Just another brick in the wall? : researching personality characteristics in a personal branding context

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‘Just another brick in

the wall?’

Researching personality characteristics in a

personal branding context

Name: Bob Hoeksema

Student number: 10247017

Institution: Amsterdam Business School – University of Amsterdam

Master’s Thesis: MSc Business Administration – Marketing Track

Thesis supervisors: Drs. Roger Pruppers & Jorge Labadie

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Statement of Originality

This document is written by student Bob Hoeksema, who declares to take full responsibility for the contents of this document.

I declare that the text and the work presented in this document is original and that no sources other than those mentioned in the text and its references have been used in creating it.

The Faculty of Economics and Business is responsible solely for the supervision of completion of the work, not for the contents.

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Acknowledgements

This Master’s thesis represents the end of my MSc Business Administration and my academic career in general. Having started with the personal branding adventure in June 2015, I consider the writing of this thesis as my life work. Never in my life have I dedicated as much sweat and many tears in a project as in this one. However, I could not have completed this journey without the help and support of a lot of people. For reaching the finish line, I would like to express my gratitude to these specific persons.

First of all, I would like to thank my supervisor Roger Pruppers for the insightful discussions and arguments, which allowed me to see the light at the end of the dark tunnel of writing a Master’s thesis. Despite leaving a borderline message on your voicemail, you followed through with a big smile on your face and guided me to the end of my thesis. It really has been a pleasure working with you, and I hope we can continue this cooperation sometime in the future!

I would also like to thank my “thesis buddies” Thomas and Manouk. Although writing the thesis can be quite a lonely process, together we managed to keep our spirits up and inspire each other to go the extra mile. Together, we worked our butts off while we also had some great laughs. Thank you for that, it made this journey a lot more pleasant.

Finally, thanks to my family and my friends. I know I have not always been easy to handle at home, and I was not always present at parties and celebrations. But you stuck with me regardless, so I would like to thank you all for that.

Leaving the University of Amsterdam, I hope to apply the gained insights from this thesis to my professional career, and prevent becoming just another brick in the wall!

Bob Hoeksema

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Abstract

Personal branding is a “hot topic” in the contemporary society. However, as personal branding is still in its infancy in the academic literature, personal branding remains somewhat of a puzzle to academics and practitioners. In order to elaborate on this increasingly important phenomenon in branding, this research focused on the role of personality traits in personal branding. For this purpose, we applied a framework derived from an HRM-perspective to personal branding; Ofman’s core quadrants. In this research, two studies were conducted. Our first, explorative, study proved the applicability of branding principles to personal branding. Following Keller’s Customer Based Brand Equity pyramid, three research questions were drafted, in order to research the composition of consumers’ associative network for personal brands, as well as brand image and brand attitude in personal branding. This was done by researching a total of twelve celebrities in three different celebrity contexts. The findings show that the Challenge in Ofman’s core quadrant framework is most essential for personal brands, as it prevents personal brands from becoming just another brick in the wall and represents the difference between Core Quality and Pitfall personal brands.

As our first study mainly concerned personal brand image, we researched how to change personal brand image by using various brand positioning strategies in our second study. Instead of using existing celebrities, we created two hypothetical brands in this study to establish a more pure effect of personality traits in personal brandings. The results support the notion that the Challenge is the most important personality trait in personal branding, as consumers’ evaluated personal brands communicating their Challenge as most favorable. As such, this research gained plentiful new insights into the “hot” personal branding phenomenon, serving as a fruitful building block for further academic research and as guidelines for practitioners in the field of strategic personal brand management.

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Section II – Study 1: Ofman’s core quadrants in a (Personal) Branding context ... 24

Chapter 4 - Conceptual Framework... 24

Chapter 5 –Methodology Study 1 ... 29

5.1. Stimuli Development - Qualitative Pre-test Study 1 ... 29

5.2. Stimuli testing – Quantitative Pre-test Methodology ... 30

5.3. Stimuli Testing - Results Quantitative Pre-test ... 33

5.3.1. Familiarity of selected stimuli ... 33

5.3.2. Favorability of the personality traits ... 34

5.3.3. Representation of perceived quadrant position ... 34

5.4. Changes and improvements for Study 1 ... 36

5.4.1. Stimuli ... 36

5.5. Experimental Design Study 1 ... 37

5.5.1. Sample ... 38

5.5.2. Procedure ... 38

5.5.3. Measures ... 39

5.5.4. Categorization of free associations ... 41

Chapter 6 –Results Study 1... 42

6.1. Familiarity with stimuli ... 42

6.2. Factor analyses and reliability tests ... 43

6.2.1. Reliability analyses ... 45

6.2.2. Creating Summated Scales ... 46

6.3. Manipulation checks ... 48

6.3.1. Manipulation check for favorability of quadrant positions... 48

6.3.2. Manipulation check for representation of dominant quadrant position ... 48

6.3.3. Testing Quadrant Positions against each other ... 49

6.4. Research Question 1: Associative network of personal brands ... 50

6.4.1. Associative network – numbers of associations per quadrant position ... 50

6.4.2. Strength of associations – correlations between associations in quadrant positions ... 53

6.5. Determining personal brand image... 54

6.6. Relationship between personal brand image and personal brand attitude ... 57

6.6.1. Mixed ANOVA for personal brand attitude ... 57

6.6.2. Regression analyses with personal brand attitude ... 58

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7.1. Composition of associative network for personal brands ... 62

7.2. Determining PoPs and PoDs in personal branding ... 64

7.3. Challenge as most important driver of personal brand attitude ... 66

7.4. Just another brick in the wall? ... 67

Section III –Study 2: Using Core Quadrants as a Positioning Tool for Personal Branding ... 68

Chapter 8 – Conceptual Framework Study 2 ... 68

Chapter 9 - Methodology and Experimental Design Study 2 ... 76

9.1.1. Choice of quadrants ... 76

9.1.2. Stimuli development ... 77

9.1.3. Questionnaire scenarios and descriptions ... 78

9.2. Experimental Design Study 2 ... 80

9.2.1. Sample ... 80

9.2.2. Experimental Procedure ... 81

9.2.3. Measures ... 82

Chapter 10 - Results Study 2 ... 83

10.1. Factor Analyses and Reliability Tests ... 83

10.1.1. Reliability tests ... 85

10.1.2. Creating Summated Scales ... 86

10.2. Manipulation checks ... 86

10.2.1. Favorability of Quadrant Positions ... 87

10.2.2. Perceptions of Quadrant Positions ... 87

10.3. Discussion Manipulation Checks ... 96

10.4. Hypotheses Testing Study 2 ... 98

10.4.1. Additional Analysis ... 112

10.5. Discussion Study 2 ... 113

10.5.1. Gaining control in the control room ... 113

10.5.2. Challenge as the antidote against the Pitfall ... 114

10.5.3. Impact of positioning strategies ... 114

10.5.4. Antidote as last resort? ... 116

Section IV: General Discussion, Contributions, and Conclusions ... 117

Chapter 11 – General discussion: Combining the findings of both studies ... 117

11.1. Theoretical contributions ... 119

11.1.1. Personal branding as a component of branding literature ... 119

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11.2. Managerial contributions ... 121

11.2.1. Gaining new insights into the puzzle called personal branding ... 121

11.2.2. Personal brand positioning: a force to be reckoned with ... 122

11.2.3. Impact of the core quadrant on personal branding ... 122

11.2.4. Repositioning personal brands ... 124

Chapter 12 – Conclusions ... 125

12.1. Summary... 125

12.2. Limitations and further research directions ... 126

12.2.1. New questions arising from this research ... 126

12.2.2. Personal branding and Ofman’s core quadrant in a broader context ... 127

13 – References ... 130

Section V: Appendix ... 136

I. Qualtitative pre-test Study 1 ... 136

II. Quantitative pre-test Study 1 ... 137

III. Appendix Study 1 ... 143

IV. Appendix Study 2 ... 157

V. Questionnaires ... 164

1. Quantitative pre-test Study 1 ... 164

2. Study 1 - Personal Branding – One version ... 174

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Section I – Theoretical foundation

Chapter 1 – Introduction

1.1. Lovability of celebrities

On the 12th of July 2015, Novak Djokovic beat Roger Federer to claim his third Wimbledon title. Afterwards, the Serbian tennis player praised his opponent Federer, a 7-time champion on the London grass. Djokovic, the undisputed world number one and in the prime of his career, thus tried to be sympathetic and showed

sportsmanship to his opponent after the clash. Although Djokovic just won his ninth Grand Slam title, most of the headlines were revolving around Federer, whose popularity around the globe is inimitable. Even despite not winning his

18th Grand Slam title, Federer, at the age of 33, was declared world’s most marketable athlete by the London School of Marketing (Hiscott & Symcox, 2015). Although both players engage in charity work, manage their own foundation, and are celebrity stars around the globe, Djokovic does not approach Federer’s popularity and does not nearly receive the same grace that Federer does around the world. Thus, the question arises as to which aspects make Federer so loveable, and maybe even more important: why Djokovic does not receive the same grace around the globe.

1.1.1. Personal branding: brand image and brand positioning

On a yearly basis, corporations spend huge amounts of time, money, and effort to create positive associations for brands in the minds of consumers. A recent development in the area of branding is the application of the original branding to human beings, called “personal branding” (Peters, 1997). This relatively new type of branding follows an individualistic approach, with the key premise that people can be considered as brands, and that everyone has a personal brand (Peters, 1997). However, as celebrities are managed strategically with the purpose of creating economic value, it is argued that personal branding is most relevant for celebrities. Thus, celebrities such as Federer and Djokovic, and even President of the United States Barack Obama can be considered personal brands, because they can be professionally managed and they have additional associations and features of a brand (Thomson, 2006). These features include brand image, positioning, identity, and brand value. In order to convey a positive image and create positive associations, it is of great importance to create psychological connections to consumers and human beings. Take Barack Obama for example. Many believe

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that in 2008, the citizens of the United States of America elected the first ever Afro-American president because Obama managed his brand image and brand associations to perfection.

Celebrities such as Obama know the power of building and maintaining their personal brand and so they invest hugely in trying to manage their most valuable asset (Frow, 2012). In the academic branding literature, positioning and image are widely considered as the essence of branding, as the whole idea of brand worth revolves around the core associations of brands (Aaker & Shansby, 1982; Keller, 1993; Keller, 2013). For brands and personal brands alike, it is essential to position oneself in the right way, as this will create the optimal location in people’s minds so that they think of the personal brand in the right way (Keller, 2013). Essentially, personal branding involves implementing a positioning strategy that manages the perceptions of how others perceive you when they hear your name (Frow, 2012). Federer, for example, “is seen as a true gentleman, humble, down-to-earth man, who gives his time generously to his partners and foundation”, as his manager Tony Godsick states (Arai, Ko, & Ross, 2014).

Returning to Federer and the declaration of the London School of Marketing, one might think that performance is the most important aspect to make an athlete marketable in the first place. But if the top three of most marketable athletes, according to the London School of Marketing (Hiscott & Symcox, 2015), consists entirely of athletes that “have passed their peak physically”, the question arises as to what factors make these three men so marketable despite having passed their physical prime. As faculty member of the London School of Marketing Jacques de Cock elaborated: “He may not have won Wimbledon this year, but it’s Federer’s personal characteristics which makes him so endearing” (Hiscott & Symcox, 2015). Thus, this raises the question as to what factors then determine how a one can create a personal brand that is so strong that he/she becomes commercially attractive, and even become one of the most marketable human beings in the world. As De Cock already stated, personal characteristics may be the answer.

1.1.2. Standing out of the crowd through personality traits

As is clear, the branding of human beings is becoming increasingly interesting to research in the branding literature. Especially in the case of celebrities such as Federer and Obama, managing and governing a personal brand is essential to convey positive brand associations and a positive brand image. From a branding perspective, a lot of academic attention has been paid to the elements that set brands apart and elements that are shared with other brands. In other words, points-of-difference (PoD) and points-of-parity (PoP) have been

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discussed extensively in the branding literature (e.g. Keller, Sternthal, & Tybout, 2002; Keller, 2013). To date, however, little is known to what extent the personality of personal brands influences the so-called success factor of celebrities. Furthermore, as discussed in the introduction, the question arose as to what factors make Federer so much more popular and loveable than Djokovic. Thus, it becomes interesting to look at the minimum requirements to make a personal brand have potential to be popular and loveable in the first place. One step beyond the minimum requirements is the question as to what makes the difference between celebrity stars, as the example of Federer and Djokovic shows. What are the factors that make Federer so much more loveable and popular, and why is it that Djokovic does not receive the same love and grace all over the globe? In other words, what is necessary to make you not just another brick in the wall? How do you allow yourself to stand out of the crowd, and be that neon-colored brick in a wall of ordinary red bricks? In order to research these factors, it becomes necessary to incorporate PoPs and PoDs into personal branding research.

An example of a celebrity star that lost all his points that made him stand out of the crowd, relative to other celebrity stars, is Oscar Pistorius. The South-African athlete is known as The Blade Runner because of his mechanical legs. For Pistorius, his PoD was his mechanical legs, for which he was known all over the world. However, after presumably murdering his girlfriend, Pistorius was sentenced to jail. Subsequently, this caused Pistorius’ popularity around the globe to turn into abomination and blame. As such, although the Blade Runner once stood out of the crowd because of his incredible achievements in spite of his handicap, he lost all his credibility as a person and personal brand. Specifically, Pistorius’ PoD did not matter as he had lost his PoP.

To summarize, human beings own certain characteristics that make “you who you are”. However, as Pistorius shows, circumstances can make these characteristics tarnish. Thus, it becomes interesting to look at the factors and circumstances in which PoDs come alive. Moreover, it becomes interesting to look at the minimum requirements that a human being should possess in order to create a strong personal brand and what factors can make the difference and make personal brands stand out of the crowd. Although these principles have been elaborated on extensively in the branding literature, academic literature regarding personal branding in this area lacks to date.

1.2.1. Problem statement and research question

Thus, as becomes clear from the academic literature, scientific research is needed in order to expand and elaborate on the personal branding phenomenon. More specifically,

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personality and personal characteristics, which can have a huge influence in setting oneself apart from the competition (Rajpal, 2015), have not yet been covered in the area of personal branding. Forth, as personal branding is rapidly becoming an increasingly interesting and “hot” topic in the branding literature, research is needed that takes a closer look at personality and the factors that prevent personal brands from becoming just another brick in the wall. Following the example of Federer, after having claimed a steadfast position in the minds of people all over the world, he differentiated himself from the competition by adapting to an elegant style and by showing to be a true gentleman. Accordingly, this may be the answer to the questions as to why Federer is loved around the globe. As this example shows, personality and especially perceived personality can have a huge influence to the popularity and lovability of a personal brand. To date, however, these personality and perceived personality have not yet been examined in the academic literature regarding personal branding.

Accordingly, the research question is as follows:

RQ: What is the influence of personality characteristics and positioning strategies on consumer perceptions of personal brands?

1.2.2. Subquestions

In order to answer the research question, several subquestions need to be answered:  What are the minimum requirements for a personal brand to become relevant in the

minds of consumers?

 What is necessary for a personal brand to differentiate itself from the competition, and thus stand out of the crowd?

 How is the associative network of consumers composed for personal brands with certain personality characteristics?

 What is necessary for a personal brand to be evaluated positively in the minds of consumers?

 When communicating personality characteristics, what is the most favorable manner to communicate to consumers in order to gain positive consumer evaluations?

1.2.3. Delimitations

This research will investigate application of fundamental branding principles to personal branding in a celebrity context. Specifically, celebrity stars in fields such as acting, sports, politics, and singing/performing will be researched concerning fundamental branding principles

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and the application of these principles to personal branding. In spite of a myriad of characteristics (e.g. performance, attractiveness) that allow a personal brand to succeed, this study will solely focus on personality characteristics.

With respect to Aaker’s “Big Five” (Aaker, 1997), this thesis will not apply this specific brand personality research to the personal branding phenomenon. Instead, this thesis will integrate a human resource management tool, i.e. Ofman’s core qualities quadrant, with personal branding. Forth, personal branding will not be discussed in the context of the average human being and the labour market or personal careers. Specifically, this thesis views personal branding in the context of celebrity stars and from a branding/marketing perspective.

Finally, in this thesis, personal brand personality is regarded as the observed brand personality, instead of the actual personality of an individual. In other words, this includes the personality which is strategically developed by the personal brand itself (or its management) through reputation development in the minds of consumers (Arai et al., 2014).

1.3.1. Theoretical contributions

As elaborated on, existing academic literature has paid little attention to personal branding. More specifically, the application of existing branding principles to personal branding lacks research. Therefore, this thesis will reveal important insights in the application of existing branding principles to personal branding. For the academic literature, this means that the knowledge in a relatively new and fruitful area of research will be extended. More specifically, this thesis can also be regarded as a building block for upcoming research in the area of personal branding, which adds a new theoretical framework to our understanding of personal branding.

Moreover, the influence of personality and personal characteristics have not yet been researched in a personal branding context. Accordingly, approaches and theories originating from a psychology and human resource management perspective become increasingly interesting to utilize in a personal branding context. Therefore, in this thesis, the personal component of personal branding will be examined by looking at Ofman’s core quadrant (2007). Ofman’s (2007) approach will be used to measure how a person is perceived by others. In other words, the core quadrant framework will be used as an image measurement tool, which extends this quadrant into a new fruitful area of research. Furthermore, as Ofman’s core quadrant approach allows to differentiate personality traits, this approach will also be used in this thesis to distinguish between several personalities traits.

The “point-of-difference” for this thesis, is that this thesis combines personality research with research in a branding context. More specifically, this thesis will link the question as to

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how the personality of personal brands are perceived by other human beings to original branding concepts, in particular PoPs and PoDs and the customer-based brand equity pyramid (CBBE) (Keller et al., 2002; Keller, 2013). Thus, this thesis will combine personality traits with the respective positioning and image of the personal brand. Subsequently, this will lead to new insights for academics, as the influence of personality traits are yet to be researched in the context of personal branding. Moreover, existing and renowned branding principles will be extended to an upcoming and fruitful area of research. Consequently, this will yield insights into the necessary components for a personal brand in order to differentiate oneself from other personal brands. Finally, by researching positioning strategies in a personal branding context, we are able to show how associations in consumers’ associative networks can be altered. As such, this research combines both brand image and brand positioning in a personal branding context, through which new insights for the academic literature will be gained.

1.3.2. Managerial contributions

Aside from theoretical contributions, this research also contributes to the knowledge of managers in the field of branding. Specifically, researching what factors are necessary in order to create a strong personal brand yield insights for celebrity agencies and management companies. Especially for disclosing upcoming celebrity stars that yet have to prove their worth, building a strong personal brand, which mainly involves creating an ideal brand positioning and conveying a positive brand image is essential for celebrity agencies and managements. This is because celebrity agencies and managements benefit extensively from strong personal brands that receive a lot of popularity in the form of major sponsorships and endorsements around the world. Furthermore, although this research is concentrated on celebrity stars, “regular” human beings can profit from this thesis as well. This is because personal branding is becoming an increasingly popular phenomenon, which applies to every human being.

Finally, researching personality and personality characteristics in a personal branding context is commercially relevant for marketing, because personality defines a person’s character, which is conveyed to the outside world. Accordingly, personality and personality characteristics (partly) determine a personal brand’s image. Therefore, this thesis can be used by marketers and management agencies in order to analyse and evaluate one’s personality, and better estimate the impact of certain personality traits on the personal brand image and brand worth. Accordingly, having determined brand image, brand managers can take notice of this research by gaining insights into how personal brands can most favorable be positioned.

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The remainder of this thesis will be as follows. The second chapter will discuss the most fundamental and basic ideas of branding. As the core of branding are associations, this chapter will mainly contain an evaluation of the literature about brands as associative networks. This chapter will also discuss two of the most important components of branding, i.e. brand image and brand positioning. Furthermore, chapter three will discourse the essence of this thesis: personal branding. In order to translate personality characteristics into the way personality characteristics are perceived, Ofman’s core qualities quadrant (2007) will be used to measure brand image. In order to include this framework into this thesis, literature concerning Ofman’s core qualities quadrant will be handled and evaluated in chapter three as well.

Then, in our second section, the conceptual framework, methodology, results, and discussion of our first study will be elaborated on. In this first study, we will concentrate mainly on personal brand image, by using existing personal brands in various contexts. Furthermore, in the third section of this research, we will discuss the same components for our second study. In detail, in this second study we will concentrate on brand positioning, such that the influence of various positioning strategies on consumers’ evaluation of personal brands is ascertained. Finally, in our fourth and final section, the findings and insights from both studies will be combined, and the implications for both theory and practice will be elaborated on. Moreover, in this section, we present the limitations and further research directions, and give an answer to this research’s problem statement and research question.

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Chapter 2 – Brands as associative networks

As elaborated in chapter one, human beings can increasingly be seen as brands of their own. Accordingly, chapter two will discuss the principles of branding. Subsequently, this literature can be used to take a closer look at personal branding.

2.1. Brands and branding

As Keller (2013) argues, a brand can be perceived as something that resides in the minds of consumers. A brand is a perceptual entity rooted in reality, but is more than that – it reflects the perceptions and perhaps even the idiosyncrasies of consumers (Keller, 2013). Furthermore, branding creates mental structures and helps consumers organize their knowledge about products and services in a way that clarifies their decision making, and in the process, provides value to the firm (Keller, 2013). Essentially, the key to branding is that consumers perceive differences among brands in a product category (Aaker & Shansby, 1982; Keller, 2013). This also means that marketers can benefit from a sound branding strategy, as consumers stand before a choice when choosing among different brands in a product category. In contrast to just products and services, branding represents a universal concept. Accordingly, branding can also be used to brand online business, organizations, places, ideas, and most importantly for this thesis, people. Essentially, any entity can be branded (Keller, 2013).

2.2. Brand associations

The key of brands and branding strategy are the associations consumers form with a brand (Keller, 1993). Aaker and Equity (1991) define brand associations as “anything linked in memory to a brand” (p. 109). Moreover, the core of brand associations is to create meaning for consumers (Aaker & Equity, 1991). Many consumers, for example, associate Coca Cola with refreshment, the color red, and with Christmas. However, consumers may also associate Coca Cola with certain people (e.g. Wayne Rooney, because the football player endorsed the brand in advertisements), and locations (e.g. drinking coke at a birthday party or at a bar). These brand associations create value for the focal product in several ways. Specifically, brand associations are important for marketers because they help to process and retrieve information, can create positive affect, and provide a basis for new products and brand extensions (Henderson, Iacobucci, & Calder, 1998). Brand associations can, for example, drive consumers to choose Coca Cola over rival Pepsi, because consumers associate Coca Cola in a more favorable way than Pepsi. In order to understand brand preferences and choices, it is essential to map how these associations are formed in the mind of the consumer.

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In line with this literature, Keller (1993) thinks of brands as networks of nodes with associations as well. In order to build a brand, it is essential to create positive associations in the mind of the consumer (Keller, 1993). In contrast to the literature discussed above, Keller (1993) adds to the literature above that brand associations differ in three manners. First, associations differ in strength, which means that they are either strongly or weakly connected to the brand’s node in memory. For example, consumers may associate Nike stronger with authentic athletic performance, than with the Greek goddess Nikè. Second, associations have different forms of favorability. This means that associations differ in the way their associations are evaluated, either positively or negatively. Refreshment, for example, could be evaluated as a more favorable association in the soft drinks industry than in the coffee industry. Finally, associations differ in uniqueness, such that that some associations are more unique than others. For example, the association to Christmas is uniquely attributable to Coca Cola in the soft drinks industry. Thus, as Keller (1993) elaborates on, it is essential for brands to create strong, favorable, and unique associations.

Moreover, Aaker and Equity (1991) explain that in order for consumers to create brand associations, the brand should reside inside the consumer’s mind. From a cognitive psychology perspective, literature states that knowledge resides in “associative networks”, which are comprised of concept nodes and prepositional links (Aaker & Equity, 1991; Collins & Loftus, 1975; Keller, 2013). When thinking of a fire truck, for example, the first things that come to mind could be the color red, flashing lights, police cars, fire hoses, firemen, et cetera. This knowledge about fire trucks then forms an associative network of all the connected knowledge about fire trucks. Collins and Loftus (1975) elaborate further on associative networks and conceptual nodes and prepositional links. Specifically, Collins and Loftus (1975) developed an influential network model using the concept of spreading activation. Essentially, spreading activation means that when a consumer is reminded of a stimulus, activation of the node corresponding to that stimulus occurs. Thus, the activation spreads gradually, and memory retrieval produces a spread of activation to those other items that are closely related. When being reminded of fire trucks, for instance, a person could firstly think of the color red, firemen, and fire. Subsequently, the activation can spread to flashing lights, which in turn spreads activation to knowledge about police cars and ambulances, et cetera. The human associative memory model (Anderson & Bower, 2014) is in accordance with the ideas discussed by Collins and Loftus (1975). Essentially, this model also suggests that when nodes are linked together in memory, this leads to the activation of linked nodes in the form of a network, or knowledge structure.

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Thus, these network approaches to associative networks and associations apply to branding. Mainly, studies have concentrated on brand-mapping techniques in order to present managers with a strategic, comprehensive, and consumer-driven view of the brand that gives insight in how their brand is differentiated from key competitors (Till, Baack, & Waaterman, 2011; John, Loken, Kim, & Monga, 2006). As John et al. (2006) elaborate on, firms should ideally be able to measure this network of brand associations to obtain a brand map. Similar to the previously discussed associative networks, this map does not only identify important brand associations, but also conveys how these associations are connected to the brand and to one another (Till et al., 2011). Accordingly, one of the most fundamental task for managing a brand is to understand and control the set of associations around their brand (Till, Baack, & Waaterman, 2011).

Clearly, brands are associative networks. When thinking of one component of the brand, other components of the brand are also activated in the minds of consumers. Subsequently, these activated nodes form connections in the associative network, which ultimately drive brand preference (Aaker & Shansby, 1991; Keller, 2013). In the context of personal branding, similar to corporate branding, marketers are also interested in the associations that consumers hold for personal brands. When thinking of Roger Federer, for example, the first things that come to mind can be tennis, Switzerland, Wimbledon, his rival Rafael Nadal, Nike, et cetera. When thinking about Barack Obama, the first things that come to mind can be the United States of America, presidency, Afro-American people, politics, McCain, et cetera. Ultimately, a network of associations can be formed around the celebrity in question. This shows that, similar to corporate branding, associative networks can be formed about personal brands as well. By forming associative networks around these celebrities, the core (personal) brand associations can be determined. Subsequently, marketers can gain insight in the most important set of brand associations that drive the personal brand’s image. All in all, it can be concluded that brand associations are the fundamental cornerstones of brand value, brand image, and brand equity, which will be discussed next.

2.2.1. Brand equity and customer-based brand equity

Thus, brands create strategic positions and specific perceptual associations in the minds of consumers (Henderson et al., 1998). Ultimately, the goal of creating strong, favorable, and unique brand associations in the minds of consumers is to develop and maintain high quality brand equity. In the 1980s, brand equity arose as one of the most important marketing and branding concepts. Because of its emergence, brand equity and brands have become a more

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important aspect of marketing strategy and have provided focus for managerial interest and research activity (Keller, 2013). Moreover, brand equity explains why different outcomes result from the marketing of a branded product or service than if it were not branded (Keller, 1993; Keller, 2013). As the consumer is at the heart of marketing, the customer-based brand equity (CBBE) was brought to life (Keller, 1993). In this form of brand equity, the power of a brand lies in what resides in the minds of hearts and consumers (Keller, 1993). Accordingly, CBBE is defined as the differential effect of brand knowledge on consumer response to the marketing of the brand (Keller, 1993). Furthermore, CBBE occurs when the consumer has a high level of awareness and familiarity with the brand and holds some strong, favorable, and unique brand associations in memory (Keller, 2013). Thus, in order to create strong (customer-based) brand equity, it is essential for marketers to create brand awareness and convey a positive brand image.

2.2.2. CBBE pyramid

As Keller (2013) shows, the CBBE model can be visually represented in the form of a pyramid. The first layer of the pyramid is represented by brand awareness, and consists of brand recognition and brand recall performance.

The former refers to the ability of consumers to confirm prior exposure to the brand when given the brand as a cue (Keller, 2013). Brand recall refers to a stronger form of brand awareness. Specifically, recall refers to the ability of consumers to retrieve the brand from memory when given the product category or purchase situation as a cue. Thus,

brand awareness fulfils an important first step in building brand equity through increasing the familiarity with the brand and forging strong associations with the product category (Keller, 2013). Subsequently, when brand awareness has been established, the emphasis can be put on crafting a brand image (Keller, 2013). Indeed, the second layer of the CBBE pyramid is represented by brand performance and brand imagery. Specifically, the former refers to product-related and functional brand aspects, and describes how well the product or service meets customers’ more functional needs. This is represented on the left side of the CBBE pyramid. In contrast, brand imagery refers to symbolic and non-product-related aspects of a brand, and describes how well the brand meets customers’ psychological or social needs. This is represented on the right side of the CBBE pyramid. In line with Keller (2013), Park et al.

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(1986) suggest that every brand image should be based on a brand concept or a brand-specific abstract meaning, which is referred to as brand concept management (BCM). As Park et al. (1986) elaborate on, brand concepts can be either symbolic or functional, and thus comprises one aspect of a brand’s image (Bhat & Reddy, 1998). The BCM by Park et al. (1986) argues that functional brands satisfy practical needs. Symbolic brands, in contrast, satisfy symbolic needs such as those for self-expression and prestige (Keller, 1993; Park et al., 1986). For this research, the right side of the CBBE pyramid is the most interesting, as brand personality resides on this side. Specifically, as this research is not interested in functional aspects of personal brands, the personality of personal brands is essential to review.

2.2.3. Brand Personality

Through brand positioning, brands may take on personality traits or human values (Keller, 2013). In consumer behavior research, this is referred to as brand personality, which in turn refers to the set of human characteristics associated with a brand (Aaker, 1997). Moreover, referring to the BCM (Park et al., 1986), brand personality tends to serve a symbolic or self-expressive function. Aaker (1997) argues that this symbolic use of brands is possible because consumer often imbue brands with human personality traits. Moreover, consumers often think about brands if they were celebrities (Rook, 1985). These personality traits associated with a brand tend to be relatively enduring and

distinct. Involving brand personality research, Aaker (1997) discusses the “Big Five”. As a result of a framework of brand personality dimensions, Aaker (1997) distinguishes five brand personality dimensions, namely: Sincerity, Excitement, Competence, Sophistication, and Ruggedness (figure 2).

In general, it can be said that brand personality is for a large part consistent with brand imagery. Mainly, brand imagery refers to the way people think about a brand abstractly, rather than what they think the brand actually does (Keller, 2013). In the case of Nike, consumers often think of the extensive background story and celebrity endorsers that make the brand endearing to consumers. Their tagline, “Just do it”, thus becomes associated with a no-nonsense state of mind, which motivates athletes. Accordingly, brand personality and brand values is perceived as a brand intangible which can be linked to a brand (Aaker, 1997; Keller, 2013). Moreover, brand imagery can affect brand personality (Keller, 2013). Mainly due to marketing Figure 2: The”Big Five” of brand personality (Aaker, 1997)

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communication efforts and techniques that allow consumers to allocate human personality characteristic to brands, brand personality is affected by the inferences consumer make about the underlying user or usage situation depicted or reflected in an ad (Keller, 2013).

In situations that user and usage imagery are important to consumer decisions, brand personality and imagery are more likely to be related (Keller, 2013). Specifically, the alignment of brand personality and imagery is in line with the self-concept theory, which reflects a person’s perceptions of their own abilities, characteristics, limitations, appearance, and personality (Graeff, 1996). Corresponding with Keller (2013), Graeff (1996) states that consumers prefer, choose, and use brands with images similar to their own self-image.

2.2.4. Brand image

Thus, as discussed, brands can be seen as associative networks in which it is essential to create strong, favorable, and unique associations in consumer memory (Keller, 1993; Keller, 2013). Accordingly, brand image is defined as consumers’ perceptions about a brand as reflected by the brand associations held in consumer memory (Keller, 2013). Thus, it can be said that when the associations of a brand are strong, favorable, and unique, the brand image is reflected in a positive way through these associations. In other words, the associations that come to your mind make up your brand image for a certain brand (Keller, 2013). Since a long time, brand image has been recognized as one of the most important concepts in marketing (e.g. Gardner & Levy, 1955). Yearly, marketers spend millions of dollars to create and support brand images. In line with the large amount of money that goes on in building and maintaining a brand image, academic literature suggests that developing, communicating, and maintaining a brand’s image is crucial to its long-term success (Gardner & Levy, 1955; Park, Jaworski, & MacInnis, 1986; Ries & Trout, 1986).

As Keller (1993) describes, brand associations can take different forms, with three major categories of increasing scope: attributes, benefits, and attitudes. Firstly, attributes are what a consumer thinks of the product or service is or has and what is involved with its purchase or consumption (Keller, 1993). When buying a Nike t-shirt, for example, consumers might buy the shirt because of its breathability and fashionability. Secondly, benefits are the personal value consumers attach to the product or service attributes. In other words, what consumers think the product or service can do for them (Keller, 1993). The Nike shirt, for example, can make the consumer look fashionable when working out. This consists of functional, experiential, and symbolic benefits. Finally, attitudes can be defined as consumers’ overall evaluations of a brand (Keller, 1993). When the Nike shirt proves to be a comfortable shirt to play sports in and look

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fashionable at the same time, the consumer might think of Nike in a positive way. According to Keller (1993), attitudes are important because they often form the basis for consumer behavior and brand choice. Together with the favorability, strength, and uniqueness of brand associations, the attributes, benefits, and attitudes of brand associations make up the brand image (Keller, 1993; Keller, 2013).

2.2.5. Brand positioning

As stated, marketers yearly spend millions of dollars to create and support images through positioning the brand in a clear and consistent manner (Bhat & Reddy, 1998). However, in order to change existing brand images in the minds of consumers, marketers engage in brand positioning. Essentially, positioning means finding the proper location in the minds of a group of consumers or market segment, so that they think about a product or service in the desired way to maximize potential benefit to the firm (Keller, 2013). Furthermore, sound brand positioning helps guide marketing strategy by clarifying what a brand is all about, how it is unique and how it is similar to competitive brands, and why consumers should purchase it (Keller, 2013). This is in line with Aaker and Shansby (1982), who argue that a clear positioning strategy can ensure that the elements of the marketing program are consistent and supportive. Moreover, similar to Keller (2013), Aaker and Shansby (1982) put forth that the positioning decision is often the crucial strategic decision for a brand because the position can be central to customers’ perception and choice-decisions. As Keller (2013) states, brand positioning is at the heart of marketing strategy.

In order to determine the desired image to maximize its success, as Keller (1999) explains, careful analysis of competitors and consumers is required in order to position a brand. As discussed earlier, core brand associations are also important to position the brand in a proper manner. This is because core brand associations are consumer-derived associations that reflect the brand positioning (Keller, 1999). In other words, when a brand is positioned in a certain way, core brand associations are created or reinforced because of efforts to convey the desired brand positioning (Keller, 1999). In order to gain more insight into brand positioning, points-of-parity and points-of-difference have to be taken into account (Keller et al., 2002).

2.2.6. Points-of-Parity and Points-of-Difference

In marketing, differentiation is seen as one of the core principles. The near-ubiquitous commandment is “thou shalt differentiate”, with the clear premise that marketers should be judged on how well they differentiate their brands (Romaniuk, Sharp, & Ehrenberg, 2007).

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Specifically, differentiation makes the brand an imperfect substitute with other brands so buyers of the brand are more loyal, creating a more secure customer base (Romaniuk et al., 2007). To be able to differentiate from other brands, it is essential to position the brand in a certain way. In order to decide on the “right” brand positioning, it is essential to determine the optimal points-of-parity (PoPs) and points-of-difference (PoDs) brand associations (Keller, 2013). The former refers to associations that are not necessarily unique to the brand, but may be shared with other brands. PoDs, in contrast, refer to the benefits that set each brand apart from competition (Keller et al., 2002). For instance, Coca Cola and Pepsi are both brands in the soft drinks and beverages industry. Both brands share associations concerning soft drinks, cola, and refreshment. These can be considered as the PoPs. What sets both brands apart is the imagery associations that consumers have for both brands. While Coca Cola is focused on sharing, friends, and happiness, Pepsi is concentrated more on a wilder and tougher brand image. These can be considered the PoDs for both brands. However, as Keller et al. (2002) argue, in order to successfully position brands, three questions should be asked.

In their article, Keller et al. (2002) address these key questions every brand should ask itself: Have we established a frame? Are we leveraging our points of parity? Are the points of difference compelling? As the authors state, brands have traditionally only focused on the points of difference, as this is where the brand can set itself apart from the competition and become more attractive to potential customers (Keller et al., 2002). However, before PoDs can be leveraged, it is first necessary to start with understanding the frame of reference within brands work and addressing the features that brands have in common with competitors. In order to position a brand, it is thus necessary to signal the goal consumers can expect to achieve by using a brand (Keller et al., 2002). As these authors argue, it is important to choose a frame of reference because it dictates the types of associations that will function as PoP and PoD (Keller et al., 2002). In other words, the competitive frame of reference defines which other brands a brand competes with, and thus which brands should be analysed and studied.

As stated, PoPs are associations that are not necessarily unique to the brand. As Keller (2013) elaborates on the work of Keller et al. (2002), three types of PoP can be distinguished. Firstly, category PoPs represent associations that consumers view as necessary conditions for a credible offering and brand choice (Keller, 2013). Secondly, competitive PoPs are associations designed to negate competitors’ PoDs (Keller, 2013). As Keller et al. (2002) elaborate on, this way a brand can “break even” in an area where competitors are trying to break away and then achieve a PoD in some other area. Finally, correlational PoPs are those potentially negative associations that arise from the existence of other, more positive associations for the brand. This

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occurs when a brand in the fast food industry, for example, claims that they are both healthy and tasty. As Keller (2013) explains, there is a mental block in the minds of consumers when they hear that the brand claims to be healthy but also tasty, as these traits are often inversely related.

In contrast to PoPs, Keller (2013) describes that PoDs are attributes or benefits that consumers strongly associate with a brand, positively evaluate, and believe that they could not find to the same extent with a competitive brand. Moreover, Keller (2013) argues that PoDs are those properties that make a product or brand more special than other products or brands. Essentially, a brand must offer a compelling and credible reason for choosing it over other options. If a brand does not differentiate from other brands, the consumer has no good reason to choose one brand over another. Thus, PoDs should be maintained in order for a brand to stay desirable to consumers (Keller, 2013). To ensure that consumers keep buying a particular brand, it needs to stand out so that buyers can easily, and without confusion, identify it (Romaniuk et al., 2007). In order to function as a PoD, consumers would ideally see the attribute or benefit as highly important, feel confident that the firm has the capabilities to deliver it, and be convinced that no other brand could offer it to the same extent (Keller, 2013).

In line with Keller (2013), Romaniuk et al. (2007) regard PoDs as distinctive qualities. The authors argue that these distinctive qualities should be uniquely linked to the brand. Moreover, Romaniuk et al. (2007) argue that the distinctive quality (i.e. PoD) should be prevalent. This means that the majority of the customers link the brand to that element. For example, Coca Cola should thus create distinctive qualities (PoD) that are uniquely attributable to Coca Cola, and cannot be linked to another brand. In the case of Coca Cola, this could be the association with Christmas, as this is not linked to other brands in the soft drinks industry and because most customers link Coca Cola to Christmas.

Obviously, as Keller et al. (2002) elaborate on, both parity and of-difference are equally important for optimal brand positioning. As Keller (2013) argues, points-of-parity are important because they can undermine points-of-difference. Specifically, unless certain points-of-parity can be achieved to overcome potential weaknesses, points-of-difference may not even matter. For a brand to establish compelling points-of-difference, a sufficient number of consumers must believe that the brand is “good enough” on that dimension.

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Chapter 3 – Personal branding

As discussed in the previous chapters, brand image and brand positioning are essential to develop a strong brand and create strong brand equity. However, as Aaker (1997) shows with her brand personality framework, the academic literature has a tendency to qualify and perceive brands in terms of human personality. Accordingly, this implies that personality is a great component of a brand. Because, as Aaker (1997) states, we assign human characteristics and personalities to brands, it is highly possible that these

characteristics and personalities are applicable to human beings as well. As discussed in chapter two, human beings can also be thought of as in terms of associative networks. When we think

of President Obama, we immediately think of the United States of America, and Afro-American people. As we know that personality of brands plays a big role in the minds of the consumers, it becomes interesting to look at the personality of human beings. Taking Obama as an example, the plans and ideas of the President of the United States might not be that important, if his personality does not appeal to the people of America. Thus, the question arises as to whether the personality can set a human being apart from the competition.

3.1. Definition of personal branding

As Tom Peters (1997) stated, “regardless of age, position, or business we happen to be in, all of us need to understand the importance of branding. We are the CEOs of our own companies: Me Inc. To be in business today, our most important job is to be head marketer of the brand called You.” Moreover, as Thomson (2006) and Shepherd (2005) argue, the premise of personal branding is that it is an individualistic approach, in which

everyone has the power to be their own brand to be their own head marketer. According to Kaputa (2005) and Schwabel (2009), personal branding involves capturing and promoting an individual’s strengths and uniqueness to a target audience. In contrast, Shepherd (2005)

defines the personal branding phenomenon as a varied activities undertaken by individuals to make themselves known in the marketplace. Moreover, Lair, Sullivan, and Cheney (2005) define personal branding it as involving elements of the traditional marketing mix used to market persons for entry into or transition within the labor market. Moreover, Peters (1997) and Thomson (2006) view personal branding as an extension of the original branding and view people as actual brands of themselves. Furthermore, personal branding involves promoting an individual’s strengths and uniqueness (Kaputa, 2005; Schwabel, 2009). Similar to these authors,

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Shepherd (2005) argues that nurturing your personal brand will ensure that you are able to be the best possible version of yourself, which in order will get you “in front of the pack.”

3.2. Uses and process of personal branding

Since the end of the 1990s, the personal branding phenomenon has become an increasingly important aspect of branding (Keller, 2013; Peters, 1997; Shepherd, 2005; Towle, 2003). Formerly respected as a strategy for only celebrities, politicians, and business people, online tools have made personal branding an important marketing strategy for everyone (Shepherd, 2005). Following the rise of the personal branding phenomenon, self-improvement books, websites, self-help courses and consultancies have emerged on the topic of personal branding and self-marketing (Shepherd, 2005). Consonant with the regular branding phenomenon, personal branding also revolves around intangible assets. As Towle (2003) stated: “Your client, whether they are an athlete or an actor or an actress, has intangible assets: a name, a reputation, a credibility, and an image. All of these attributes may be combined into something that could be made into a brand”.

Another use of personal branding has emerged since the beginning of Web 2.0. Especially in the digital age and the uprise of Web 2.0, personal branding has become an important marketing task (Peters, 1997; Shepherd, 2005). For online environments, this means that personal branding involves creating and maintaining social and networking profiles, personal websites, blogs, and using search engine optimization techniques to encourage access to one’s information (Labrecque, Markos, & Milner, 2010).

Personal branding can be considered as a process, which involves three phases. First, a brand identity must be established. This means that people building person brands should differentiate themselves to stand out from a crowd while fitting expectations and needs of their target market. Essentially, Kedher (2014) describes here that the points of difference should be compelling in order to differentiate themselves from other people. Secondly, the brand positioning should be developed. This occurs through self-presentation via nonverbal cues, verbal disclosures, and social networking. Finally, the third phase is to evaluate a brand’s image. Kedher (2014) elaborates that in order to become a brand, one should be recognized by the marketplace of such a status. Thus, what becomes clear from Kedher (2014), is that these phases in the personal branding phenomenon connect almost seamlessly to the branding concepts previously discussed in chapter two and three of this research.

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It is an understatement to argue that the celebrity has become an essential characteristic and dynamic our contemporary cultures and societies, which they have become “celebritized” (Van Krieken, 2012). The academic literature offers a rich diversity of the definition of a celebrity. In general, celebrities are people who enjoy public recognition by a large share of a certain group of people. Moreover, celebrities generally differ from the social norm and enjoy a high degree of public awareness (Keller, 2013). Celebrities can be found in different kind of groups, such as actors (Johnny Depp, Meryl Streep), sports athletes (Tiger Woods, Roger Federer), singers/performers (Lady Gaga, Justin Timberlake), but also politicians (Barack Obama) and CEOs (Bill Gates, Steve Jobs).

3.3.1. Celebrities as spokespersons

Typically, the academic literature has focused on the celebrity in the context of endorsements. Celebrity endorsement is considered an effective promotional tool (Till, 1998). As Ohanian (1990) elaborates on in her Source Credibility Model, expertise, attractiveness, and trustworthiness are amongst the most important elements a celebrity endorser and ultimately the advertisement should convey. This will eventually affect the brand image and brand loyalty (Pullig, Netemeyer, & Biswas, 2006; Spry, Pappu, & Cornwell, 2011). Furthermore, using a celebrity endorser for marketing purposes enhances the attention and memorability of the public and may provide positive affect that could be generalized to the brand (Misra & Beatty, 1990).

Accordingly, celebrity endorsement represents a powerful mechanism for managing brand equity (Till, 1998). As elaborated on earlier, celebrity endorsement is mainly concentrated on creating meaningful associations with the celebrity and tying those associations to the brand. Furthermore, for a celebrity endorsement to be used as an effective marketing tool, it is essential for the celebrity endorser to be used consistently over time to increase the strength of the link between the celebrity and the endorsed brand (Till, 1998). However, caution should be taken into the choice of the celebrity endorser. As the celebrity and the brand can become closely linked in the associative networks of consumers (as is the main purpose of celebrity endorsement), the celebrity endorser also has the risk of tarnishing a brand’s image (Till, 1998).

3.3.2. Celebrities as brands

However, considering celebrity endorsements, the celebrity can be considered an extension of the product or service on order to promote that product or service in the marketplace (Kerrigan, Brownlie, Hewer, & Daza-LeTouze, 2011). Following the increasingly

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individualistic societies in (Western) culture, Shepherd (2005) argues that the mass mediatisation of individual personality situates celebrities and public figure

s as human brands. This is reinforced by Towle (2003) who stated that an actor, athlete, politician, or chief executive has a name, reputation, image, and credibility, which are intangible assets. Accordingly, Pringle (2004) emphasizes the nature of celebrity by stating that a celebrity sells. Moreover, celebrities generate growth, and increase brand awareness and consumer attention (Pringle, 2004). However, beyond the use of the celebrity as a spokesperson for endorsements, Brownlie and Hewer (2009) argue that celebrities use media of communication for the construction of their own brand. As Brownlie and Hewer (2009) conclude, the celebrity thus becomes a media object, or a celebritized brand.

What’s more, McCracken (2005) states that the celebrity engages new cultural meanings presented in an everyday life spectrum of values, where the celebrity is used as a commodity. Similar to McCracken (2005), Cashmore and Parker (2003) argue that the commodification of human brands is the process by which people become things. Therefore, Cashmore (2006) states that these personal brands are idolised, dreamed, adored, produced, and consumed by the celebrity culture. Moreover, Kerrigan et al. (2011) state that the outcome of this personal brand is “nourished, and sustained by technologies of charisma and fame, and the fuel of public attraction” (p. 1518).

3.4. Putting the personal in personal branding

As is clear, celebrities can be regarded as brands of their own. Discussed in chapter two, Aaker (1997) shows that consumers often think of brands in terms of human personalities and human characteristics. Therefore, because celebrities can be regarded as brands of their own, core branding principles are expected to apply to personal branding as well. Discussed in chapter two, brands have both functional and symbolic features (Keller, 2013). As elaborated on, this symbolic use of brands is possible because consumers often imbue brands with human personality traits (Park et al., 1986). In fact, Aaker (1997) refers to this symbolic phenomenon of brands as brand personality, which refers to the set of human characteristics associated with a brand. Accordingly, as personal brands are in fact human beings, brand personality is most obvious to research in a personal branding context. For this purpose, it is necessary to establish the connection between branding and personality research. As Aaker (1997) has already shown with her “Big Five”, some theories and models derived from human resource management are perfectly suitable to be applied to the branding literature. However, the “Big Five” from Aaker (1997) was only interested in describing the personality of brands (and human beings in a

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context), this thesis mainly focuses on personality characteristics in a personal branding context. Moreover, as discussed, this thesis stresses the factors which set personal brands apart from the competition. Thus, a model is needed which describes the function and roles of personality characteristics.

3.4.1. Ofman’s core quadrant

Similar to Aaker (1997), derived from a human resource management perspective, Ofman (2007) discusses his core quadrants that allow one to discover and develop core qualities. Specifically, the core quadrant tool was brought to life for the purpose of discovering the essence of one’s personality, and how one can understand the influence of personality traits. In this research, this specific framework is adopted due to the ubiquity of Ofman’s core quadrant (2007) and the apparent simplicity of the framework. Indeed, as Ofman (2007) describes in his book, all across the globe, the core quadrant is used because of its ease to understand and use. However, Ofman (2007) adds, the discovery and application of the core quadrant is far more complex, despite its deceptive simplicity. Moreover, as the framework covers personal development, it was deemed that core quadrants would be ideally suited for personal branding. Therefore, this specific framework is used to research personality traits in a personal branding context.

Regarding the core quadrant, the author addresses three questions in his book: Who am I? What do I want? How do I achieve it? As Ofman (2007) elaborates on, the first question is a crucial one. In order to discover who one really is, Ofman (2007) offers the core quadrant, which discusses the core quality, the pitfall, the challenge, and the allergy.

3.4.2. Core quality

As Ofman states, core qualities are attributes that are part of one’s being or core. Core qualities are things that give “color” to the individual: they are what we immediately associate with that person (Ofman, 2007). Thus, the core quality has overlap with brands and brand associations, as discussed in chapter two. Moreover, Ofman (2007) argues that the core quality expresses who someone is. The core quality is associated with a person as such, that the person would no longer be recognizable when the core quality is taken away from that person (Ofman, 2007).

However, when talking about core qualities, competencies are also implied. Ofman (2007) argues that the main difference between both is that qualities are derived from within, while competencies are acquired from external sources. Essentially, Ofman (2007) explains that

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core qualities are nature, while competencies are nurture. Moreover, a person becomes more inspiring when he is tuned in to his own core qualities and the creative capacity of a person partly determines the impact he has on his surroundings (Ofman 2007). According to Ofman (2007), everyone is born with a number of core qualities. The core quality, however, is not the only “gift” human beings are born with. At birth, Ofman (2007) elaborates that all people acquire three additional gifts, namely the pitfall, the challenge, and the allergy.

3.4.3. Pitfall

In contrast to the core quality, Ofman (2007) also distinguishes the pitfall. This can be regarded as the “dark side” of the core quality, i.e. “a distortion of the core quality which is caused by an excess of any particular core quality” (Ofman 2007, p.23). For example, the core quality ‘helpfulness’ can go too far and be experienced as ‘interference’. Arguably, the pitfall is commonly known as having too much of a good thing. In other words, the pitfall is a person’s weak spot that is turned into when the core quality becomes “too much” (Ofman, 2007). In turn, the pitfall is that negative quality that the person in question is likely to be labelled. Finally, Ofman (2007) states that: “pitfalls and core qualities are two sides of the same coin. Since there is no way of detaching either, we must treat them as a gift” (p.22).

3.4.4. Challenge

Aside from the core quality and the pitfall, Ofman (2007) distinguishes the challenge. In fact, the challenge represents our second gift. A challenge is that quality that represents the pitfall’s opposite. In other words, the challenge is perpendicular to the pitfall, which means that the challenge represents the positive to the negative. As Ofman (2007) argues, the core quality and the challenge complement each other. That is also why Ofman (2007) states that when a person is positioned in the middle of the core quality and the challenge, a person is at the point where he/she is “most impressive”. Together, they ensure unity in oneself, together they are one. As Ofman (2007) elaborates on, the trick is to find a balance between the core quality and the challenge. Most importantly, connecting the core quality and the challenge will allow one to dissolve your pitfall.

3.4.5. Allergy

The allergy represents the quadrant when confronted with “too much” of the challenge. As the name suggests, the average person is likely to have an allergic reaction if confronted

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with too much of his or her challenge, especially when incarnated in another person. This is in line with the irritation and conflict the pitfall convokes.

As such, all the elements of the core quadrant are discussed. When taking Roger Federer as an example, it can be said that humbleness is Federer’s core

quality. However, this can turn into a pitfall when there is a surplus of humbleness: insecurity. Thus, when consumers perceive Federer as “too humble”, they label him as insecure. The positive opposite of insecurity, then, would be that Federer shows to be self-confident. Thus, self-confidence would be Federer’s challenge. However, if Federer is perceived as too self-confident, the allergy is activated. In this case, Federer’s allergy would be arrogance.

Just another brick in the wall? : researching personality characteristics in a personal branding context