The effects of Fitspiration posts and body positive posts on emerging adults’ dietary restraint intention, mood state, situated optimism, and self-compassion.
Zhang Shengyuan
12091952
Master’s Thesis
Graduate School of Communication
Master’s program Communication Science
Words:7263
Chei Billedo
Abstract
Body positive movement is an online activity to encourage viewers to accept different body sizes and appreciate their body images. At the same time, Fitspiration is a popular trend to advocate thin and toned bodies by inspiring audiences to exercise actively and eat healthy. The current study aimed to investigate the different effects of Fitspiration posts and body positive posts on female emerging adults’ dietary restraint intention, mood states, situated optimism, and self-compassion. The study also investigated the mediated effects of
self-compassion. Results showed that female emerging adults exposed to Fitspiration posts reported significantly higher dietary restraint intention than female emerging adults exposed to body positive posts did. Female emerging adults exposed to Fitspiration posts reported significantly less positive mood states than female emerging adults exposed to body positive posts did. The two types of posts groups didn’t significantly differ from each other on situated optimism; similarly, the two types of posts groups didn’t significantly differ from each other on self-compassion. Moreover, self-compassion was positively associated with positive mood states, but negatively associated with dietary restraint intention. To conclude, Fitspiration had a stronger effect on females’ dietary restraint intention than body positive posts, while body positive posts had a stronger effect on females’ positive mood states. Although self-compassion didn’t mediate the relationships, it was still correlated with lower dietary restraint intention and higher positive mood states.
Introduction
Social media has been widely used by young people today. In the last decade, social media platforms have served the function of conveying and transmitting ideal beauty
standards and body images (Prichard, McLachlan, Lavis & Tiggemann, 2018). Instagram has been regarded as the most popular mobile application among young people, and posts related to fitness contents with hashtag #Fitspiration have achieved ten thousands of likes
(Dibisceglie & Arigo, 2019). In the past three years, #Fitspiration posts started the trend of inspiring women to pursue a fit body shape by executing an active exercise, a healthy diet, and a positive lifestyle (Tiggemann & Zaccardo, 2015). Most posts convey information that praise the fit or thin and toned body size, encourage dietary control, and exercise for better body image (Wick & Harriger, 2018). The popularity of #Fitspiration has attracted scholars’ attention. Although the goal of #Fitspiration posts was generally agreed as positive, healthy and self-caring, current research found that #Fitspiration on Instagram was significantly correlated with body dissatisfaction, decreased self-esteem, compulsive exercise, eating disorders, negative mood, and self-objectification (Sumter, Cingel & Antonis, 2018; de Vries & Peter, 2013; Holland & Tiggemann, 2017; Tiggemann and Zaccardo, 2015). Researchers believed fitspiration endorsed problematic attitudes to pursue an ideal fit-and-toned body image by excessive exercise and dietary restraint (Alberga, Withnell & Ranson, 2018). Many scientific literature addressed that fitspiration posts on social media platforms led to both psychological and physical health concerns among teenagers and emerging adults (Easton, Morton, Tappy, Francis & Dennison, 2018). On the other hand, as the amount of fitspiration posts dramatically increased in the past several years, researchers also expected to illustrate
the positive effects and the reasons for the popularity of fitspiration posts. However, only limited studies (Sumter et al., 2018) indicated positive correlations. For instance, viewers who are exposed more frequently to fitspiration posts are more likely to embrace situated optimism, which leads to more weight loss.
In the meantime, on social media websites, more specifically, On Instagram, a
developing movement called “body positivity” is going on to reject unattainable body ideals, identical beauty standards, and encourage diverse lifestyles. The body positive posts mainly convey the idea of promoting body acceptance and self-compassion. This type of body image posts focuses on being tolerant of body flaws and inadequacies (Tylka, 2018). A content analysis has found that over two-thirds of body images in body positive posts are overweight or above the BMI standard. In contrast, more than 75.2% Fitspiration posts mainly present a small range of body size with mostly thin and fit body shapes (Cohen, Irwin, Newton-John & Slater, 2019). In the last five years, there was a massive increase in body positive accounts on Instagram (Tylka, 2018). Until November 2019, the amount of posts with hashtag
#bodypositive has reached 11.7 million, and posts with hashtag #body positivity increased to 3.9 million. More and more scholars indicated that body positive post was positively related to better emotional balance, healthier psychological states, social well-being and healthier physical condition (Tylka, 2018; Andrew, Tiggemann, & Clark, 2016). Similarly, previous research have elaborated that there was a significant relationship between being exposed to positive body image and healthier eating behaviors, better self-compassion, self-care, active exercise behavior and body satisfaction (Slater, Varsani & Diedrichs, 2017;
positive post and sexual functioning was also significantly positive (Satinsky, Reece, Dennis, Sanders, & Bardzell, 2012).
In reality, Fitspiration posts and body positive posts are closely related to an individual’s psychological condition and physical behaviors. Female teenagers and emerging adults are the majority of Fitspiration posts and body positive posts consumers but also one of the most vulnerable groups for media effects. In recent years, body positive post accounts are
committed to providing online communities to share unattainable body-ideal resistance ideas, giving solutions to eating disordered behaviors, and promoting understanding and
appreciation for diverse body images among young women. Scholars need to clarify whether or not Fitspiration posts and body positive posts can be regarded as health tools to achieve weight loss and whether or not body positive posts can benefit individuals’ eating behaviors, mood states, situated optimism, and self-compassion. Yet, limited studies were conducted to explore the different effects of Fitspiration and body positive posts. To further explore the positive and negative impacts of Fitspiration and body positive posts on individual’s
psychological condition and physical behaviors, the current research needs to be conducted. Therefore, the study aimed to compare the media impacts of Fitspiration posts on Instagram with body positive posts on Instagram on female emerging adults’ dietary restraint intention, mood states, situated optimism and self-compassion, and investigate the mediated effects of self-compassion.
Theoretical background
Fitspiration is the posts which are published to inspire audiences to excessively work-out and endorse a healthier and positive lifestyle (Abena, 2013). The goal of Fitspiration posts is to encourage women to achieve an ideal fit and toned body size through exercise and dieting. In contrast to Thinspiration, which encourages women to only pursue a skinny body image, unhealthy weight loss and a dietary restraint, Fitspiration is featured with not only thin but toned and lean bodies, focusing on female strength and empowerment. It mainly conveys four types of messages: exercise messages, weight control messages, healthy eating messages, and mental well-being messages (Abena, 2013; Slater, Varsani & Diedrichs, 2017). Fitspiration mainly consists of a woman engaging in exercise, having healthy food, or presenting fit body shape, sometimes with quotes such as “Fit is the new sexy” or “ Strong beats skinny every time.” Generally, Fitspiration is believed to be beneficial to an individual’s healthy lifestyle and better mental well-being. However, many concerns have been raised. Firstly, Fitspiration pursues a single type of body shape and simply emphasizes that only the fit and toned body shape is perceived as a healthy body (Krane, Stiles-Shipley, Waldron, & Michalenok, 2001). Secondly, Fitspiration addresses appearance-related outcomes, but previous research
suggested that appearance-driven exercise is not positively correlated to better body shape (Strelan, Mehaffey, & Tiggemann, 2003). Thirdly, most of the posts include female
objectifying elements, for instance, sexually suggestive gestures or specific body parts. It is widely proved that exposure to female objectified contents was correlated with body dissatisfaction among women (Ringrose, 2011).
Body positive movements have started from the 1960s’ fat acceptance activities, which were against the dominant appearance-ideal media contents in North America (Afful &
Ricciardelli, 2015). In the last decade, there was a proliferation of body positive posts on social media platforms. Body positive posts contain quotes, pictures, and captions, mostly from users-generated contents, presenting different sizes of female bodies with captions such as ‘your body is not a problem’ or ‘don’t hate your body’ and focusing on body functions (Cohen, Fardouly, Newton-John & Slater, 2019). Cwynar-Horta (2016) suggested body positive posts aim to promote and foster body appreciation and acceptance in terms of various body shapes, colors, sizes, and characteristics. Body positive posts include six elements, which are body appreciation (appreciating body health and function, and being gratitude for unique body features), body acceptance and tolerance (accepting own body features that are different with features portrayed by the mainstream media), broader beauty standards, mental positivity, and protective system from negative information (filtering the harmful and
extreme body-related media contents) (Tylka, 2018). Some concerns have also been raised by scholars as body positive posts grow in popularity. Firstly, body positive posts consist of a large amount of women’s bodies and appearances, which may increase the audiences’ emphasis on appearance rather than other features (Webb, Vinoski, Bonar, Davies, & Etzel, 2017). Secondly, the majority of female traits in body positive posts are white women, which are not fully presenting the diverse races, physically disabled individuals, and cross-gender individuals (Dalessandro, 2016). Thirdly, as body positive posts receive more attention, some body positive accounts become more commercialized, whereby influencers are paid by sponsored brands to sell products (Cwynar-Horta, 2016).
The main difference between Fitspiration posts and body positive posts on Instagram is that Fitspiration aims to achieve a fit and toned type of body ideal through a healthier lifestyle.
In contrast, body positive posts are promoting body appreciation and love towards different body sizes and body images. Besides, Fitspiration is an appearance focus, while body positive posts emphasize various body features, functionality, and health (Tylka and Wood-Barcalow, 2015b). In terms of goals, Fitspiration is to help women to achieve a better body shape, which is consistent with the ideal body in mainstream media content. However, the body positive post is to encourage women to understand and be tolerant of their body shapes and accept their body imperfections (Tylka and Wood-Barcalow, 2015a).
The outcomes of Fitspiration posts and body positive posts
Dietary restraint intention. Dieting or dietary restraint intention is conceptualized as intentional efforts to pursue or maintain an expected weight goal through having fewer calories (Jeffery, Adlis, & Forster, 1991). Dietary restraint initially represents the change between occasionally caloric decreased diet and overeating actions (Larsen, van Strien, Eisinga, Herman & Engels, 2007). In this study, we use dietary restraint intention as the same as ‘dieting intention,’ not taking ‘overeating’ into account. The research found that teenage girls with higher scores on dieting intention scales have higher risks of weight gain and eating disorders (Stice, Presnell, Shaw & Rohde, 2005). Holland and Tiggemann (2017) found that, compared to women viewing travel pictures, women viewing Fitspiration pictures scored significantly higher on thinness motivation, dietary restraint intention, eating disorders, and nearly 20% the Fitspiration audience were perceived at the high risk of clinical eating disorders. Similarly, scholars found in a content analysis that the texts of Fitspiration on social media had many similarities with Thinspiration. Both conveyed guilt-inducing
(Boepple & Thompson, 2016). Another content analysis on main social networking
applications (Instagram, Tumblr, and Twitter) also showed the same results: Fitspiration and thinspiration posts convey identical information on social media—emphasizing restrictive diet, appearance, and sexually suggestive message. As a result, the contents of Fitspiration advocate the improper attitudes towards restrictive eating and body image, even though Fitspiration is less extreme than Thinspiration (Alberga, Withnell & Von Ranson, 2018). Besides, same results have been revealed in a traditional media study. In 2003, 4746
adolescents boys and girls participated a cross-sectional survey study: girls who read the ‘diet articles’ were seven times more likely to conduct unhealthy weight control and six times more likely to execute extreme weight control, such as taking diet medicines and laxatives than girls who didn’t read the articles (Utter, Neumark-Sztainer, Wall & Story, 2003).
In contrast, studies have shown the impact of body positive posts on dietary restraint intention was the opposite: in an experimental study with 71 students participants, scholars have indicated students accepting modules promoting body positivity scored significantly lower on eating disorder-restraint scale and eating concern scale than students who didn’t take the module (Eickman, Betts, Pollack, Bozsik, Beauchamp & Lundgren, 2018). Similarly, Gillen (2015) demonstrated that individuals viewing a higher amount of body positive posts reported less unhealthy/extreme dieting behaviors. Furthermore, Tylka and Wood-Barcalow (2015) believed that body positive image exposure could be used as one of the eating disorder prevention efforts.
According to the social modeling theory (Herman & Polivy, 2005), food intake modeling is an example of a general social influence phenomenon. Normative behavior,
including eating behavior, could indicate why people change their food intake. In other words, the social modeling theory believed that in the social environment, the regulatory influence on food intake decides individuals’ perception of what and how much to eat. Cruwys and his colleagues (2015) indicated that the audience expected to act similarly as the model. When emerging adults are exposed to Fitspiration posts, they might have the intention to follow the same diet/dietary restraint as the Fitspiration bloggers. In contrast, when emerging adults are exposed to body positive posts, they may want to imitate the body positive bloggers’ eating behaviors. Therefore, the hypothesis is:
H1: Female emerging adults exposed to Fitspiration post have stronger dietary restraint intention than Female emerging adults exposed to body positive posts.
Mood states. Moods are complex responses that include changes in individuals’ subjective feelings, emotional expressions, and natural physiology characteristics (Mauss, Levenson, McCater, Wilhelm, & Gross, 2005). In current study, moods have five dimensions including depressive, anxious, angry, confident, and happy. ‘ Happy’ and ‘confident’ were measured together as the positive mood state, while ‘depressive,’ ‘angry’ and ‘anxious’ were measured together as the negative mood state (Reich, Zautra & Davis, 2003). In an
experimental study, Tiggemann and Zaccardo (2015) demonstrated that compared to the individuals viewing traveling pictures, individuals who viewed Fitspiration images would have more negative mood states. Another study (Eysenbach, Deighton-Smith, Aggarwal, Bragazzi, Acosta, et al., 2018) suggested that Fitspiration could be appealing and irresistible for adolescents and had both negative and positive mental states. In terms of mood states, when adolescents are viewing Fitspiration posts, they are likely to experience a more negative
mood ranging from minor annoyances and intense frustrations. Although an experimental study conducted by Prichard and her colleagues (2018) revealed the effects of different types/forms of Fitspiration didn’t differ on individuals’ self-objectification, body satisfaction, and mood states among young women, Fitspiration exposure would increase the negative mood states. However, in terms of body positive posts, the first experimental body positive research with 195 female emerging adults in Australia indicated that browsing body positive posts on Instagram might promote positive moods and body appreciation (Cohen et al., 2019). Similarly, another study related to Body Positive Movement on Instagram discussed that body positive posts could support the positive self-expression of young females (Gillen, 2015). The body positive posts on Instagram were most likely to be inspirational and uplifting with bigger body size and self-care awareness, which could provide psychological support for the young viewers (Kelly & Daneshjoo, 2019).
The social comparison theory has indicated that social media platforms might increase social comparison, as viewers often compare themselves with those bloggers or friends who are better. Sometimes viewers would even be jealous about others (Vogel, Rose, Roberts, & Eckles, 2014; Tandoc, Ferrucci, & Duffy, 2015). Studies suggested that one unexpected consequence of social comparison on social media is depression (Appel, Crusius, & Gerlach, 2015; Nesi & Prinstein, 2015). Individuals exposed to Fitspiration posts are likely to compare their body image to the thin and toned models portrayed in Fitspiration, which may lead to upsets and depressive mood states. However, Individuals exposed to body positive posts may have uplifting mood states. Therefore, the hypothesis is:
H2: Female emerging adults exposed to Fitspiration post have less positive mood than female emerging adults exposed to body positive posts.
Situated optimism. In the current study, situated optimism is considered as the level of confidence and optimism that women could achieve their expected ideal body images and body weights (Sumtera et al., 2018). Research related to goal achievement (Benyamini & Raz, 2007) has indicated that being positive about one’s goals is closely associated with success. Exposure to Instagram Fitspiration images can positively increase individuals’ confidences and
ambitions that they are capable of achieving their ideal personal bodies (Yael & Olga, 2007). In contrast, most of the body positive posts encourage viewers to love and accept different body shapes, appreciate their body flaws, and not to pursue weight loss (Tylka & Wood-Barcalow, 2015). Therefore, the hypothesis is:
H3: Female emerging adults exposed to Fitspiration post have more situated optimism than female emerging adults exposed to body positive posts.
The potential protective role of self-compassion. Self-compassion is identified as individuals being considerable and non-judgmental towards themselves, being open-minded and acceptable of their’ imperfect experiences, and believing that their imperfect experiences are shared by other people (Neff, 2003). The core of self-compassion is to be non-judgmental, understanding of flaws and inadequacies. Self-compassion includes three dimensions, which are common humanity, self-kindness, and mindfulness. In general, self-compassion is
perceived as an important mental protective factor to promote nurturance and appreciation of one’s body and other personal characteristics. By having self-compassion awareness,
2013). According to the social mentality theory, the threat system is decreased by
self-compassion but the soothing system is advocated by self-compassion (Gilbert & Irons, 2005). The sense of insecurity and self-judgment are belong to the threat system, while the feelings of security and safety are belong to the self-soothing system. Studies have proven that the self-soothing system has the great function to support individuals’ emotional balance and mental release. The social mentality theory addresses that self-soothing is closely
associated with individuals’ well-being as it decreases the feelings of insecurity and stress. Therefore, individuals could better deal with social pressure and mental treats (Gilbert & Irons, 2005). Besides, self-compassion plays an important protecting role to balance the negative feeling of the threat system (Tylka, Russell, & Neal, 2015). Body positive posts promote love, appreciation, and respect for individuals’ bodies. They aim to encourage audiences to accept their body inadequate and be gratitude towards their body assets instead of focusing on imperfections (Tylka & Wood-Barcalow, 2015b). However, Fitspiration posts allow viewers to judge their own bodies, which may easily enable viewers to compare
themselves with others and look into their body imperfections (Waldron, & Michalenok, 2001). Therefore the hypothesis is:
H4: Female emerging adults exposed to Fitspiration post have less self-compassion than female emerging adults exposed to body positive posts.
Scholars have shown that self-compassion is associated with individuals’ well-being and mental health in many aspects, for instance, self-compassion helps to magnify happiness, confidence, and decrease depressive and anxious symptoms (Neff, 2003b). Some studies indicated that self-compassion could reduce depression and low self-esteem (Albertson, Neff,
& Dill-Shackleford, 2015; Daye, Webb, & Jafari, 2014). Another meta-analysis of fourteen studies has addressed that self-compassion is massively correlated with less negative mood states, anxious symptoms, and depression (MacBeth & Gumley, 2012). Research on individuals’ well-being has suggested that self-compassion predicts better self-esteem, happiness, emotional intelligence, and the overall psychological well-being (Heffernan, Quinn Griffin, McNulty, & Fitzpatrick, 2010; Neff, 2003b; Seligman & Csikzentmihalyi, 2000). Studies have been conducted to prove self-compassion is a helpful intervention tool of individuals’ physical and psychological health problems, especially for abnormal eating behaviors. One experimental study has demonstrated that educating participants to be more tolerant on themselves if they failed in dieting plays a crucial role in reducing eating disordered behaviors in the experimental group (Adams and Leary, 2007). Similarly, Tylka has indicated (2015) that self-compassion could reduce the appearance-oriented media stress and unhealthy eating. Braun and his colleagues (2016) also argued in the meta-analysis of 28 literature that self-compassion was related to less eating disorders. More importantly,
self-compassion reduced body dissatisfaction and eating pathology. Based on these research results, the hypotheses are:
H5: Self-compassion is negatively related to dietary restraint intention. H6: Self-compassion is positively related to positive mood states.
H7: The effect of different types of body image posts (Fitspiration/ body positive posts) on dietary restraint intention is mediated by self-compassion.
H8: The effect of different types of body image posts (Fitspiration/ body positive posts) on positive mood states is mediated by self-compassion.
Fig. 1. Conceptual model of relationships between two types of body image posts and self-compassion, dietary restraint intention, mood state, and situated optimism.
Method Participants
Participants were consisted of 201 female students/postgraduates/young employees. The age ranged between 18 and 30 years, with the mean age of 24years (SD = 2.33). Participants were recruited by the convenience sampling method online. Researchers posted Qualtrics questionnaire link online. Participants would receive the link via social media, such as Whatsapp, Instagram, Facebook, and WeChat.
Design
The online experiment initiated a between-subjects design with two groups of different types of body image posts. The independent variable was the exposure to two types of body image posts (Fitspiration and body positive posts); dependent variables were dietary restraint intention, situated optimism, mood states, and self-compassion. Self-compassion was
hypothesized as a mediator for the effect of exposure to two types of body image posts on dietary restraint intention and mood states. Two hundred and one participants were randomly assigned to two posts groups (number of Fitspiration participants= 101, the number of body
positive posts participants= 100). Before the experiment, all participants were asked to read and sign the consent forms.
Before officially distributing the questionnaires, a pilot test has been conducted with ten master students in communication science study at the University of Amsterdam. The
experimental design was modified based on the feedback in the cognitive interview with the pilot test participants.
Measurement
Operationalization of the IV. Two sets of Instagram post materials (Fitspiration set and Body Positivity set) were collected as experiment stimuli. Each set included nine pictures. To cover most of the forms of body image pictures, each set included three posts only containing women images, three posts only containing quotes, and three posts combining women images with quotes. The Fitspiration set contained women engaging in exercise with toned/ fit body shape or quotes to promote a healthy diet and active exercise. In contrast, body positive posts set contained women displaying different body sizes (mostly bigger body size) and captions to foster body acceptance and appreciation, such as “I refuse to sacrifice my mental health for the perfect body.” Images were presented at the beginning of the experiment, and the same pictures with different orders were presented half-way the experiment again. Presenting the picture set twice was to ensure the manipulation to be valid. Participants would have stronger impressions of the picture sets by having more extended viewing time. Therefore, their
answers were based on their reactions after seeing pictures instead of their original mindsets. Eighteen pictures were all taken from Instagram published posts. Fitspiration posts were collected from “ Fitspiration” hashtag, and the body positive posts were from “body positive
posts” and “body positivity” hashtag. The 18 pictures were chosen based on content quality, clear information, and popularity. The pictures were rated by experiment participants in terms of ‘quality’ and ‘visual appeal’ on a scale of 0-10 (0= not at all, 10= very much). By asking these two questions, we could identify whether or not the picture sets were selected properly. If the “quality” or “visual appeal” item scored rather low, the content didn’t meet the criterion of the experiment, at least were not similar as Instagram pictures. The two sets of body image post were consistent with expected quality (Fitspiration M = 7.48, SD = 1.76; body positive image M =7.39, SD = 1.95) and visual appeal (Fitspiration M = 7.72, SD =1.87; body positive image M = 7.18, SD = 2.16).
Manipulation check. By asking “Did you see females' pictures in the beginning?” “What do these pictures above try to convey?” “To what extent do you think that these pictures are encouraging you to pursue a fit body ideal？” and “To what extent do you think that these pictures are encouraging you to accept different body sizes?” , researchers were able to check if the manipulation was effective. All participants were asked these four questions.
The results of Manipulation check were that 197 participants saw females’ pictures, while 22 participants didn’t; ninety-six out 101 of participants in Fitspiration group thought the pictures encouraged them to achieve a thin and toned/fit body, and 98 out of 100 participants in body positive post group thought the pictures encouraged them to accept different body sizes; two independent sample t-test revealed that female emerging adults exposed to Fitspiration posts believed that these pictures encouraged them to pursue a fit/toned body ideal in a larger extent (M = 7.92, SD = 1.92) than female emerging adults exposed to body positive posts did (M = 3.25, SD = 2.63), t (199) = 12.83, p < .001; female emerging adults
exposed to Fitspiration posts believed that these pictures encouraged them to accept different body sizes in a smaller extent (M = 3.24, SD = 2.83) than female emerging adults exposed to body positive posts did (M = 8.45, SD = 1.71), t (199) = -15.78, p < .001. Therefore, the manipulation was valid.
Dietary restraint intention. Dietary restraint intention was assessed by the EDE-Q restraint subscale (Mond, Hay, Rodgers & Owen, 2006; Fairburn & Beglin, 1994). The original scale included twenty-one items that measured long-term eating disorder behaviors instead of short-term intention. The EDE-Q restraint subscale containing seven items were measured on the 6-point Likert scale (1= extremely disagree, 6= extremely agree). Items were all well-matched with dietary restraint intention, such as “After viewing these pictures, I want to try for long periods (8 waking hours or more) without eating anything at all in order to influence my shape or weight right now”. Higher scores reflected stronger dietary restraint intention. After exploratory factor analysis, we retained 2 extracted factors. In total, the
factors explained 71.3% of the variance of all items (the first factor: 56.4%; the second factor: 14.9%). After the reliability test, we found the item 6 was negatively correlated with other items (item 6: “I want to eat what other people would regard as an unusually large amount of food right now”). If we removed item 6, the Cronbach’s alpha increased from 0.77 to 0.88, and factor analysis results would be only remaining one factor. Therefore, the current study removed item 6, and computed a new variable (dietary restraint intention) by calculating mean, resulting in a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.88 (M = 2.79, SD = 1.00).
Situated optimism. Situated optimism was measured through the Situational Optimism Measure (Sumter, Cingel & Antonis, 2018). The scale was assessed by three dimensions,
which were attainability in terms of achieving an ideal body weight, dieting goal, and ideal body shape. After exploratory factor analysis, we retained 1 extracted factors. In total, the factors explained 66.9% of the variance of all items. Six items were measured with a 6-point Likert scale from 1 (extremely disagree) to 6 (extremely agree). Higher scores reflected higher situated optimism. A new scale was calculated by computing the mean (α= 0.90, M = 3.33, SD = 0.94).
Self-compassion. Self-compassion was measured by the Self-Compassion Scale (SCS) with the total of 26 items (Kristin, 2003). The current research removed 14 items (item 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 20, 24, 25) because they were unrelated to body image assessment, such as “When I’m going through a very hard time, I give myself the caring and tenderness I need.” Besides, the current research adapted item 1 to “I try to be understanding and patient towards those aspects of my body I don’t like.” The similar adaptions have been made to the rest of the items to address body image. After exploratory factor analysis, we retained 2 extracted factors. In total, the factors explained 58.1% of the variance of all items (the first factor: 45.0% ; the second factor: 13.1%). The final adapted scale contained 12 items with 6-point Likert scales from 1 (extremely disagree) to 6 (extremely agree). Higher scores reflected higher level of self-compassion. After reversing the items, a new scale was calculated by computing the mean (ɑ= 0.88, M = 4.09, SD = 0.75).
Mood states. Five visual analog scales (VAS) were used to measure state mood after viewing the set of pictures (Heinberg and Thompson 1995). There were five dimensions, including happy, confident, anxious, depressive, and angry. Participants were asked to move the bar and choose the mood states at that moment on 10cm horizontal lines (‘0’ represents
‘not at all’ ‘100’ represents ‘very much’). The original 0-100 scale was transmuted into a 0-10 scale. After exploratory factor analysis, we retained 2 extracted factors, which could be positive mood states and negative mood states. In total, the factors explained 71.9% of the variance of all items (the first factor: 47.1%; the second factor: 24.8%). We reverse the negative mood states to positive moods and compute a new variable (positive mood states) by calculating mean (M= 6.96, SD= 1.67). In the current research, internal reliability for mood ( Cronbach’s alpha =0.71) was acceptable.
Instagram use. Instagram use was measured by three items, which were “ How often do you check Instagram per day?” “How many hours do you use Instagram per day?” and “What kinds of contents do you normally consume on Instagram?”. The latter question was a
multiple-choice question to investigate participants’ social media use preference and interest. Covariables. Demographic information was collected in terms of age (M= 23.74, SD= 2.33), the highest educational level, and the region (participants were asked where they are from).
Procedure
Participants were recruited for the research called “Instagram use study” and they would receive a reminder together with the survey link to address this study was only available for females. Participants then would be randomly assigned to one group of two with Fitspiration posts or body positive posts. Qualtrics would evenly assign participants to two groups to make sure both groups have similar numbers. After participants signed the consent form and filled n their gender, the experiments would start. Participants would be asked to view the nine posts (Fitspiration posts or body positive posts) and judge the quality and visual appeal
of the posts. Manipulation check with four questions then would take place to ensure that the experimental stimuli were working differently and effectively. Afterward, seven dietary restraint intention items and six situated optimism items were measured. Participants were then asked to view the same nine pictures as they saw before but with different orders, which reminded participants of the experimental stimuli, followed by twelve self-compassion and five mood state items. In the end, participants were asked to fill in their age, education level, the region as well as Instagram use preference. The overall experiment procedure would last for approximately 8 minutes.
Results Descriptive statistics
We first measured the descriptive statistics data, including mean and standard deviation for dietary restraint intention, mood states, situated optimism, and self-compassion for both the Fitspiration group and body positive posts group. See Table 1.
To investigate the different effects of the two posts groups, we ran four independent sample t-tests in total. To examine whether female emerging adults exposed to Fitspiration posts scored differently on dietary restraint intention than female emerging adults exposed to body positive posts, an independent samples t-test was conducted. Levene’s test for equality of variances was not significant, F = 1.23, p = .269. Results revealed that female emerging adults exposed to Fitspiration posts had significantly higher dietary restraint intention scores (M = 3.14, SD = 0.91) than female emerging adults exposed to body positive posts did (M = 2.43, SD = 0.96), t (199) = 5.37, p < .001, 95% CI [0.45, 0.94], d = 0.71. The results provided supports for H1.
Similarly, to examine whether female emerging adults exposed to Fitspiration posts scored differently on positive mood states than female emerging adults exposed to body positive posts, we ran another independent samples t-test. Levene’s test for equality of variances was not significant, F = 0.00, p = .962. Results revealed that female emerging adults exposed to Fitspiration posts had significantly less positive mood intention scores (M = 6.47, SD = 1.57) than female emerging adults exposed to body positive posts did (M = 7.46, SD = 1.63), t (199) = -4.39, p < .001, 95% CI [-1.44, -0.55], d = -0.99. The results provided supports for H2.
To examine whether female emerging adults exposed to Fitspiration posts scored differently on situated optimism than female emerging adults exposed to body positive posts, another independent samples t-test was conducted. Levene’s test for equality of variances was not significant, F = 0.76, p = .384. Results revealed that female emerging adults exposed to Fitspiration posts had no significantly different scores (M = 3.27, SD = 0.98) than female
emerging adults exposed to body positive posts did (M = 3.38, SD = 0.91), t (199) = -0.86, p < .390. 95% CI [-0.38, 0.15], d = 0.13. We rejected hypothesis 3.
To explore whether female emerging adults exposed to Fitspiration posts scored
different on self-compassion than female emerging adults exposed to body positive posts, we ran another independent samples t-test. Levene’s test for equality of variances was not significant, F = 0.10, p = .751. Results revealed that female emerging adults exposed to Fitspiration posts had no significantly different scores (M = 4.08, SD = 0.74) than female emerging adults exposed to body positive posts did (M = 4.11, SD = 0.76), t (199) = -0.32, p= .753. 95% CI [-0.24, 0.17], d = -0.03. We rejected hypothesis 4.
Self-compassion and body image-related outcomes.
To explore the correlations among self-compassion and dietary restraint intention. A simple regression analysis was conducted to predict dietary restraint intention from
self-compassion, F (184.06) = 15.47, p < .001. Self-compassion in this model explained 7.2% of the variance in dietary restraint intention (R2 = .73). Self-compassion negatively predicted dietary restraint intention, b = -0.36. The higher self-compassion a female emerging adult had, the less dietary restraint intention she tended to have. This effect was statistically significant, t = -3.93, p < .001, 95% CI [-0.54, -0.18], but also weak, b* = -0.27. Therefore, the results provided supports for H5.
Another simple regression analysis was conducted to predict positive mood states from self-compassion, F (461.48) = 42.60, p < .001. Self-compassion in this model explained 17.6% of the variance in positive mood states (R2 = 0.18). Self-compassion positively
had, the more positive mood states she tended to have. This effect was statistically significant, t = 6.53, p < .001, 95% CI [0.66, 1.23], but moderate, b* = 0.42. Therefore, we proved
hypothesis 6.
Self-compassion as a mediator of body image effects.
According to the above analysis, we indicated that female emerging adults exposed to Fitspiration posts did not differ significantly from those exposed to body positive posts on self-compassion (H4). Even though self-compassion was proved to correlate with both dietary restraint intention and positive mood states (H5, H6), we still cannot indicate the mediation effect between 2 different types of posts and outcome variables. Therefore, we rejected hypothesis 7 and hypothesis 8.
Conclusion & discussion Conclusions of scientific findings and discussion.
The current experimental research aimed to explore the effect of Fitspiration posts and body positive posts on Instagram on dietary restraint intention, situated optimism, mood states, and self-compassion among female emerging adults. We also investigated the potential mediated effect of self-compassion between 2 types of posts on Instagram and the above outcome variables. The current research found that female emerging adults exposed to Fitspiration posts reported significantly higher dietary restraint intention than female emerging adults exposed to body positive posts did; female emerging adults exposed to Fitspiration posts reported significantly less positive mood states than female emerging adults exposed to body positive posts did; the two types of posts groups didn’t significantly differ from each other on situated optimism; similarly, the two types of posts groups didn’t
significantly differ from each other on self-compassion; individuals with higher
self-compassion reported more positive mood states and lower dietary restraint intention. The current research proved that body positive posts were beneficial to limit women’s dietary restraint intention, which indicated that media scholars and media users could use body positive posts on new media as a health-promoting tool. Although Fitspiration
encourages audiences to live a healthier lifestyle by active exercise and healthier dieting, it is still appearance-oriented content, which may increase the eating disordered symptoms of young females. Therefore, in real media practice, Fitspiration should be transmitted with more attention and consideration, especially on social media. The young audience should also be aware of the potential adverse effects of Fitspiration on their eating behaviors.
Besides, body positive posts were proved to have uplifting effects on individuals’ mood states. By viewing body positive posts, the audience may experience less depressive, anxious and angry, but more confident and happy. When body positive posts present women with bigger body sizes and self-appreciated awareness, the audiences are more likely to think positively about their body shape and less likely to compare themselves with the mainstream body standards. Although the mood is a short-term psychological reaction, keeping a positive mood, in the long run, is very important for young females’ mental health. In contrast,
Fitspiration posts are not as useful as body positive posts on mood management. Viewers have more chances to experience negative mood states after exposure to Fitspiration posts. This reaction might come from social comparison, which indicates depression as a potential consequence (Appel, Crusius, & Gerlach, 2015).
However, body positive posts and Fitspiration showed no significant difference in situated optimism. Although body positive posts promote accepting different body shapes, a few research still demonstrated that body positive posts were correlated to optimism and goal achievement (Webb, Wood-Barcalow & Tylka, 2015). Another reason might be that the samples of the current study were mostly from Europe and Asian countries. Apparently, both regions have different beauty standards for body image. After exposure to Fitspiration, the Asian audience might feel less attractive to fit and toned body (they might be more likely to pursue a thin body ideal), which would influence their weight loss goal setting. In other words, some Asian audiences don’t take the body image in Fitspiration as their ideal body shape. Therefore, they wouldn’t follow the body goal and weight loss goal in the posts, and their situated optimism might not change after exposure.
Similarly, body positive posts and Fitspiration showed no significant difference in self-compassion, which meant after exposure to both types of body images, the audience may have the same level of body non-judgmental self-acceptance, which was inconsistent with the hypothesis. The reason for this result might be that self-compassion is the long-term
psychological state. It is rather stable in a long term, and it could hardly be changed by a 10-minute media exposure. According to the media selectivity paradigm (Klapper, 1960), the audience would choose and accept the media content and information that is compatible with their existing recognition, such as beliefs and attitudes. For those audiences who already have high self-compassion before the experiment, it is less likely to change their attitude even if they were exposed to Fitspiration posts, as they might disagree with the pursuit of the content.
Even though no significant mediated effect of self-compassion was found, we found that higher self-compassion is correlated with less dietary restraint intention and more positive mood states. The results were aligned with other studies, which argued that self-compassion could be a useful intervention tool to balance negative mood and unhealthy eating behaviors, body dissatisfaction, and self-esteem (Albertson, Neff, & Dill-Shackleford, 2015; Daye, Webb, & Jafari, 2014). In practice, teenagers and emerging adults should view more media contents advocating self-compassion in a long term to develop healthy eating habits and positive moods.
Limitations and directions for future study.
Firstly, although the current study used valid scales that had been used in previous studies, we still could make some improvements in the measurement of mood,
self-compassion, and dietary restraint. We did factor analysis on 5 items of mood states. We retained two factors, which could be positive mood states and negative mood states. But the current study did not make the two factors different variables to further investigate, only reverse the negative mood states to positive moods and compute a new variable (positive mood states) by calculating mean. The future study could separate two factors and make two different variables, and study the different effects on positive mood states and negative mood states. Similarly, we retained two extracted factors for self-compassion items, which could be self-compassion and common humanity. We didn’t explore the self-compassion in terms of two factors. Instead, we computed a new variable (self-compassion) by calculating mean. The reason was that the current study focused on the general concept of self-compassion. For body image studies, common humanity was not considered as an important variable, which
was not necessarily needed to be addressed out. Further studies could explore the different dimensions of self-compassion. For dietary restraint scale, after factor analysis, we retained two extracted factors. But after the reliability test, we found item 6 was negatively correlated with other items. If we removed item six, the Cronbach’s alpha would rise to 0.88 from 0.77, and factor analysis would only remain 1 factor. Therefore, the current study removed item 6 and computed a new variable (dietary restraint intention) by calculating the mean. Future studies should validate the dimensions of this scale.
Secondly, although the current study was an experimental research, the participants were allowed to fill in the survey in their environment. Therefore, the experiment environment cannot be guaranteed (due to multitasking or other interruptions), which might decrease the internal validity of this study. Also, we noticed that the drop-out rate is rather high. One hundred and eighty-seven out of 402 participants didn’t complete the questionnaire, which might also decrease the external validity of this study. Future studies would be better to conduct in a totally controlled experiment environment and decrease the drop-out rate.
Lastly, due to time limitations, the current study didn’t explore the effect of
demographic differences. In addition, more than 85% of participants were from Asia; the number of European samples didn’t meet the analysis requirement. However, it is meaningful for future studies to compare the different effects of different regions. Also, most Chinese participants didn’t frequently use Instagram due to the country’s policy. Therefore, they were not familiar with the formats and types of Instagram posts, and the quotes on the posts were all in English, which might reflect on the validity. Future studies could study different social media sites. For Chinese participants, maybe we could include WeiBo as a subject. Also, we
could use consistent languages in different countries to reduce the disturbers from language barriers.
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Appendix 1. Scale. Consent form:
I hereby declare that I have been informed in a clear manner about the nature and method of the research, as described in the email invitation for this study.
I agree, fully and voluntarily, to participate in this research study. With this, I retain the right to withdraw my consent, without having to give a reason for doing so. I am aware that I may halt my participation in the experiment at any time.
If my research results are used in scientific publications or are made public in another way, this will be done such a way that my anonymity is completely safeguarded. My personal data will not be passed on to third parties without my express permission.
If I wish to receive more information about the research, either now or in future, I can contact Shengyuan.zhang@student.uva.nl.
Should I have any complaints about this research, I can contact the designated member of the Ethics Committee representing the ASCoR, at the following address:
ASCoR secretariat, Ethics Committee, University of Amsterdam, Postbus 15793, 1001 NG Amsterdam; 020-525 3680; ascor-secr-fmg@uva.nl.
I understand the text presented above, and I agree to participate in the research study.
1. The experiment is only available for female, please choose your gender.
Please view the following 9 pictures and answer the questions.
2. What is the quality of the pictures above?
0-10 (very bad-very good)
3. What is the visual appeal of the pictures above?
0-10 (very bad-very good)
4. Did you see females' pictures in the beginning?
A. Yes B. No
5. What do these pictures above try to convey?
A. Encourage people to achieve a fit/toned and skin body
B. Encourage people to accept different body size
6. To what extend do you think that these pictures are encouraging you to pursuit a fit body ideal？(0-10 : not at all- very much)
7. To what extend do you think that these pictures are encouraging you to accept different body sizes？(0-10 : not at all- very much)
Please indicate to what degree the following statements apply to you after viewing pictures. (1-6: extremely disagree- extremely agree)
8. After viewing these pictures, I want to limit the amount of food I eat to influence my shape or weight right now.
9. After viewing these pictures, I want to exclude from my diet some foods that I like in order to influence my shape or weight right now.
10. After viewing these pictures, I want to try to follow definite rules regarding my eating (for example, a calorie limit) in order to influence my shape or weight right now.
11. After viewing these pictures, I have a desire to have an empty stomach with the aim of influencing my shape or weight right now.
12. After viewing these pictures, I want to eat what other people would regard as an unusually large amount of food right now.
13. After viewing these pictures, What I have eaten makes me felt guilty right now because of its effect on my shape or weight.
14. After viewing these pictures, I believe I will likely succeed on future diets
15. After viewing these pictures, I feel confident that, in the future, I can do well managing my body weight.
16. After viewing these pictures, I feel positive about reaching my dieting goals.
17. After viewing these pictures, I am confident that I will be able to stick to my workout routine.
18. After viewing these pictures, I will likely achieve my ideal weight goal in the future.
Please view the following 9 pictures and indicate to what degree the following statements apply to you after viewing pictures. (1-6: extremely disagree- extremely agree)
20. I try to be understanding and patient towards those aspects of my body I don’t like.
21. I’m tolerant of my own flaws and inadequacies of my body.
22. When I see body shape of myself that I don’t like, I get down on myself.
23. I’m disapproving and judgmental about my own flaws and inadequacies.
24. I am intolerant towards those aspects of my body I don’t like.
25.When I feel inadequate in body shape, I try to remind myself that feelings of inadequacy are shared by most people.
26. When I think about my inadequacies of my body it tends to make me feel more separate and cut off from the rest of the world.
27. When I’m really struggling with my body shape, I tend to feel like other people must be having an easier time of it.
28. When my body shape upsets me I try to keep my emotions in balance.
29. When I fail at better body shape I try to keep things in perspective.
30. When my body shape upsets me, I get carried away with my feelings.
31. When I fail at better body shape I become consumed by feelings of inadequacy.
Please indicate to what degree the following statements apply to you after viewing pictures. "0" represents "not at all", "100" represents "very much".
32. Do you feel happy?
33. Do you feel anxious?
34. Do you feel confident?
35. Do you feel depressive?
36. Do you feel angry?
37. What is your age?
38. What is your highest education?
39. Where are you from?
40. How often do you check Instagram per day?
A. 0 B.1-3 times C. 4-10 times D. More than 10 times
41. How many hours do you use Instagram per day?
A. Less than 0.5 hrs B. 30 mins-1hr C. 1-2 hrs D. 2-3 hrs
E.3-4 hrs F. More than 4 hrs.
42. What kinds of contents do you normally consume on Instagram?
A.Inspiration quotes B.Fitspiration C. Landscape and scenery
D. Food E. Historical photos F. Friends-generated content
G. Animals H.Fashion /beauty I. Celebrities
Appendix 2. SPSS results.
Independent sample t test: (Manipulation check)
