of the general overview of Beckett research in two parts. Finally, the chapter concludes by presenting the methodology of the thesis and introduces the focus of the next chapter.

1.2 The Beckett-Dante Connection

T. S. Eliot once declared, ‘Dante and Shakespeare divide the modern world between them’

(McDougal ix). Beckett himself expressed his fondness for Dante in the following manner, ‘All I want to do is sit on my ass and fart and think of Dante’(Haughton 142). Despite the crudeness/tone of the remark, the expression does indicate how Beckett considered Dante to be one of his base needs. As previously mentioned, Beckett had an intense relationship with Dante and his work. A brief overview of the continuous appreciation that the Irish author held for the Italian can be found in Haughton’s ‘Purgatory Regained’ (1998). According to Haughton, Beckett first came into contact with the Florentine writer during his study at Trinity College (145). Ever since then, Beckett remained close to the Comedy in a literal sense, the author took his version of the poem with him on holiday (145). Another – perhaps more well-known – example of Beckett’s knowledge of Dante are his notebooks, ‘Whoroscope Notebooks’, in which he made extensive notes on all parts of the poem (Caselli ‘Dante and the Archive’ 33).

1.3 Dante Studies in the English Language

A comprehensive review of Dantean influences in English Literature is Wallace’s ‘Dante in English’(2007) which provides a historical overview of research directions of English

Dante-scholarship (218). Wallace subsequently analysis a number of English authors that have brought Dante – in particular, his Comedy – closer to the English audiences throughout the years. In doing so,

Wallace adheres to a systemic and recurring pattern, which is only used for his personal favourite authors. Wallace focuses on Chaucer, Milton, Shelley, T.S. Eliot, and Ezra Pound. He begins with Chaucer and (what Wallace refers to as Chaucer’s parody) his interpretation of the Divine Comedy,

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presenting examples of Chaucer’s work to the original (282-285). His second author was Milton, who – according to Wallace – was able to retain some of the linguistic constructs that Dante used in Italian and translate these into English with minor changes in order to preserve the linguistic effect (287). Milton also bonded with Dante’s text through his religious objections. For instance, ‘the separation of the papal and imperial powers’(286). However, although the objections that Alighieri mentioned at first ‘served’ Milton in his religious issues, in the end, the difference between their religions proved too strong with Dante as a Catholic and Milton as a Puritan (Wallace 287). Thus, Wallace concludes that ‘differences between Dante and Milton prove, finally, to be more striking than affinities’ (288). The third author, Shelley, was well-read in Dante and his translations of the latter’s work would inspire Shelley’s Prometheus Unbound (291).

Following Shelley, a tendency developed for writers to only use fragments of the Comedy; one example provided by Wallace is Joyce’s Ulysses (2007, 293). The change in Dante reception or rather ‘The revitalisation of Dante was to come chiefly from Ezra Pound and T.S. Eliot’s work’, he includes a description of their work on Dante (Wallace 293-296). Wallace concludes his overview with the development of the Afro-American Dante mentioning Gloria Naylor, the author of Linden Hills (1985) (300). Moreover, he notes the televising of Dante’s Comedy as an interesting development and the claim that ‘visualising him (Dante) comes easier than voicing him’ (300). What Wallace means is that displaying scenes from Dante is easier than expressing his message in another format. Wallace’s rendition of English Dante research is not flawless or representative. For example, in the discussion of Pound and T.S. Eliot’s work on Dante, only a few sentences are spared to refer to Beckett’s work. Not only is it briefly mentioned, naming three of Beckett’s works: Dante and the Lobster, More Pricks than Kicks and Happy Days, but the similar motives that Wallace noticed in Beckett and Dante’s work: ‘endless waiting’ and ‘awkward positions’ are touched upon but not explained (299). In

omitting this, Wallace seems to suggest that these are the only similarities between Beckett and Dante. However, section 1.5 will show a broad array of Beckett studies.

1.4 Multiple Dantes in English and Irish Literature

‘No two writers are influenced by Dante in the same way, but then no two writers have read the same Commedia,’ McDougal the editor of Dante Among the Moderns (1985) accurately and eloquently refers to the subjective and personal nature of interpretation (‘Preface’ ix). This remark portrays the wide range of influence that Dante had on English authors and points out that Beckett was not the only writer that was influenced by the Florentine. McDougal, names a number of Dantean-inspired English writing authors, such as Pound, Eliot, Yeats, Stevens, and Auden (). In attempting to find some correlation between compatriots, a brief comparison is made between English and Irish Dantean-inspired writers. In his historical overview, Wallace touches briefly upon the topic of English and Irish Dantes, noting that the English interpretations are more likely to maintain the same narrative and plot, whereas the Irish versions are more inventive in their reimagining of the poem (218). This

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topic is expanded upon by Piero Boitani in ‘Irish Dante: Yeats, Joyce and Beckett’ as he provides an overview of how Dante’s work was slowly introduced into Irish Literature as well as adapted by modern twentieth-century authors, like Yeats, Joyce, and Beckett (37). Boitani emphasizes the fluency in the Italian language of Beckett and Joyce, which separated them from other Irish Dante inspired authors, as they were able to read the Comedy in its original language (37). Moreover, Boitani confirms the notion that the second part of the Comedy was favoured the most by the Irish authors: ‘purgatory which Joyce, Beckett (and Heaney) choose as their favourite dimension’ (38). In other words, the connection that Irish authors have with Dante’s Comedy is personal, but also more

general/national as it is felt by a number of Irish writers. Beckett’s use of Dante is similar to that of his countrymen in that he applied parts of Dante to his writing and creating something new.

1.5 Overview of Beckett and Dante Studies

1.5.1 Beckett Research

The first study, Critique of Beckett Studies (1994) offers an overview of research already undertaken in Beckett studies. It is one of the oldest publications in this section, and it provides an overview of Beckett studies from 1950 to approximately1990. The book discusses three main

nationalities in which the Beckett studies were undertaken: English, French, and German. As the title implies, the book criticizes previous Beckett research, through discussion and evaluation of the studies in a chronological order per nationality. Thus, this publication offered an extensive and comprehensive review of the investigations and their short-comings. Therefore, this publication proved to be an aid in investigating and determining the validity of this thesis topic, the couples in Beckett, as previously unexplored.

Another introduction to Beckett studies is provided by Gontarski (2010). He presents a select overview of Beckett’s life in combination with his writings, as well as an interpretation of Beckett’s ‘creative spirit,’ as he defines it, ‘a creative life marked by a series of reinventions, or by a pattern of serial reinvention’ (4). This reinvention – as Gontarski names it – can be observed in the manner in which Beckett adapted characteristic elements of Dante (this was also observed by Carrière 207-08). One of the most distinct issues Gontarski addresses is the influence that Waiting for Godot had on Beckett’s work, ‘From Godot onwards, rehearsals would protract the creative process; the

performance would thus become an extension of the performance’ (7). He then describes how the shift in Beckett’s development from author to director helped Beckett enhance his theatre plays as a result of his continuous development (7). Gontarski’s introduction has provided insight into the evolving stages that Beckett underwent from student to theatre director and how this growth influenced his creative interests.

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In this category, two of the discussed publications are compilations edited by Gontarski, and their material is composed of contributions made to the Journal of Beckett Studies. The first is On Beckett: Essays and Criticism (2011), the second, The Beckett Studies (2011).

Van Hulle takes another approach to Beckett in his article ‘Undoing Dante’ (2006), which is primarily concerned with Beckett’s ‘poetics.’ Van Hulle identifies ‘Beckett’s post-war (World War II) writings (…) as a descend into inner space, a kind of Divine Comedy of the self’ (89). Thus, he interprets Beckett’s writings with the personal development of the spirit. What is interesting in the philosophical perspective of Beckett’s writing is that – according to Van Hulle – Foucault viewed Beckett’s contemporary writing as ‘suggest(ing) a connection between writing and death’ (90). In doing so, Foucault established a link to Barthes’ traditional writing, which made the writer immortal, whereas contemporary writing ‘killed’ the author (Van Hulle 90).

In his book, Interpreting the Narrative in the Novels of Samuel Beckett (2001), Boulter explores the narratives of Beckett’s novels. ‘One way I have approached this reading is to see how the texts, which seem to have inscribed within themselves their own mode of reading, harmonise with or diverge from specific aspects of hermeneutical theoria’ (88). Boulter focuses primarily on the hermeneutic aspect of the work and discussed previous research, which he criticised for lack of progressive thinking (61-62). One of the relevant points that Boulter stresses is the position of the reader and the manner in which Beckett forces the reader to follow his dialogue. Moreover, Boulter notes that the fractioning of characters, time, or space can be interpreted as a ‘theme,’ ‘These splitting, be they narratological, temporal, or subjective, are nothing less than a major thematic of the Beckett novel’ (91). Due to the focus of this thesis, couples in the trilogy, the relevant chapters concerning these novels will be reviewed. An exception is made for the chapter on Mercier and Camier as this chapter focuses on how identity is expressed through the narrative in Beckett as this might become relevant for the analysis of the results (in Chapter 3 of this thesis). An identification of the self through narrative may be helpful in identifying couples, where I discuss the analysis in context with other research (i.e., Caselli 2005). Boulter provides a description of his topics in a summary, each topic has a chapter. The following paragraph discusses Boulter’s chapters on the selected novels.

Boulter follows the same order as the trilogy itself. He summarizes: ‘in Molloy, the function and elision of the dialogical principle in the progress of coming to an understanding. In his section on ‘Molloy,’ Boulter examines the ‘self’ in the narrative; in doing so, he addresses themes that can be identified in the novels. He offers different perspectives for interpreting the characters Molloy and Moran; some see them as individual subjects, while he perceives them to be one person (61,71). Chapter 4‘continues the exploration of the instantiation of the “self” in the text of Malone Dies (81). “I examine two modes of self-reflexivity in the novel’ the first: commentary on the narrative, thus metanarrative (81). The second mode: ‘play’ ‘the totality of Malone’s narrative as it delimits the time

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remaining in Malone’s life expresses (…) this desire for order (81). In his analysis of the second narrative he focuses on the hermeneutical function of “play”; In Chapter 5, Boulter discusses The Unnamable focusing on the problematic of the definitional threshold of beginning as a hermeneutic obligation.’(124-25). In doing so, he observes a number of themes: ‘The Unnamable, in a peculiar way, thus confirms (…) the hermeneutic circle’ (108). The following quote describes the dilemma that is most evident in The Unnamable, where the narrator has lost all certainty of his identity and his memories. He tries to distance himself from others while at the same time, he can only identify himself by juxtaposing himself against others; thus, the attempt has become impossible. The theme of impossibility is echoed in the title of the novel, but also in what Boulter refers to as the ‘desire for nullification’ regarding Beckett’s figures: ‘Subjectivity of the Beckett character thus is always painful and protracted: with the desire for the nullification of selfhood comes the nullification of the

impossibility of inscribing that nullification’ (Boulter, 91). In his chapter on Mercier and Camier, Boulter investigates ‘the relation between narrative, epistemology, and the “dialogical” relation between seemingly disparate semiotic “zones”’ (125).

1.5.2 Beckett-Dante Research

The following selected works have a common theme. Namely, all of them agree that there is a distinct connection between Dante and Beckett. One of the most well-known examples is ‘Belacqua,’ the character first created by Dante and adapted by Beckett (see Caselli (2005), Ferrini (2003, 2011), Carrière). The other consists of a similar connection that exists between couples; in some cases, there even is a direct comparison between Dante and Virgil and Beckettian couples. With regard to Dante and Virgil, this proves to be more connected with Beckett’s plays than his novels (as is the case with his Belacqua). Caselli (2005) focuses on intertextuality in her book, Beckett’s Dantes. It is here that she first addresses Beckett’s Belacqua ‘originating in Dante (…) adapted by Beckett in Dreams of Fair to Middling Women, More Pricks than Kicks and Murphy, Molloy’ (35-36).

Caselli is one of the few researchers who includes Beckett’s novels in her discussion. One of her claims is that ‘each Beckett text produces a different Dante’ (Beckett’s Dantes 23). On the topic of authority, she links Beckett with Dante in the following manner, ‘authority of Dante also establishes Beckett’s authority’ (23). One of Caselli’s interesting notions concerns Beckett criticising Dante (25). In turn, this criticism evokes a similar strategy that Dante himself adopts in the Divine Comedy by criticising Virgil, which is expressed by Dante as writing a better epic poem than his literary idol (). A more recent work is Caselli’s ‘Beckett and the Archive’ (2014), where she continues with her account of modernism in Dante research12. In this review Caselli, provides a fuller account of the research if compared to Wallace’s overview of modernism in Dante research, which is also less accurate. To

12_{In this review Caselli, provides a fuller account of the research if compared to Wallace’s overview of}

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allow the reader to become accustomed to different literary periods, she provides a short overview of pre-modernist English literature on Dante. Her main interest is Beckett and the archive (as the title indicates), but the answer of what archive is, is answered at the end of the article (which I elaborate upon later). She connects the previous paragraph to Beckett by analysing Beckett’s first essay on Dante titled: ‘Dante…Bruno..Vico..Joyce’(1929) cited in ‘Beckett and the Archive’ (30).

Second, she addresses an immediate contradiction that appears to arise between two figures in Beckett’s first essay. While she mentions a ‘modernist Dante as a linguistic innovator’ (31), she presents the recurring appropriated figure of ‘Belacqua,’ who reappears throughout his entire work (31). Caselli discusses the appearance of Belacqua in several of Beckett’s works before introducing her sub-question on how rereading Dante may aid in helping the reader understand Beckett’s oeuvre better. According to Caselli, much evidence can be retrieved from Beckett’s notebooks, which he named ‘Whoroscope Notebooks’ (39) and have become famous due to their content. Her conclusion is phrased in a manner describing the connection between both authors. However, it may be interpreted as somewhat confusing for less-informed readers of the topic, as it poses that access to the archives and their content alone may not lead one to become further educated in Beckett’s work. However, even if one cannot understand the work itself, this exercise may still result in a better understanding of the author. Caselli’s claim, she considers the oeuvre itself to be ‘an archive’ (44), assumes that the audience is aware of specific elements in Beckett. This claim can only function if one is aware of how Beckett has interwoven and adapted elements or structures of the Comedy into his work13, and that these re-imagined subjects in themselves have become part of Beckett’s legacy (2014, 44) while still containing the essence that originated in Dante14.

Similarly, Carrière also recognises the distinct connection between Beckett and Dante. In his article ‘ Beckett’s Happy Days and Dante’s Inferno Canto 10’, he intends to prove that Inferno was a vital source for Beckett’s Happy Days. He finds that Canto 10 of Inferno was of dual importance, both as a ‘framework’ and as a ‘thematic context’ (197). Apart from his analysis, Carrière critically discusses Caselli’s book Beckett’s Dantes. He demonstrates minor shortcomings in Caselli’s interpretation and explains how these flaws are important to his essay (198). For example, he establishes a connection between Ferrini’s and Caselli’s work regarding Beckett’s ‘Belacqua’ (197-98). He evaluates Ferrini’s

13_{as Caselli implies in her book (43).} 14

Although this use by Beckett is alluded to by Caselli in her article, it requires some understanding of

interpretation of material, she does provide an explanation in order to illustrate this, but due to the break cause by the footnotes, this explanation essential to understanding the conclusion might suffer from this interruption (43).

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Beckett et Dante and uses it to decipher the usage of a particular writing style, ‘il Dolce Stil Nuovo,’ which was first used and invented by Dante, then later used by Beckett in his French work15 (198).

Carrière uses style as a manner to identify characterising traits of the author in his analysis of Beckett’s character Winnie in Happy Days (199). Thus, he proposes that the frequent use of a certain style can be a manner to identify a writer. Furthermore, he briefly identifies ‘complementary pairs’, which are characterised through their dependent nature; he provides a reference to Vladimir and Estragon from Waiting for Godot (207) andthen connects the structure of the pair to Dante and Virgil as he observes language as a connecting factor between the couples; the necessity of language

reception forces speaker and listener structures (207). He poses that in order to realise effective

communication, a set of rules is necessary between the speaker and the listener. According to his claim, if an incorrect structure is followed communication may not be effective. In the end, Carrière

concludes (like Ferrini) that Beckett’s re-imagined scenes or characters from Dante retain their essence but are present in another manner (208), ‘Of course Beckett adapts these ideas to his purposes, but he retains a great deal of imagery and heroism to be found in Canto 10’ (Carrière 207-08).

Ferrini explores Beckett’s interpretation and especially the adaptation of the ‘saving’ function that Virgil poses to Dante in the Divine Comedy in Beckett’s oeuvre. Ferrini discusses several of Beckett’s plots, such as Mercier et Camier. Ferrini’s analysis of Belacqua describes how certain scenes in Beckett’s adapted scenes can be linked to Inferno (Beckett et Dante 202). Another link to the Comedy is the tension between silence and discourse in the works of Dante and Beckett. In the Comedy, the silence of both Virgil and Beatrice is contrasted by Dante’s continuous questioning (Ferrini 208). Moreover, Ferrini mentions Molloy and Malone Dies as part of Beckett’s French writing period (209), as well as the importance of Waiting for Godot in his entire oeuvre (also noted by Gontarski (7-8). However, Beckett’s protagonists do converse, albeit in a language that they no longer understand thus leading to confusion for the characters (Ferrini 209). The confusion of meaning is also felt by the audience, who want to follow the dialogue but are unable to because they first need to decipher the meaning (209).

Ferrini’s article, ‘Beckett lecteur de Dante’ (2011), is an addition to his book Dante et Beckett (2003). It includes textual examples of Dantean elements in Beckett’s writing16

. The structure of the article is as follows: it opens with a quote from Beckett’s novel, ‘Un Heureux Hasard’ (224),

clarifying the relationship that Beckett had with Dante and his writing17 (Ferrini 224). It continues by addressing examples of Beckett’s writing that can be linked to the Comedy – e.g., ‘Ugolin, Francesca

15_{This personal style of Beckett (‘non style’), inspired by Dante’s ‘il dolce stil nuovo’ is revisited by Ferrini in}

his ‘Lecteur de Dante’(251).

16_{‘on trouve chez Beckett, avec un constance exemplaire, des traces de sa lecture de La Divine Comédie’ (225).} 17

‘Beckett a toujours lu Dante(…)La Divine Comédie qu’il lisait déjà à l’époque de ses etudes à Trinity College’ (Ferrini 224).

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(…) personages des plus celebres de La Divine Comédie’(Ferrini 229). It also addresses Beckett’s first essay and his comments on the importance of Joyce’s work. Ferrini concludes by presenting the differences in the purgatories of Dante, Joyce, and Beckett18 (233). He names other ‘elements’ of Dante’s Purgatory retained by Beckett in his style, namely four elements (138): Belacqua, Dante’s first smile, waiting, the question of continuing towards paradise and the prayer.19

Ferrini provides an example of Beckett’s reinterpretation of a scene in Dante’s Purgatory, the meeting between Dante and Belacqua – specifically the recognition by Dante (235). He describes that while Dante needs time to recognise Belacqua, the recognition is almost immediate in Beckett’s version (235). Furthermore, Ferrini notes a number of other themes already presented in my previous notes, such as the continuous presence of characters in Beckett’s oeuvre, i.e. Belacqua (237, 239), the silence of Virgil (expanded upon by Carrière 250), and the master versus pupil motif20 (251), thus underlining the relevance of these instances as direct instances of Beckett’s appropriation of Dante. Another interesting note concerns the identification of the individual and contrasting writing styles between Dante and Beckett: ‘le doux style nouveau de Dante qui fait honneur au non style (no style) de Beckett’ (251).

On Beckett: Essay and Criticism (2012) is a collection of recently written essays on Beckett. It is divided into three main parts of written work and plays. I have focused primarily on the section concerning the written work, specifically the essays on the novels of the trilogy. The essay on The Unnamable by Ackerley is a theoretical exploration of Beckett’s notes, the published version, and their differences regarding the narrator’s voice. Ackerley makes an assumption that there is little similarity between the early notes of Beckett that he studied and the known version of the novel (137). This comparison between Beckett’s original notes and the published work is more relevant now because of Van Hulle’s participation in the Beckett Project21

. The concept of fiction in Beckett is discussed in the last essay of this collection ‘When is the end not the End? The Idea of Fiction in Beckett?’ by Iser. He addresses several examples of fiction in Beckett’s oeuvre. For example, he discusses Malone Dies, particularly Beckett’s style and how his attempt to write everything that is happening to him at the same time as his writing is thwarted by the act of writing itself (43). Thus, he is trying to achieve the unachievable, because describing what is happening while it occurs is

impossible. In every instance, including the case of the narrator of Malone Dies, in order to write what you experience, you have to write it first, thus in a sense defeating the purpose.

18_{‘Un boucle que n’opéréra jamais l’oeuvre de Beckett dont le Purgatoire n’est pas ascendant (Dante) ou}

circulaire (Joyce) mais descendant’(Ferrini 233).

19

This was translated by me from the main text (Ferrini 238).

20_{‘avec un humour qui trahit tout l’amour que Beckett épouvait pour Dante, son maître et son auteur’(251).} 21_{Van Hulle tries to retrace the development of the narratives that Beckett wrote and how these previous versions}

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The remaining section of the publications are part of The Digital Manuscript Project (Van Hulle, 2017). The project strives to compile and protect all Beckett’s preserved notes on his literature and theatre pieces for future research in cooperation with the Beckett Foundation. The most interesting volumes of this series are Volumes 4 and 5, The Making of Molloy and The Making of Malone Dies, by Van Hulle and other Beckett scholars. The volumes present and contextualise the notes that were drafted before publication, and a comparison is made between the published work and earlier drafts to attempt to ascertain a possible pattern in Beckett’s writing. In the book, The Making of Samuel Beckett’s Molloy (2017), Van Hulle has accumulated the existing manuscripts of Beckett’s Molloy. This book aims to provide insight into the writing process of Beckett.

1.6 Methodology

This section introduces the methodology used, the research questions and provides denotations for relevant terminology. The method used in similar studies is textual analysis, therefore this will be utilised in combination with close reading in order to identify the pair in the selected works of Beckett and Dante. The data collection will be manual . First the couples will be identified and checked by using Hollander’s comments as a reference point. After all pairs have been identified, general results from the overview analysis will be made of the trilogy and the Comedy. These results may be more likely to be representational. After which, the relation between the couples shall be assessed. Moreover, a distinction between couples that were inserted by the author and ‘possible’ pairs (couples that are implied in the text) will be made.

However, in order to show how Dantean influence can be discerned in Beckett, two/three pairs will be analysed in relation to the Comedy. In Dante, the qualitative approach will be more relevant, considering the number of pairs that will be present in contrast to the trilogy. Therefore, the following steps will be taken: first, the Dantean scene will be introduced. Subsequently, the scene from the trilogy will be provided, and both scenes will be compared in order to explain how the influence can be observed and interpreted. This approach focuses on the analysis and reflects upon the results in the context of the research of Caselli (2005, 2014).

My main research question is: Can Dantean influence be identified in the pairs in Beckett’s trilogy? Sub questions: Are there couples in the trilogy? How can the Dantean influence be discerned? Is the Dantean influence the same? Can a pattern be recognised in Beckett’s appropriation?

Furthermore, there may be potential difficulties regarding both narratives. In the case of Beckett’s narrators, I have chosen to include all the mentioned characters, even if their identity or existence is questionable as this will allow for a complete analysis. Another potential problem is the occurrence of personification in the Comedy, in such a case, the pair is left out. In an instance of personification, a

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non-living entity is presented as having human characteristics, such as emotions or the ability to think. For an example of this, consult Norton’s Essential Literary Terms (39).

In this thesis, the following terms will be used regularly, and a clear denotation is provided in order to aid in understanding the concept (and its use): ‘ the couple’ or ‘the pair’: This concept was

approached in interpretation of two people, being named by the author as a unit, and in some relation to each other. The second concept, ‘appropriation’: The use of an element or character of a source text by a former author, re-used, in a narrative written by another author. This term was summarised by Carrière, and he concluded that Beckett’s re-imagined scenes or character traits originating in Dante retain their essence, but are presented in another manner (208).

1.7 Summary

This chapter aimed to provide a background for the reader in the main areas of research: Beckett research and Dante-Beckett studies. Furthermore, this chapter introduced the methodology, the research questions potential problems as well as the relevant terminology used in this thesis. The following chapter will elaborate on the main themes in Beckett- Dante research. In doing so, it will enable a thematic approach of the topics in Dante-Beckett field. This contextualization enables me to provide a more specific context for this study in the field.

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Chapter 2: The Themes in Beckett Studies

2.1 Introduction

This chapter investigates the most important themes in current Dante-Beckett studies: Dante characters used by Beckett, Identity Research in Beckett, and Textuality in Beckett. Through the literature review in the preceding chapter, a number of key researchers in both Beckett and Dante research were

identified, such as Gontarski (2011), Caselli (2005, 2014), Van Hulle (2017) and Ferrini (2000, 2011). This chapter employs a thematic approach to ordering the scholarly field. The motivation for this approach – instead of a chronologic overview – is that the thematic ordering allows for a more

efficient and logical overview of the entire field than a chronologic ordering would. One of the reasons is that some of the similar interest studies were investigated in a different period, as becomes apparent in the review below. Furthermore, another recurring phenomenon concerns the focus of the studies; in some cases, one study can explore multiple themes listed in this review.

2.2 The Themes in the Field

2.2.1 Dante characters used by Beckett

One of the most prominent recurring themes in Dante-Beckett studies is the textual analysis of Dantean characters. The most frequent explored characters are Belacqua and Sordello (see Caselli, 2005). In this thesis, during research, several studies either partly or completely focus on these Dantean characters in relation to Beckett. As Strauss (1959) and Haughton (1995) have assessed – as well as Caselli, Ferrini, among others – these Dantean characters – taken originally from Inferno and Purgatory by Beckett –are apparent examples of Beckett’s appropriation of Dante. But as both Haughton (154) and Caselli (Beckett’s Dantes132) have noted in their research, the less obvious links to Dante in Beckett are more difficult to ascertain.

In ‘Belacqua and Beckett’s Tramps,’ Strauss (1959) explores how Belacqua is appropriated by Beckett in various texts. First, he identifies Belacqua as a Dantean character before analysing Beckett’s interest in the character (251). Strauss uncovers another form of appropriation by Beckett concerning pairs. He notes the importance of the relation between Gogo and Didi in Beckett’s play En Attendant Godot in his conclusion. Moreover, Strauss contrasts Beckett with Kafka as two writers of the ‘absurd’ before focusing on the importance of ‘the self’ and ‘the role of waiting’ in Beckett’s writing (252). Second, ‘Beckett’s fascination with Purgatory’ (252) is the second important theme in Strauss’ article. Beckett’s version of purgatory is juxtaposed to Joyce’s (252). Ferrini explains the difference between the three by comparing them in order to show the variations between them all – Beckett’s purgatory goes downward, while Dante’s is reached moving upwards, Joyce’s version is

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circular (‘Lecteur’ 233). Strauss compares Beckett’s version of Purgatory to Joyce’s (252). Then, a brief review of the character in Beckett’s oeuvre is presented22

.

In his analysis of Belacqua, Strauss stresses the important evolution that Belacqua undergoes throughout Beckett’s work – namely, there is no specific Belacqua, but one ‘absorbed into the protagonists,’ thus a specific identity becomes amalgamated into a part of a whole. This finding is substantiated by the following remark, ‘The sequence, (…) progressively strips the Belacqua figure of all personal identity’ (254). A relevant juxtaposition is a comparison between Dante and Beckett’s Belacqua, the most important difference being that Dante’s original retains a ‘comic’ aspect, whereas Beckett’s has lost this (259). An important remark that needs to be remembered when discussing and analysing Beckett, Strauss notes, ‘Beckett23

“unassigned symbols” (…) must always remain permeable to other meanings’ (256). Not only does this remark reflect on how Beckett can be interpreted in various manners, but it also stresses the subjective nature of interpretation itself. It stresses/implicates that one should keep an open mind and the importance of symbolism. The symbolism could be relevant, because of Beckett’s appropriation, in which he uses elements in his manner (which may differ from the one conventionally used). Finally, Strauss concludes with reference to a couple in Waiting for Godot, ‘Gogo and Didi need each other (…) because they /are/; man needs the

companionship of his fellow man’(261). This citation underlines how important and prominent the pair as a construction inhabits Beckett’s work. Although this reference concerns the characters in Waiting for Godot, Strauss uses it in his conclusion as a general reference to Beckett’s use of the motive of the couple in his writing.

Haughton’s article, ‘Purgatory Regained? Dante and Late Beckett’ (1998), contextualises Beckett’s work and Dantean influences, particularly in his later work. It begins by briefly introducing Beckett’s early work and contrasting the difference to his older work. Haughton’s article is another case study that focuses on subtle references to the Comedy based on textual analyses. This study also

substantiates the need for an investigation into less apparent Dantean elements in Beckett’s work. More importantly, Haughton’s study underlines/supports the importance of my study focusing on the trilogy, as this part of Beckett’s work has not been analysed in relation to couples.

In his book Dante et Beckett (2003), Ferrini explores several of Beckett’s works. The character of Belacqua forms one of the three elements that are characteristic of Beckett’s appropriation of

originally Dantean elements. (He provides a summary of the three appropriations in his conclusion) ‘The first, Belacqua’s waiting (…), the second: Beatrice’s absence (…), the third: Virgil’s

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The full list of Beckett’s work mentioned in Strauss’ article: More Pricks Than Kicks, Murphy, Molloy,

Malone Meurt (Malone Dies), L’Innomable (The Unnamable), En Attendant Godot (Waiting for Godot), and Fin de Partie (Endgame) (254-55).

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silence(…)’24

(2003, 162)i. His later publication ‘Lecteur de Dantes’ (2011) enabled Ferrini to expand upon previously excluded elements.

2.2.2 Identity Research in Beckett

The (complex) theme of identity is one of the most explored themes in Beckett research because of its complexity. Therefore, the theme of identity is one of the thematic categories in the literature review above because of the wide range of research attending to this particular focus. As a minor line of inquiry, this theme can be found in Caselli (2005), while Boulter (2001) focuses on identity in Beckett as the main concept. Boulter studies the discourse in Beckett’s oeuvre in his book Interpreting the Narrative in the Novels of Samuel Beckett (2001). The publication is structured into six chapters, which all investigate the narratives of most of Beckett’s novels, namely: Watt, Mercier and Camier, Molloy, Malone Dies, The Unnamable, and How It Is. For this study, the main focus is on the relevant chapters regarding the trilogy, Chapters 3–5; however, the findings of the chapter concerning Mercier and Camier are interesting with regard to the defining elements of identity and discourse in relation to the trilogy. An important point that Boulter (2001) raises is the active role that the reader has to assume when reading Beckett.

2.2.3 Textuality in Beckett

Haughton (1995) identifies two distinct types of Dantean characteristics in Beckett’s writing: extravert Dantean elements (i.e., the character of Sordello) and introvert elements, denoting less overt references to the Comedy. The article’s main investigation of the subtle references concerns the ‘later work.’ His article and examples show how allusions to the atmosphere can be interpreted as a ‘subtle’ marker that resembles the atmosphere of the Comedy. By comparison, Caselli (2005) – mainly focuses on the overt references and concludes that her. This includes the main characters: i.e., Molloy, Malone, or the narrator of The Unnamable – and the theme of identity.

Moreover, Caselli notices several literary processes such as “mirroring and duplication” (2005, 134) and “repetition and re-imagination”(135). In other words, what Caselli refers to as ‘reimagining’ is, in fact, the same as what Ferrini and Caselli refer to as ‘appropriation’. This process functions as follows: the writer alters an element or character into a reinterpreted version. Caselli, moreover, identifies Angela Moorjani’s observations on Beckett regarding the importance of the recurring theme of ‘archives of the mind’(138). This concept denotes the subjectivity of the mind and the inevitable impossibility of accurate or flawless translation of the recollection of personal memory (2005,138). According to Caselli, a possible problem of this procedure are the ‘gaps,’ i.e., lapses in memory which, can reveal another source text that influenced the writer. Through these glitches in recollection, ‘traces of another text’ (138) may become apparent (part of “Beckett’s archive”’ (Caselli 138). This statement creates a connection to her later article ‘Beckett, Dante, and the Archive’ (2014). Instances of texts

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where evidence of another text can be identified will be relevant as this thesis tries to assert the presence of elements of the Comedy in Beckett’s trilogy. As Haughton established, such elements do not need to be overtly present.

2.3 Reflection

As the previous paragraphs have indicated, one important thread of the debate on Dantean elements in Beckett may be distinguished by the type of references to Dantean elements: for example, identity in Beckett or overt versus subtle Dantean presence. Another important thread of the debate may be found in the recurring patterns. In most of the aforementioned studies, the majority is based on the necessity for further investigation of previously established themes. However, certain less substantial separate discoveries in the research were not explored to the same extent as the well-established motifs: Dantean characters in Beckett (i.e., Belacqua and Sordello). Despite the indications that there may be a correlation between the pairs in the trilogy and the Comedy. Thus, in other words, there seems to be/is (subtle) Dantean influences in Beckett (Trilogy). Another debate in Dante-Beckett analysis concerns the type of textuality present in Beckett as Haughton and Caselli seem to reach opposing conclusions from their textual analysis. The next chapter will discuss the results.

2.4 The Necessity of Exploring the Couples in Beckett’s Trilogy

For one, the trilogy is one of the lesser-explored parts of Beckett’s work (Haughton 1995). Second, most of the literary or linguistic research tends to be focused on prominent Dantean characters used in Beckett (i.e., Caselli 2005). Thus, perhaps inadvertently a gap will be formed around unnoticed Dantean influence in Beckett, which can only be discovered when analysed, as Haughton

demonstrated in his study. Third, there are several instances of Dante pairs which are compared to Beckett’s in unrelated studies. Fourth, despite the previous development, as of yet no study has focused on this topic, possibly because it might have seemed unlikely/unrelated in its connection. However, as Haughton has stated/concluded, lesser-known Dantean references to Dante in Beckett may be present. Therefore, by linking these separate instances of possible Dante-Beckett pairs, a valid argument can be made for further research in this line of inquiry. Thus, this thesis started by first targeting the couples in Beckett’s trilogy for Dantean influence. In doing so, it used the previously mentioned studies as a key reference point.

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Chapter 3: Analysis of the Couples in the selected works of Beckett and

Dante

3.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the analysis of the couples in the selected novels of Beckett and Dante’s Divine Comedy. The analysis reflects upon the following points of interest: similarities between Beckett and Dante’s couples, the presentation of the narrative, all the characteristics of how a ‘Dantean’ presence in this respect can be identified in Beckett’s writing. First, an introduction to generic, recognisable Dantean influences is presented. In Section 3.5, the couple(s) are presented in tables, indicating the nature of the relationship between the couple’s members and the most frequently used type of couple. Subsequently, two pairs are analysed in more detail. The results are then evaluated in the light of the previously conducted literature analysis, particularly in contrast with the analyses of Haughton (1959), Caselli (2014), and Ferrini (2011). Furthermore, Beckett’s use of ‘appropriation’ is re-evaluated in the light of the analyses. Finally, the chapter concludes by reflecting on the findings.

3.2 General Dantean influences in Beckett’s works

This section identifies general Dantean influences in Beckett’s trilogy. One example can be found in Beckett’s mirroring of Dante’s framework (also identified by Carrière 192). A general similarity is that both authors chose to employ a male narrator. In some scenes of both authors’ work, the structure of the story is similar – namely, that of a narrator who shares his recollection of a certain event. In both Dante and Beckett, the narrator is a male. A second example connecting Dante’s and Beckett’s writing is the theme of sin. In the selected novels, most of Beckett’s characters (Molloy, Malone, and Macmann) seem to be sinners, as they actively pursue these sins despite the negative outcome (Molloy, for example, is driven by his avarice to acquire his mother’s wealth). A third similarity, the disposition of Beckett’s characters is similar to that of the inhabitants of Dante’s Inferno. The population of Hell are the only ones who pity themselves; the other residents of the afterlife do not pity them. Similarly, the lack of redemption in the hell is echoed by the lifestyle of Beckett’s characters, as most do not seek forgiveness or redemption. The only exception is when the latter has become a burden (unless in the form of eternal rest, thus death).

A clear difference in style can be noted in language. Ferrini summarised the differences in style by comparing the, Dante’s Dolce Stil Nuovo versus Beckett’s ‘non-style’ (‘Lecteur’ 251). Carrière put forward the concept of using style as an identifying characteristic (199). Carrière’s finding of similarity between Beckett’s use of the Dolce Stil Nuovo in his study (198) was not recognisable in the trilogy. A possible explanation for this could be due to the use of a translation of Beckett’s trilogy. However, this was not the main focus of this thesis. Upon examining the styles, the following can be discerned: Beckett uses sentences in a different manner than Dante. For example, Beckett uses the form of the sentence structure to correlate a character’s state of mind. When he tries to convey

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someone’s inner thoughts, he allows the sentence to represent that state. This can be observed in the following example, in Malone Dies, the narrator continuously changes his mind regarding his decisions and comments on the process. Thus, the use of meta-language is used to provide commentary on the events taking place. A second difference in language use is the use of coarse language, which is used by the narator for example to refer to women.

Hollander has noted two instances where Dante uses specific discourse for particular occasions, for example, when Virgil negotiates with Malacoda of the Malebranche demons (Inf. 32) or when Dante converses with Farinata (Inf.8) In contrast, Beckett’s writing seems to be the exact opposite. Instead of an elevated style, the language is characterised by uncomplicated sentence structures and

vocabulary. The texts become complicated when thought patterns switch within a paragraph. When a character’s thoughts change in Beckett, the words follow the stream of consciousness as it comes into existence. This stream shows how careful one must be when reading Beckett, as he attempts to project mental chaos present in thought onto paper. This chaos is captured by recording onto paper the disruptive thoughts of the narrator as they occur, which sometimes leads to ungrammatical sentences. For example, this is a fragment of the narrator of The Unnamable, and it displays his thoughts as they occur in his mind.

‘That’s an idea. To heighten my disgust. I’ll recite it. This will leave me free to consider how I may best proceed with my affair, beginning again at the point where I had to interrupt it, under duress, or through fear, or through ignorance. It will be the last story.’(Beckett The Unnamable 372).

Thus, while Beckett’s language might not seem difficult, the layers in the text can prove challenging to readers, such as thought patterns which are subject to change. In Interpreting the Narrative of Samuel Beckett, Boulter touches upon this subject. He notes that reader expectation might be counterproductive when reading Beckett, as the reader‘s mind tries to find logic within the

sentences and information. However, logic is not always present – such as when insight is provided into the mind of someone who is deteriorating or disturbed (a type of character also present in the novels discussed). Another characteristic of language is the usage of curse words and swearwords or demoting vocabulary, to describe certain individuals, such as women or minority groups. For example, ‘Two cunts’ (The Unnamable 368) refers to two women that remain unnamed, or ‘Unfortunately, our concern here is not with Moll, who after all is only a female’ (Beckett Malone Dies 300). In the second example, the reduced concern is emphasised by the use of the word ‘only’ before indicating gender. Thus, the style differences are polar opposites and yet this contrast may reinforce the style’s effect on the reader. In other words, Dante’s eloquent and focused sentences become even more elegant when juxtaposed against Beckett’s functional usage and simple vocabulary.

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3.3 Analysis of the Couples

This section discusses the results of the analysis of the couples in the trilogy and the Divine Comedy. First, some general remarks will be noted before the analysis of the trilogy will be presented. In general, most couples in the Comedy did not have any interaction with Dante. This reduces their impact on the influence. However, the couples that have the most interaction with the protagonist were in Inferno. The most important result from the analysis of the pairs in the Divine Comedy was that only couples in Inferno have discourse with Dante. The pairs from Purgatory and Paradise are superficially present, serving as examples, as they do not interact with the protagonist. Thus, the Inferno pairs were most relevant. Moreover, they could be divided into my main categories: love (Paolo and Francesca), enemies (Ugolino and Ruggieri) and family (Cavalcante and Farinata). (In addition, all these pairs could thus be viewed as a unity).

In the analysis, two types of pairs were possible either closed or open. Closed couples or fixed pairs denote relationships exclusive to one particular partner. The couples in the Divine Comedy were closed, with exception to Dante’s pairs (Dante-Virgil, Dante-Beatrice, Dante-Bernard) which are open couples. The analysis of the lists revealed three overlapping relationships that are present in both works:

relationships between family (Farinata-Cavalcante versus Lambert husband and wife), enemies (Ruggieri-Ugolino versus Basil and the speaker in The Unnamable), and lovers (Paolo-Francesca, Dido-Aeneas versus Macmann-Moll).

3.3.1 Analysis of the couples in the trilogy

In order to arrive at the results, the procedure mentioned in the methodology (page 14) was followed. First, the pairs were identified before they were counted manually. The analysis of the trilogy and their pairs provided a total of 33 pairs. The category of work replaced that of enemies as very few couples were hostile in Beckett. However, as some pairs could not be placed into one of these types, the fourth category of ‘unknown’ was added. In Molloy, there is a nearly equal division between all categories. Of the 13 pairs, three are family-oriented, three are love-related, and three are work-related; the other four are unknown. In the other novels, the division is less equally divided, as can be seen in Table 1.2 below.

Novel Number of couples

Molloy 13

Malone Dies 14

The Unnamable 6

Total 33

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Category Work Love Family Unknown Novel Molloy 3 3 3 4 Malone Dies 2 2 7 2 The Unnamable - - 2 4 Total 5 5 12 10

Table 1.2 The categories of couples in Beckett’s trilogy.

During the analysis, it became apparent that the family category is very present in the Beckett pairings; in fact, it is the largest section of all. Because of the number of pairs and the quality of the textual evidence, I have chosen two couples (Macmann and Moll, Molloy and Moran) who are interesting with regard to their possible mirroring of Dante’s Inferno in either the relationship or as a character.

3.3.2 The analyses of the Divine Comedy

In order to arrive at the results from the analysis, all pairs were counted manually from each instalment of the Divine Comedy25 after each occurrence. The analysis of the pairs in the Comedy gave the

following results: Inferno: 52 pairs, Purgatory: 32 pairs, Paradise: 68 pairs. The total count including all the possible pairs resulted in 152 in the entire Comedy.

Book Couples

Inferno 42 and (10 possible pairs)

Purgatory 26 and (6 possible pairs)

Paradise 66 and (2 possible pairs)

Total 134 + (18 pos. pair) = 152

Table 1.3 Total number of couples in the Divine Comedy.

A distinct difference in the couples of the Comedy is that, despite the increasing numbers of pairs in the poem, the most relevant couples were the couples that interacted with Dante in Inferno: Francesca and Paolo (Inf. 5), Farinata and Cavalcante (Inf. 10), Ulysses and Diomed (Inf. 26) and Ugolino and Ruggieri (Inf. 32). More importantly, Dante speaks with Francesca, Farinata, Cavalcante, Ulysses, and Ugolino. These couples all fit in my original categories: lovers (Francesca and Paolo), family (Farinata and Cavalcante- in law), and enemies (Ugolino and Ruggieri). Regarding the theme of identity, all of these pairs are presented as one identity, rather than two individuals. This is because the couples in Inferno represented a specific sin which correlated to the circle of hell they inhabited. In general, the pair shared the sin in accordance with the regulations of Hell. After the sentencing, the pair is

25_{As already mentioned in the Introduction, the edition of the Divine Comedy was that of Robert Hollander}