Food Security on Curaçao: An Interdisciplinary Food Systems
Approach on Vulnerability and the Impact of Tourism
Interdisciplinary Project
Authors: Esmé de Bruijn - 11055790 Maarten Hugen - 11070773 Megan James - 11038950 Hanna Winters - 11020377 Course: Interdisciplinary Project Tutor: Jaap Rothuizen
Senior supervisor: Allison Gilbert Date: 30-05-2018
Abstract
This study addresses the vulnerability of the food system in Curaçao, a small island
development state (SIDS) in the Caribbean Sea. The arid island climate means little to no food production is possible on the island making Curaçao highly dependence on food import. This study assesses the vulnerability of the food security in Curaçao and how this is impacted by tourism by using an interdisciplinary approach and the food systems’ approach based on the model of Ingram (2011). Ecological as well as socio-economic drivers and activities are studied in the context of the islands tourist economy. The resulting outcomes of the food system and the impact of tourism on these outcomes are assessed. Analysing a variety of interdisciplinary data leads to positive as well as negative impacts of tourism (e.g. economic growth and jobs but also loss of natural resources). Evidence is given that the status of the food security on the island is reduced as an effect of the growing (unsustainable) tourist sector.
Contents
Abstract 2 Contents 3 1. Introduction 4 2. Theoretical Framework 5 2.1 The concepts 52.2 The food system 6
2.3 Tourism growth 7
3. Methodology 8
3.1 Research design 8
3.2 Data Collection Method 8
3.3 Interdisciplinary data analysis 10
4. Drivers 11 4.1 Soil Quality 11 4.2 Nutrient Availability 12 4.3 Water Quality 12 4.4 Biodiversity 12 4.5 Economic Growth 13 4.6 Globalization 14 5. Activities 15 5.1 Food production 15
5.2 Food Import and Export on Curaçao 15
5.3 Distribution and retailing 16
5.4 Consumption patterns 17
6. Outcomes 18
6.1 Production 18
6.2 Affordability 19
6.3 Household incomes and poverty lines 20
6.4 Food price index 20
6.5 Nutritional value 22 6.6 Social value 22 6.7 Food quality 23 7. Recommendations 24 8. Conclusion 24 9. References 26 Appendix - A 31 Deleted: 3 Deleted: 4 Deleted: 5 Deleted: 6 Deleted: 6 Deleted: 7 Deleted: 8 Deleted: 9 Deleted: 9 Deleted: 9 Deleted: 11 Deleted: 12 Deleted: 12 Deleted: 13 Deleted: 13 Deleted: 13 Deleted: 14 Deleted: 15 Deleted: 16 Deleted: 16 Deleted: 16 Deleted: 17 Deleted: 18 Deleted: 19 Deleted: 19 Deleted: 20 Deleted: 21 Deleted: 21 Deleted: 23 Deleted: 23 Deleted: 24 Deleted: 25 Deleted: 26 Deleted: 27 Deleted: 32
1. Introduction
Curaçao is a Small Island Developing State (SIDS) in the Lesser Antilles dealing with unique vulnerabilities which result in many food security challenges (FAO 2014). Characteristic to SIDS and also Curaçao, is the inability to be self-sufficient in their food supply due to natural and climatic limitations (Kelman & West 2009). Recent studies indicate that since 2008 food prices have risen while domestic consumption has increased (Walters and Jones, 2016) which suggests that Curaçao might be particularly vulnerable to external impacts on the food system.
Curaçao is heavily reliant on Venezuela for its food supply but a crisis in Venezuela led to a trade embargo between Venezuela and Curaçao (NRC, 2018; Volkskrant, 2017) further increasing the inability of Curaçao to deal with external shocks on the food system. Moreover, ongoing climate change and sea level rise, whose effects are likely to be more severe on islands (Douglas, 2006; Wong, 2011), will put even more pressure on the food system.
Curaçao’s economy is largely dependent on one specific sector, namely tourism (Scheyvens & Momsen 2008). Services constitute 83.8% of Curaçao’s GDPwhich is mainly tourism, in contrast to the 0.7% of the GDP in agriculture (The World Factbook, 2018). Interestingly, the effects of tourism on the food supply and security are still unclear whereas continued growth in the tourism sector is expected and is part of the many livelihoods on Curaçao (Curaçao Tourist Board, 2015).
This study aims to unravel the extent to which the food security on the island is vulnerable to and impacted by the tourism sector. In the analysis Food security is defined as the moment ‘when all
people, at all time have physical and economic access to sufficient safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life’. This can be divided into four
different pillars: the accessibility, availability, utilization and security of food (World Food Summit, 1996 as cited by FAO, 2003, ch. 2.2; FAO, 2008, p. 1). By using the above definition, this study reflects on several different domains, such as governance, social and environmental factors (FAO, 2014). The different disciplines are highly connected within the food system, in order to understand issues of food insecurity, the analysis must therefore be based upon understanding complex interactions among multiple processes through an interdisciplinary approach (Ericksen et al., 2010). The decrease of food securityworldwide has become a major problem (Godfray, et al. 2010). Curaçao is currently dependent on the wealth created by its tourism sector in order to obtain most of its food (Kelman & West 2009). However, this tourism might also be degrading the very natural resources on which the tourism sector is built (Hernández & León, 2013). Therefore, this complex system should be understood to accomplish the goals set for food security.
The outline of the study is as follows. Firstly, the theoretical framework elaborates upon the relationship between the concepts and the pre-existing theories which are found at the basis of the research. The next chapters expand on the most important drivers, activities and outcomes, supplemented by a final reflection on the four pillars of the food security concept. Finally, the conclusion summarizes the main outcomes and leads to a concluding remark commenting on the research question in which the different disciplines are integrated.
2. Theoretical Framework
2.1 The conceptsAvailability
According to the Zero Hunger project by Wageningen University and Research center, the availability of food is based on the integration of sustainable food production strategies in interdisciplinary cooperation. It is the integration of high productivity and innovation in order to maintain efficient and affordable food that is available for more people. It addresses the supply side of food security and level of food production, stock levels and trade are included in defining the availability of food in a certain area (FAO, 2008, p 4).
Accessibility
Depending on social and economic factors it is determined by the specific situation of the household whether food can be accumulated or not (FAO, 2008). Sufficient accessibility relies on robust agricultural value chains and resilient food markets with stable actors within the food system to maintain production, processing, transportation, retail and consumption levels (WUR, infographic).
Utilization
Utilization is defined as the strategies and choices people make regarding their food intake. The nutritional status of individuals depends on cultural norms, values and taught behavior and sufficient energy intake by individuals is a result of good care and feeding practices (FAO, 2008). According to the WUR Zero Hunger project, utilization can contribute to food security when the consumption of affordable accessible and nutritious food is fostered and food is efficiently used. Food security with regard to utilization includes high food quality, sufficient nutrition, and healthy and balanced consumption choices available (WUR, infographic).
Vulnerability
The food system is a complex system in which many different factors can affect the outcome. Vulnerability of this system is in this paper defined as “the risk that the food and nutrition status of the household is undermined by negative shocks” (Pieters et al., 2013, p. 13) This definition is used in order to determine the effect of tourism growth as a shock on the status of food security. The change in outcome will show whether or not the system is vulnerable in such a situation. It is important to control vulnerability in food security in order to avoid future food crisis (Pieters et al., 2013).
2.2 The food system
Much research has been undertaken on the global food production in regard to the world food security issues. As argued by Ingram (2011), to fully understand the issue of food security, it is vital to investigate the integrated system including the demand for food and its accessibility. In this regard, Ingram (2011) has introduced an integrated food system diagram in which is explained how drivers, socio-economic and environmental, impact activities undertaken within the food system. These activities lead to certain outcomes that determine the stability of utilization, accessibility and availability of food and therefore the status of food security, shown in Figure 1.
Individual stakeholders are primarily interested in specific activities and tend to focus only on those specific activities of the food system. Others, not involved in activities tend to concentrate on the outcomes of the system, neglecting the activities leading to the outcomes and the noticeable status of food security (Ingram, 2011). To be able to adapt a clear insight in the status of food security the food system should be recognized as an integrated system in which an intervention will affect all outcomes of food related activities, regardless of the target of the intervention (Ingram, 2011). The food security status of Curaçao can be determined, from an interdisciplinary perspective, through the argumentation of the ‘food systems’ approach which reveal the interconnections between the socio-economic and environmental drivers, their influence on food activities and the outcomes resulting from these activities.The status of food security is based on the three pillars of utilization, the accessibility and the availability of food on the Island. The pillars are further explained in the conceptualization section below.
Figure 1: Food system drivers and feedbacks, Ingram, 2011, p. 421
2.3 Tourism growth
One of the theoretical insights used is based on the interconnection between development and tourism is the ‘pro-poor tourism’ theory. This theory explains how tourism can function as a poverty alleviation tool to reduce poverty issues within a destination country by generating net benefits for the poor (PPT Partnership, 2004) This is based on the assumption that poor or developing countries have the comparative advantage of natural assets that function as a tourist attraction and that the poor communities within a country receive the benefits from a growing tourism sector (Chok et al., 2007).
However, Hernández and León (2013) argue that tourism is bound by the use of environmental resources and that the sector can only provide income through physical capital which is accumulated by the utilization of natural capital. The interconnection between the physical and natural capital is explained in this theory as a predator-prey relation in which the growth of the tourist sector and thereby the accumulation of physical capital is dependent on natural capital but degrades natural capital itself in the process (Hernández & León, 2013). In this regard, the use of environmental resources is a source of economic welfare but causes tourism at the same time to be a source of environmental degradation (Hernández & León, 2013).
Natural capital is utilized in tourism together with human capital in services production because of their foundation on the use of environmental resources. Sustainable growth rates can only be accumulated when the environmental welfare is regenerated faster than the depreciation or degradation due to utility (Hernández & León, 2013). This, according to Giannoni (2009), cannot exist, due to the fact that environmental-friendly nature based-tourism is an unavoidable paradox. A facility-based tourism sector is argued to be easier to sustain, however, leads to environmental degradation as well (Giannoni, 2009).
Tourism does, however, not only impact the local environment, it increases international connections and homogenization due to globalization (Garcia and Albisu, 2001). The dietary changes leading from this have a major impact on the sustainability of the food system as the gap between the available domestic food supply and the domestic consumption increases (Garcia and Albisu, 2001). Therefore, undermining the sustainable growth of the domestic food production sector and exhausting agricultural land (Walters and Jones, 2006; Murray & Hoppin, 1992).
3. Methodology
The research question for this research is to understand to what extent is the stability of the food system of Curaçao vulnerable to the impact of the tourism. To answer this question, the central question is broken up into manageable sub questions, that is:
1. What is the impact of environmental and socio-economic drivers affected by the tourism sector of the food system on Curaçao? (Chapter 4)
2. What is the impact of environmental and socio-economic activities affected by the tourism sector on the food system on Curaçao? (Chapter 5)
3. What is the impact of tourism on the outcomes within the food system of Curaçao? (Chapter 6)
In order to answer these questions, qualitative data will be gathered from literature and interviews. In table 1, the concepts and indicators that need to be investigated are shown. Furthermore, the section is divided into three parts: 1) research design, 2) data collection and 3) interdisciplinary data analysis.
3.1 Research design
The aim with the secondary literature is to find patterns or trends across the results. In the case of the first subquestion, a relationship is sought between the environmental and socio-economic drivers and the food system and how this relationship is affected by tourism. The same goes for the second and the third subquestion: the aim is to look at the relationships between the activities and the food system and how this affects the outcomes (Walliman, 2011, p. 86). Another analysis method that was used is the visualization of the data. This was done to create a clear overview and understanding of the gathered data (Walliman, 2011, p. 89).
The outcomes are defined by three of the pillars of food security: availability, accessibility and utilization. Tourism is the so called ‘intervening’ variable in this research. The pro poor tourism theory states that tourism has a positive effect on the stability of the food system on Curaçao.
3.2 Data Collection Method
This part explains the ways data for the research will be collected. It is divided into three subparts in order to separate the different methods used for each subquestion. For all the subquestions first,
secondary data on tourism and the environmental and socio-economic drivers will be collected in
order to establish the relationships (i.e. the effect of tourism on environmental and economic development). The data on this part of the subquestions is already partly gathered by the individual literature reports and will be integrated and used to answer the subquestions. In order to examine the relationship between the drivers and the three pillars of food security the methods will be explained below.
1. What is the impact of environmental and socio-economic drivers affected by the tourism sector of the food system on Curaçao?
For this sub question secondary data will be used to gather information on the import options and production options on Small Island developing states, like Curaçao. Import statistics of the World
Integrated Trade Solution (WITS) and the OEC - Curaçao will be used to show the data of the products that are imported and the net trade of the island. In addition, articles on food production in tropical regions will be examined and it will be explained why this cannot be applied to Curaçao. Moreover, an interview was held with a local farmer, Roland van Reenen, who is also a representative of a distribution company which collects produce from 12 different farmers and distributes these over people who have a ‘vegetable subscription’.
2. What is the impact of environmental and socio-economic activities affected by the tourism sector on the food system on Curaçao?
For this sub question the indicator poverty will be investigated through the variable income and
expenditure by gathering data from CBS Curaçao website where tables on monthly income and
spending are presented. Other data that will be useful from CBS are tables with food prices and trade statistics from WITS.
3. What is the impact of tourism on the outcomes within the food system of Curaçao? For this sub question secondary data as gathered in the disciplinary paper will be used.
A questionnaire was sent by email to two locals of Curaçao. By gathering information on consumption patterns, it can be addressed first hand. This method is quantitative and was used to gather primary data on the utilization of food by local inhabitants.
Operationalization overview
Concept Dimension Indicator Variables
Tourism Environmental drivers
Socio-economic drivers
- Land cover & soils - Climate variability - Water availability & quality - Nutrient availability - Biodiversity - Sea level & currents - Demographics - Economics - Politics - Cultural
- Science & Technology Availability Environmental
Socio-economic
- Supply side - Level of food production - Stock levels
- Net trade (FAO, 2008) Accessibility Environmental Socio-economic - Poverty - Markets - Income - Expenditure - Food prices - Trade Utilization Environmental Socio-economic - Nutrients in food - Quality of food - Consumption patterns - Price elasticity
Stability Environmental Socio-economic
- Sustainability of the other concepts
Table 1. Concepts, indicators and variables.
3.3 Interdisciplinary data analysis
In the research this theory will be tested by analysis of the various concepts (table 1) through examining the literature of the different disciplines. Thus, it could be possible that tourism has a positive effect on the socio-economic drivers, but not on the environmental drivers. Therefore, the research method of this proposal is an interdisciplinary approach. The food system of Curaçao is too complex to be tackled adequately by a single discipline. This way disciplinary perspectives can be integrated to construct a more comprehensive view of the system (Klein & Newell, 1997).
The many aspects within this problem are part of a broad interconnected system. Therefore, it is considered a complex system. A few properties can be identified in the food system of Ingram (2011). Firstly, vulnerability which looks at the robustness of a system by analysing its response to certain shocks and the sustainability of its functions. It is heavily linked to the stability or self-organization of the system (Boulton & Allen, 2007). This is evident in the problem area because ecosystems and societies are able to adapt and organize to absorb disturbances from outside.
Secondly, connectivity and structure are seen in the food system and tourism sector because it is highly interdisciplinary with both social, ecological and political drivers. For example, the interconnectivity within tourism can have stabilizing effect socially by providing income while it can cause degradation of ecosystems services and quality.
Moreover, non-linearity, which suggests the input is not proportional to the output (Boulton & Allen, 2007), can be identified because we expect it is unlikely the growth of tourism to cause a proportional ecological effect. This could also be the case for social gains regarding tourism because nonlinearity is expected between tourism growth and social welfare gain. In addition, global climate change is likely to cause a more severe effect on islands than continents due to the geological characteristics of islands (Kelman & West 2009).
Lasty, path-dependency suggests that the state and dynamics of complex systems depend on its previous states and dynamics (Boulton & Allen, 2007). Current soil properties, social and political structures on Curaçao are a result of the historic factors such as colonial occupation of the Netherlands. This has caused Curaçao and the Netherlands to have strong political bonds to this day and the reliance might even enhance stability in Curaçao.
4. Drivers
4.1 Soil QualitySoil Quality is an important driver in determining the availability of food. It is a major indicator of the degree to which an area can use agriculture to provide food. On Curaçao most of the land does not have soils that have adequate quality to be used for agriculture.
The problem lies in four different factors. In large sections of the island the soil is simply too shallow and rocky to allow for the growing of crops (De Vries, 2000). The second factor is salinity. When soils are too saline this will prevent the growing of crops and this too is a problem for many of the soils on Curaçao (De Vries, 2000). The third problem is that many soils have very low organic content in the soil. Organic matter in the soil helps to improve texture and water holding capacity of soils. However, due to the arid climate of the island, levels of organic matter in the soil in Curaçao are generally low (De Vries, 2000). The last factor is the availability of nutrients in the soil. Most of the soils on the island do not have the required nutrients because of the aridity and the high resistance to weathering of the local parent material (De Vries, 2000).
Regarding the soils that do meet the requirements for agriculture several more problems exist. Historically, these areas have been poorly managed resulting in several episodes of mass erosion that have diminished the quality of the soils and thus lowered potential productivity (Wells et al, 2018; Timms, 2008; Sierra et al, 2015). Poor irrigation practices have also lead to an increase in salinity, further reducing soil quality (De Vries, 2000).
Figure 2 illustrates the large sections of land unavailable for agriculture caused by the aforementioned factors where the yellow sections represent areas available yet unsuitable for agriculture and the green sections represent areas available or already in use for agriculture. The expansion of the built environment is driven by the country’s largest economic sector, tourism (Scheyvens & Momsen 2008). The increase in areas for tourism reduces the land available for agriculture as well as increasing the demand for food these areas used to provide.
4.2 Nutrient Availability
Many of the soils that in theory are suitable for agriculture also have the added problem of fertilizer and pesticide pollution (Murray & Hoppin, 1992; Wells et al., 2018). This is likely to increase due to the changes in demand caused by the influx of tourism. Demand for products that are not native to the region are likely to increase. These crops will maladapted to the climate of the island and will likely require a large amount of fertilizer and pesticides to be grown properly. This is likely to exacerbate the existing pollution problem. The excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides can also have a second negative effect of infiltrating the soils and polluting the already sparse groundwater resources of the island (Murray & Hoppin, 1992; Wells et al., 2018).
4.3 Water Quality
Water availability is a problem, as the island lacks sufficient groundwater resources (Falkenmark, Lundqvist, & Widstrand, 1989; Mekonnen et al., 2015; Gamble 2004) and is mostly dependent on rainwater for their agricultural needs (Gamble et al., 2010; De Vries, 2000). However, increases in tourism also increases the demand for drinking water and thus put more pressure on an already strained water supply.
4.4 Biodiversity
Though marine diversity has been relatively good in comparison to other Caribbean island (Miloslavich et al. 2010), coral reefs near Curaçao have deteriorated (Nagelkerken and Nagelkerken, 2004). This could negatively impact habitats that act as fish nurseries because there is a positive relationship present between reef architecture and fish density and diversity (Nagelkerken and Nagelkerken, 2004).
The cause of the coral reef decline is not clear cut as there are many reasons that can be appointed to them, including white-band disease, coral reef bleaching, loss of habitat protection and anthropogenic impacts which can be attributed to tourism, through trampling, beach usage, water sports in shallow waters and coastal development (Nagelkerken and Nagelkerken, 2004). Would tourism increase on Curaçao which it is likely to do, these impacts would be further extended
(Nagelkerken and Nagelkerken, 2004).
The local community and fishermen could be affected by these anthropogenic impacts on the natural ecosystem because it could endanger (commercial) fish stocks which breed in the reef nurseries (Nagelkerken & Nagelkerken, 2004). Therefore, it could lead to less available fish food for the locals.
However, the reefs and habitat could also benefit of tourism. This is due to the fact that coral reefs, if in good condition, attract divers and snorkelers, and so provide an important source of income (Sandin et al., 2008). To illustrate, tourist dollars are often disproportionately spent in areas near or in marine protected areas (Sandin et al., 2008). High fish activity and high biodiversity are important attributes to please these kinds of tourists (Sandin et al., 2008). In addition, Curaçao has shown a better initiative in protecting coral reefs relative to other Caribbean islands (Sandin et al., 2008). 4.5 Economic Growth
Economic growth is in SIDS, such as Curaçao, highly affected by tourism. The theoretical framework
mentioned several studies supporting the relationship between tourism and economic growth with an emphasis on ‘pro poor’ economic growth. This means that t the poor gain relatively more from tourism growth to reduce their poverty by creation of jobs, higher wages or indirectly through higher state social benefits (Scheyvens & Momsen (2008).
Table 2 illustrates the economic impact of tourism in Curaçao from which can be concluded that tourist spending has a positive impact on the local economy through hotels, tourism suppliers, restaurants and transportation amounting to a total economic contribution to the economy of €809.518.911 (Strategic Tourism Master Plan Curaçao (STMPC, 2015).
Table 2. Tourism’s economic impact in Curaçao (Strategic Tourism Master Plan Curaçao, 2015)
Economic Impact Totals
Direct Impact Indirect Impact Total impact Multiplier effect $533,940,224.00 $437,692,945 $971,633,168.66 (€809518911) 1.82
However, the effect of tourism on economic growth is not only based on direct tourists’ spending. Some spending is lost to economies outside of Curaçao. This is a leakage effect which is shown in table 3 with an economic spillover effect of 35.9% for Horeca, at the top, the Wholesale/Retail/Trade (14,5%) as second, and Transport and communication (10,8%) as third. These sectors also have a remarkable increase in jobs.
Table 3. Tourism economic spillover effect. (Strategic Tourism Master Plan Curaçao, 2015)
Sector Direct and Indirect Direct Jobs Indirect Jobs Agriculture, fishing, mining
Manufacturing
Electricity, gas, and water supply Construction
Wholesale/Retail/Trade HORECA
Transport and communication Financial Intermediation Other real estate activities Education $28,291,163 2.9% $102,447,290 10.5% $44,777,159 4.6% $8,391,525 0.9% $141,102,926 14.5% $348,431,191 35.9% $105,354,262 10.8% $103,294,583 10.6% $44,668,442 4.6% $1,433,091 0.1% 0 0 0 0 4,641 4,591 714 0 0 0 188 2,122 114 92 0 236 511 1,404 824 13
Health Other services $1,264,905 0.1% $42,176,633 4.5% 0 0 21 1,033 Total $971,633,170 100% 9,946 6,558 4.6 Globalization
Globalization is perceived as the dynamics of structural transformation (Brinkman and Brinkman, 2002). As Holton (1998) describes this structural transformation can be explained from different perspectives: on one hand as ‘the dominance of western economic and cultural interests over the rest of the world’ and on the other hand as “a triumphalist light as the penetration of capitalism into every corner of the world bringing with it the possibility for all of the world's’ population to participate in the fruits of the international division of labor and the market economy” (Holton, 1998, p. 2-3, 10-19). Both conceptualizations draw on the idea of the integration of social, cultural and economic determinants from that external communities affect the community it colonizes.
globalization not only includes economic aspects of society but also the cultural and social areas. Communities are influenced by the integration of the norms and values that transnational institutions take with them, through global diffusion and general culture evolution (Brinkman and Brinkman, 2002).
5. Activities
5.1 Food productionLocal food production is very limited in Curaçao although a small amount of people do farm on the island. Crops cultivated by these farmers include eggplant, papaya, cassava, potatoes, cucumbers, watermelons and honeydews (R. van Reenen, pers. comm., May 8, 2018). These crops are traditional to Curaçao and organically grown or grown within a permaculture system (R. van Reenen, pers. comm., May 8, 2018).
In contrast to the perception of the soil quality on Curaçao, many farmers do possess suitable soils on their farms (R. van Reenen, pers. comm., May 8, 2018). Unsuitable soils have been made more suitable by adding a thick layer of organic materials such as twigs, leaf litter and grass (R. van Reenen, pers. comm., May 8, 2018). However, the main limitation for agriculture on Curaçao are the climatic conditions with windiness and very little precipitation (R. van Reenen, pers. comm., May 8, 2018). This has led to the inability to cultivate non-traditional crops, nor are farmers able to frequently irrigate their fields (R. van Reenen, pers. comm., May 8, 2018).
However, the farmers on Curaçao are in favor of cultivating what is in demand if possible (R. van Reenen, pers. comm., May 8, 2018.). There are ways to tackle these climatic conditions, e.g. a farmer on Curaçao utilizing aquaponics to grow cabbage (R. van Reenen, pers. comm., May 8, 2018).
There are many food products that are suitable to be cultivated on Curaçao yet are still imported. By cultivating these products instead of importing them, Curaçao has much to gain (R. van Reenen, pers. comm., May 8, 2018). Admittedly, this is not possible for all crops. This is especially the case for rice and wheat which are staple foods in the Curaçao diet (R. van Reenen, pers. comm., May 8, 2018). However, these food products can be replaced with crops that can be cultivated (R. van Reenen, pers. comm., May 8, 2018). For example, extracting flours from sources other than wheat and using agave as a main sugar source (R. van Reenen, pers. comm., May 8, 2018).
Roland van Reenen deems the influence of tourism on the local production to be nonexistent because it is only a tiny fraction of all food available. Tourism can even act as a positive impact due to increase of ecotourism where tourists are more inclined to demand food locally and organically produced (R. van Reenen, pers. comm., May 8, 2018). Local producers are in fact anticipating this development (R. van Reenen, pers. comm., May 8, 2018).
5.2 Food Import and Export on Curaçao
Like many other SIDS, Curaçao is designated to imports for its main food supply. Import and export data of the OEC has given insight to what extent Curaçao is dependent on this.
As seen in Table 4, 4.9 million US$, 70 million US$, 146 million US$ and 45 million US$ was imported on respectively animal vegetable byproduct, animal products, food stuffs and vegetable products which would be a total of 265.9 million US$ worth of imported food products. With a total import worth 1.77 billion US$, the total consists of 15% imported food products. Conversely, of the total
amount exported only 4,4% consisted of food products. Thus, Curaçao importing 4.6 times the amount of food products relative to the amount they export.
The contrast between import and export is evidently present when looking at the import and export ratio of vegetable products. Curaçao exports 875,000 US$ worth of vegetable products while importing 45 million US$ (Table 4). This suggests that Curaçao imports 51.4 times the vegetable products they export. Therefore, it can be argued that production of fresh produce is very low in Curaçao.
Import (in US$) Export (in US$)
Animal Vegetable byproduct 4,900,000 448,000
Animal Products 70,000,000 40,000,000
Food Stuffs 146,000,000 17,000,000
Vegetable Products 45,000,000 875,000
Total Food Products (in US$) 265,900,000 58,363,000
Total Trade (in US$) 1,770,000,000 1,320,000,000
Ratio: Total Trade/Food
Products 0.15022599 0.04418409
Ratio: Import/Export of
Vegetable Products 51.4285714
Table 4: Import and export of food products and the relative their relative contribution on Curaçao (Source OEC, www.atlas.media.mit.edu).
5.3 Distribution and retailing
According to Ingram’s model (2011), economic growth should have a positive impact on the distribution and retailing of food. More people like producers, processors, packers and seller and consumers in the final markets are needed. They interact with the actors involved in e.g. transport, delivery, trading and supermarkets. Is this also the case for Curaçao? The island produces very few food, almost all is imported from the USA, Europa (mostly the Netherlands) and from Latin America, thus the amount of jobs in producing, processing and packing is relatively small. For the case of transport jobs, most food comes in by ship containers in the biggest harbor of the Caribbean. The harbor is located in the center of Willemstad, in the middle of the island. Therefore, the distances to the hotels, restaurants and supermarkets are very short. The food goes directly from the ships to the supermarkets and hotels, so there is also no big need for middlemen.
Notwithstanding this special situation in Curaçao the positive effect of tourism on economic growth is clearly visible in the creation of job opportunities for local people in various sectors. The total amount of jobs generated by the economic impact of tourism is 16,503. This is 22.6 % of the total labor force on the island (STMPC, 2015). The greatest effect is observed in the sector Wholesale/Retail/Trade (4,641 direct jobs), in the sector Horeca (4827 jobs) and in the sector of transport and communication (1225 jobs).
5.4 Consumption patterns
As an effect of the general culture evolution and the homogenizing effect of the increased transnational character and import dependencies, food activities, such as consumption, have adapted (Brinkman and Brinkman, 2002; Garcia and Albisu, 2001).
The rationalities and perceptions on food that determine consumption strategies change as a consequence of homogenization by globalization (Garcia and Albisu, 2001). Where indigenous diets are based on the food that is physically most available and has the highest nutritional, qualitative and social value, diets influenced by globalization are determined by trends and based on a mixture of cultural values, lifestyles and rationalities, which not necessarily fit for every location and lifestyle (Garcia and Albisu, 2001).
The nutrition transition of the last 50 years, as a result of the ‘westernization’ of diets, is caused by both the consumers themselves and the actors that control what they consume through the food supply determined by import (Ingram, 2011). The nutrition intake has changed to increased high fat foods and sweeteners and a decline in cereals and vegetable fibers. Combined with low activity lifestyles of the people of Curaçao, these changes are associated with rising rates of overweight and diet related chronic diseases (Hawkes, 2006; CARICOM, 2010). As a consequence, more western oriented foods are higher in demand and the gap between domestic production and consumption rises. Leading to higher import dependency and a weaker competitive position on the global food market (Walters and Jones, 2006).
6. Outcomes
6.1 ProductionAs stated before, domestic food production on Curaçao is likely to be low. Various causes can be attributed to this. Firstly, natural conditions are far from ideal for agriculture on Curaçao due to lack of nutrient availability, water resources, soil quality and climate limitations which leaves only specific areas suitable for agriculture. In addition, demand for non-native agricultural products leads to increased use of fertilizer and pesticides causing damage to reefs and thus tourism. Marine biodiversity around Curaçao seems in good quality, though coral reefs have been in decline. A likely culprit could be the growth in tourism which increases beach activities, water sports and trampling. This could have detrimental effect on the fish stocks available for human consumption.
This relates to the theory of predator-prey relation in which the growth of the tourist sector and thereby the accumulation of physical capital is dependent on natural capital but degrades natural capital itself in the process (Hernández & León, 2013). For example, the use of pesticides and fertilizers actively contributes to the predator-prey relationship between the environmental resources, like the coral reefs, and the accumulation of economic resources through the tourist incomes (Hernández & León, 2013). The increased use only contributes to the environmental degradation and therefore shows a negative feedback loop within the food system, between tourist demand and tourist attractiveness. This leads to a situation where the natural capital will lose its value and will prevent further accumulation of economic capital.
This is also seen in the preservation of natural capital as tourist competitiveness strategy which determines the attraction of the island in comparison to other destination countries (World Economic Forum, 2017). In order to sustain tourism competitiveness, the growth of natural capital must be set at a higher rate than degradation due to utility (Hernández & León, 2013). As stated above, tourists interested in natural capital, such as divers, are likely to choose a destination with good quality natural capital.
This problem is, however, not as prevalent for the few local producers that cultivate organically or use permaculture because they emit a considerably smaller amount of waste. On the other hand, these producers struggle to provide the market of produce that is in demand and are primarily able to grow native crops. In addition, the local production is only a small fraction of what is imported, and tourism is likely to have little effect on this local production, seeing as tourists mainly consume imported products.
6.2 Affordability
The affordability of inhabitants of Curaçao are measured by increase of the purchasing power and food prices between 2014 and 2017 (Table 5). This table shows that the percentage of the category
lowest wages (below NAf 500 (€234)) has increased from 4.2 % to 4.8 %, meaning that the number of
people in this category has decreased. The number of people who earn between NAf 501 - 1000 (€234-468) has declined from 8.4 % to 7.7 %. For the previously mentioned categories put together, wage has stayed relatively the constant. As the table shows in 2017 12.5% (4.8+7.7%) of the employed people in Curaçao earn NAf 1000 or less a month which is far below the minimum wage of naf 1589 (€ 742) bruto per month for a 40-hours working week since the start of 2018.
Table 5. Gross monthly Income of employed population by sex, 2014-2017.
Gross monthly income of employed population by sex, 2014-2017
Men (%) Women (%) Total (%)
2014 2015 2016 2017 2014 2015 2016 2017 2014 2015 2016 2017 N=28,6 23 N=29,8 46 N=31,6 84 N=29,8 10 N=30,6 72 N=31,9 76 N=33,4 34 N=33,0 24 N=59,2 95 N=61,8 23 N=65,1 18 N=62,8 34 NAf. 0 - 500 2,7 2 4,4 5,6 4,5 5,1 4,2 3,3 4,8 NAf. 501 - 1000 5,9 5,1 6,1 10,7 10,2 9,2 8,4 7,7 7,7 NAf. 1001 - 2000 22,9 23,6 26,5 30,9 27,6 31,5 27,1 25,7 29,1 NAf. 2001 - 3000 17,9 15,9 20,6 14,7 13,1 17,5 16,2 14,4 18,9 NAf. 3001 + 39,8 34,8 28,9 31,5 29,9 24,7 35,5 32,3 26,8 Unknown/not reported 10,8 18,5 13,5 6,5 14,8 12 8,6 16,6 12,7 Source: CBS Curaçao (2017)
Rather the category wage earners between NAf 1000 and NAf 2000 (€468 to €936) increased substantial from 25,7% to 29,1%. However, from this data we cannot conclude how many people earn
less than the minimum wage, though it is expected to be substantial with an estimation of between
12.5% and 42% (4.8+7.7+29.1). In addition, the highest category, wage earners above NAf 3000, has declined from 35,5% to 26,8% which suggests that income distribution has not necessarily favored the wealthiest.
6.3 Household incomes and poverty lines
Incomes per household are often used as indicators in poverty studies. Household income can consist of more than one income, e.g. two adults working and a grandparent receiving pension. These wages and/or social benefits together form the household income. Annually, the government of Curaçao publishes the poverty lines for the different types of households which indicates the amount of income that type of family needs for living per month (see table 6 below). CBS Curaçao (2018) states that "25,1 percent of all household had an income below the poverty line in 2011".
Table 6. Poverty line by type of household (ANG per month) 2008-2018
The Curaçao minimum standard of living for a household with one adult and two children is NAf 1997 (€925) since 2018. When combining this governmental standard for the poverty line with the distribution of wages in Curaçao (table 3), it can be concluded that 42% (4.8+ 7.7 + 29.1) of the people earn wages that are equal to or under the poverty line.
The local government of Curaçao supplies social benefits (“Onderstand”) to people in need, e.i. developmentally disabled people, (young) single mothers without a job and old age pensions to people above the age of 60 or 65. The social benefit, AOV, obtained is NAf 862 (€404) (Sociale Verzekeringsbank, 2017) per month. This is much lower than the poverty line for a one-person household which is naf 1249 (table 6). This means that pensioners are often designated to live with relatives because of the inability to afford living independently. With the current financial situation of the government, it is not expected that benefits and pensions will increase in the near future. Therefore, it is unlikely that increase in affordability will be accomplished through increased income (Centrale Bank, 2017).
6.4 Food price index
Another determinant to affordability is the variation of food prices. As a consequence of prices increasing more substantially than the growth of the income, the purchasing power declines. Table 7 shows that over the last 10 years food prices increased yearly and have, in comparison to 2008, increased by 60,5 %. In this case study, food prices increased 13 % (185,9-173,1) since 2014. Particularly, basic foods, such as potatoes, vegetables and fruits, increased with 153 % in price since 2008 and by 52 % since 2014 (table 7).
Table 7. Annual consumer price index numbers by expenditure category since 2008: Curaçao Series for total population, price index numbers based on October 2006 = 100 (CBS, 2017).
Expenditure category Period Change 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Food 125.4 137.8 144.2 155.3 164.8 167.5 173.1 180.0 182.8 185.9 60.5 Cereal products 120.1 138.1 137.5 143.9 155.2 154.7 146.0 156.4 160.1 161.2 41.1
Meat & Fish 130.2 145.4 152.4 167.8 178.5 184.7 189.0 197.0 192.3 193.5 63.3 Fats & Cooking oils 148.5 168.1 162.2 176.1 194.2 202.4 210.6 208.8 204.9 205.1 56.6 Dairy products
(except butter)
177.3 178.7 175.0 183.3 194.1 190.5 199.2 207.7 196.7 190.4 13.1
Potatoes, vegetables and fruits
121.9 140.8 162.1 185.8 194.7 197.6 228.4 235.2 256.4 274.9 153.0
Sugar & Chocolate 107.3 116.4 124.5 135.0 144.7 145.6 151.3 155.4 157.1 159.7 52.4 Prepared food 110.4 115.5 119.5 125.4 126.2 130.4 142.7 147.1 146.2 147.2 36.8
Figure 3. CPI developments in the Autonomous Countries for food and clothing, 2010 = 100.
In a comparative study with Aruba and Sint Maarten, CBS Curaçao showed different data on food prices (figure 3) than table 7. The reason for difference can be attributed to the use of foods. Nonetheless, the trend appears to be similar to that of table 7. Figure 3 shows that during the period 2010-2016 Curaçao faced a 20% increase in food prices which is higher than the increase for their ‘peers’ such as Aruba (+11%), the Netherlands (+9%) and the US (Miami region, +14%) during the same period (Ecorys, 2017). In addition, compared to the price of clothing, another basic good, food prices on Curaçao have increased much more than the prices of the former.
In the context of purchasing power, food affordability could theoretically also be increased by reducing production and packaging costs. However, considering that Curaçao produces hardly any food locally while importing almost all its food, it is unlikely a cost reduction can be gained. Moreover, transport costs per container are relatively high due to limited economies of scale (from the hubs) and limited return freight (Ecorys, 2017).
6.5 Nutritional value
In the scenario of a globalized Caribbean, the nutritional value of the foods has decreased due to the import of more convenience food and brand-name processed and store-bought foods (GECAFS, 2006; Hawkes, 2006). The nutritional transition towards a more ‘westernized’ diet has led to an increased issue of overweight and obesity (VIC, 2017). The food intake of people is high on fats and sugar yet is lacking in vitamins and minerals due to the reduced supply of fresh fruits and vegetables (CARICOM, 2010; VIC, 2017).
Utilization of food differentiates between the different social classes. 50 years ago, malnutrition was a big issue on the Curaçao, however currently this trend has flipped and now there are alarming rates of overweight and obesity on the island (Caribisch Netwerk, 2017). In developing countries, including SIDS, people of higher socioeconomic status are more likely to have a higher BMI than people with a middle or lower socioeconomic status (Hawkes, 2006). As often seen in the premature stages of development, the highly promoted and low-quality foods are consumed in higher quantities. Overall development has to move onto the next stage before people are inclined to spend more on qualitative food, develop concern and knowledge on ‘health’ and ‘diets’ (Hawkes, 2006). It is evident that these trends are currently at play in Curaçao. For example, in 2017 people with a higher income showed a higher obesity rate than people with middle and low incomes (VIC, 2017).
Thus, the type of nutritional intake of food is determined by the social economic status and due to the current developing state of the island, people with higher income levels are more likely to be obese. However, while lower income levels also follow the dietary change and face issues regarding overweight, it clearly shows that the relationship between higher income doesn’t necessarily lead to higher food security (VIC, 2017).
6.6 Social value
Social value slightly decreases due to the distance from the traditional diet and the change in rationalities regarding food (GECAFS, 2006). Food is a big part of the local culture as it is usually the basis to social events with eating substantial amount being a part of the social code (Van Wijk-Jansen et al., 2010). This is currently still the case in many Curaçao families even though people have gotten more interested in healthy eating, which drives them further away from their traditional diets and eating habits (Van Wijk-Jansen et al., 2010).
Several interviews have been conducted among inhabitants of Curaçao, these counteracts the above statements made about the changes in utilization on the island. However, the theory by Hawkes (2006) also comments on the fact that after further development higher social classes become more concerned with their health and try to consume more fresh fruits and vegetables and less meat. This
is likely because of knowledge about food and nutrition intakes through their online network (Hawkes, 2006). From the information by the respondents the conclusion could be drawn that these people are more influenced by the next phase in development and belong to the higher social classes of the island. The respondents also stressed that in special occasions, people still have the same perspective on food as they did a few decades ago. As one respondent put it quite clearly: food plays an important role in my social life and certain foods display a certain social status, every event has its own food traditions based on moral codes and perspectives far removed from westernized rationalities or ‘healthy’ trends (Pers. Comm., 2018).
6.7 Food quality
The high dependency on imported food influences the quality of the food consumed (CARICOM, 2010). The food quality can increase due to strict quality controls on the imported foods. However, according to the CTA (2013) this is currently done insufficiently. The quality of food is likely to decrease due to the lack of fresh foods and increased use of preservation chemicals in imported food (CARICOM, 2010). As previously described in this chapter, incomes do not rise at the same rate as food prices which is why there is a strong focus on cheap import in order to keep food prices low at the cost of food quality (CARICOM, 2010).
7. Recommendations
As is evident from the previous chapters, tourism plays an important part in the daily lives of the people of Curaçao. In contrast to this is the inability to develop an agricultural sector though few farmers do exist. A way to lessen the gap between these sectors can be done by linking agriculture and tourism, as suggested by farmers in Curaçao (R. van Reenen, pers. comm., 2018). According to Ashley et al. (2006) linking food production and tourism might be an effective strategy to prevent these risks and reduce import spending. For example, the Agro-Tourism Linkages Centre stated: ‘Food and Beverage represents the second highest area of expenditure in the tourism sector. With a
reported leakage of 60 to 80 cents of every tourism dollar spent in some Caribbean countries’ (Ashley et al. 2006, p. 1).
There are many successful organizations and businesses in the Caribbean island of Grenada, Haiti, Jamaica and Saint Lucia who have linked tourism and local production, specifically on the island (CTA, 2015). These was found that not scale of production but he authenticity of the business, tourist experience (CTA, 2015), product differentiation and uniqueness which in turn contributes to the tourist’s experience (Ashley et al. 2006), were determinants of success for these businesses. In addition, once links with hotel demand is established greater volumes of products may be possible (Ashley et al., 2006).
However, there might be challenges ahead to linking these two sectors such as supply problems, weak market links, narrow product range, the perceptions and preferences of local food as inferior, trouble diversifying the tourism experience away from ‘beach and adventure excursions (Ashley et al, 2006), lack of financial assistance and climate variability (CTA, 2015). Therefore, more research should be done on the implementation of linking agriculture and tourism specifically and on the governance required.
8. Conclusion
Reflecting on the research question which tries to unravel the extent to which the food security on the Curaçao is vulnerable to and impacted by the tourism sector, it can be concluded that food security overall decreases. By connecting the drivers, activities and the outcomes of the food systems’ approach with the three pillars of food security (availability, accessibility and utilization) it was found that the determinants of the food systems’ approach based on the impact of the increased tourism decreased the status of food security in Curaçao because the status of availability and utilization decreased while accessibility partly increased.
For availability this is caused by the competition with tourism, degradation of the natural systems through positive feedback loops caused by tourism and increased reliance on imported food products through increased tourism. However, this is nuanced by the fact that there are many opportunities to connect agricultural production and businesses with tourism and the emergence of eco-tourist who are more conscience of the source of their foods. Despite that these developments are still in its early stages, local producers are anticipating these linkages between sectors.
Accessibility of food partly increases as a result of the growing tourism sector because it offers many opportunities for jobs. However, these positive economic effects have been outweighed by the purchasing power of the people of Curaçao which has not seen a corresponding increase. This is likely caused by almost no differences monthly income over the years but high increases in food prices. The status of utilization of food in Curaçao is regarded to decrease. The vulnerability of this part of the food system is considered to be strong. Actions are highly influenced by drivers of increased globalization and economic stability, which in turn lead to a shift in the outcomes increasing obesity levels and health costs and lowering the status of food security. The positive feedback loop in the system enforces its own degradation and therefore could lead to a tipping point from which no return is possible.
It is important that all pillars are sustained to accomplish food security. Therefore, a ‘one out all out’ approach was chosen to assess if the food security is sustained. Despite availability and accessibility being nuanced, it was evident that the utilization of food decreased. Thus, the stability of food security decreased in Curaçao as a result of the increasing tourism sector.
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Appendix - A
Interview with Roland van Reenen, a farmer on Curaçao. He represents himself as a local producer as well as representing a distribution company in which he and 12 other farmers are a part of. This distribution company offers weekly vegetable subscriptions in which the local farmers make boxes with their local produce.
Q: What agricultural products do you cultivate?
‘The farmers within the company grow eggplant, papaya, cassava which is known in Curaçao as yuca, potato, cucumbers, watermelons and honeydews. I cultivate lots of fruit, but this takes a while to get the production started. I have 140 banana trees’.
Q: Which philosophy do you use for your agricultural production and why?
‘All the farmers form the distribution company are organic farms. The reason behind this is because the advantages organic farming brings are far greater than in conventional agriculture. For example, it prevents toxic residues collecting on the produce and there would not be influence of artificial fertilizer. This prevents attenuation of nutrients in the soils and available in food. There is a famous example that you would need to eat four apples grown conventionally to obtain the same level of nutrients as an organic apple’.
‘I use permaculture which imitates ecosystems. Ecosystems are self-sustaining which makes it suitable for long term agriculture. With permaculture the yield increases with time because of this self-sustaining nature. In addition, the conditions within the permaculture increase in time which results in having to have less energy input while getting a greater output and yield’.
Q: Do you suffer from unsuitable soils? And if so, how do you deal with this?
‘Most farmers do have suitable soils. However, I do not possess such soils. On my farm nothing wanted to grow. Therefore, I added a thick layer of organic materials such as twigs, leaf litter and grass. This really helped me’.
Q: Do you mainly cultivate agricultural products traditional to Curaçao or do you cultivate what is in demand?
‘The produce that we grow are traditional to Curaçao, but this is mainly attributed to climate. The climate conditions are harsh and therefore, not all types of produce and be cultivated. We would like to eventually grow produce that is in demand. There are examples of farmers using technologies to grow other produce, such as a farmer using aquaponics in which he can control different facets of production. By using this technology, he was able to grow cabbage’.
Q: What is done with the yield? ‘It is sold’.
Q: Are you under the impression that the large influx of tourists influences the demand of food and do you think this would hamper food security on Curaçao?
‘Almost all food is imported on Curaçao and our production is only a tiny fraction of the food available. I do not think tourism has a negative influence. We are anticipating that in the future
eco-tourism is going to increase. Eco-tourists often demand more from the food they eat (e.g. where it comes from and if it’s organic). We think this development is very interesting and we would like to meet these needs’.
Q: Are you under the impression that Curaçao could potentially be able to provide itself from food and what do you think is needed for this? If not, what are the limitation and what role does tourism play into this?
‘I think we have a lot to gain in Curaçao. There are many food products that can easily be cultivated here but are still imported. We would gain so much if we cultivate it ourselves. Of course, it would not be possible for all food products, e.g. rice and wheat which are staple foods are impossible to be cultivated here. However, we could replace many food products with other food products that can be cultivated. For example, sugar is very hard to cultivate here on Curaçao, but we do have lots of agave. We could take the sugars from this plant, such as agave syrup. Another example, is extracting flour from other sources than wheat’.
‘A serious limitation for food security in Curaçao is the water supply. We have a very dry climate and it is very windy here. Therefore, we need to irrigate often. This is also the reason why not all crops can be grown here’.
‘I think tourism could potentially have a positive role in the food system because of the tourists that demand, out of principle, locally produced and organic produce’.
