Religion, social support and physical activity

Religion, Social Support and Physical Activity

Bachelor Thesis Social Psychology

University of Amsterdam

Student: Anna van Eendenburg Student number: 10576541

Supervisor: Noah Millman & Svenja A. Wolf Date: December 22, 2016

Abstract

This study examined the relationship between religion, social support and physical activity. Specific, it was hypothesized that greater religiosity would result in increased physical activity and that this relationship is mediated by social support. Analyses were conducted on 99 Dutch subjects with age ranging from 18-28 years. Religiosity, social support and physical activity were measured using questionnaires. Results showed that: 1) religion was not a significant predictor physical activity, 2) religion was a significant predictor of social support, 3) social support was not a significant predictor of physical activity and 4) social support did not change the relationship between religion and physical activity. Based on the results of the current study it can be concluded that religion is not a significant predictor of physical activity and that social support is not a significant mediator of the two.

Overweight and obesity is a worldwide phenomenon and growing problem; between 1980 and 2014 obesity has more than doubled. In 2014, 1. 9 billion adults (39% of worlds population) were overweight and 600 million adults (13% of worlds population) were obese (World Health Organization, 2014), with USA having the highest BMI among high-income countries (Finucane et al., 2011 ). With BMI being calculated as weight in kg over height in m2, those with a BMI higher than 25 are classified as overweight and those BMI higher than 30 are classified as obese (James, 2004). Overweight and obesity is a serious problem because it is positively associated with cardiovascular diseases, several cancers, diabetes, hypertension and more

and morbidity and causing millions of deaths a year (Finucane et al., 2011 ). Having a BMI higher than 25, overall mortality increases with 30% for every 5kg/m higher BMI, in both sexes and ages (Prospective Studies Collaboration, 2009). Important causes of overweight and obesity are physical inactivity and high-fat diet (Hill, Melanson, 1999; Martinez-Gonzalez, Alfredo Martinez, Gibney, & Kearney, 1999, Jebb & Moore; 1999). Several studies show that there is a negative relation between physical activity and weight gain both in children (Berkey et al., 2000; Proctor et al., 2003) and in adults (Schmitz, Jacobs, Leon, Schreiner, Sternfeld, 2000; Sherwood, Jeffery, French, Hannan, Murray, 2000). Other studies show that physical activity is effective in producing weight loss (Goodpaster et al., 201

O;

Ross et al., 2000) and effective for the prevention of weight gain and weight regain after weight loss (Donnely et al., 2009). Another study by Blair and Brodney ( 1999) showed that higher levels of physical activity decrease the health risk associated with overweight and obesity, such as cardiovascular diseases and diabetes.

It

can be concluded physical activity can prevent or decrease gain weight and obesity. A possible yet unexplored motivator for people to get more activated is religion because existing research already show that there is a positive relationship between religion and physical and mental health.

Religion is derived from the Latin word

religare

, which means: "to bind, to

tie". There is not one general accepted definition of religion. Religion can be seen as a social phenomenon: it is a cultural institution that is defined by it's own belief system, rituals and values. These beliefs, rituals and values all have the purpose to fulfill the need to come closer to God, some superhuman being or supernatural reality (van der Stel, 2005; Moreira-Almeida, Lotufo Neto, Koenig, 2006). A lot ofreligions

behaviors such as alcohol and tobacco use and create a cohesive community whose values and beliefs are being accepted and followed (Jarvis, Northcott, 1987). This suggests that religion may impact health in a positive way, which is confirmed by existing research. There exist a large amount of studies about the relationship between religion and mental and physical health, such as depression and cardiovascular

diseases, and these studies show that there is a positive relationship. Levin, Markides and Ray (1996) examined the relationship between religious attendance and

psychological well being in three generations of Mexican Americans. Results showed that religious attendance was significantly related to life satisfaction in the middle and oldest generation: frequent attendance resulted in greater life satisfaction. They also found that religious attendance had a longitudinal effect on depressed affect in the youngest generations. Koenig, George and Peterson (1998) examined the relationship between religiosity and depressive disorders in medically ill older patients. Results showed that during the median follow-up time of 4 7 weeks, intrinsic religiosity was significantly related to faster remission for depressed patients. In a more recent study in the Netherlands, Braam, Hein, Deeg, Twisk, Beekman and van Tilburg (2004) examined the relationship between religiosity and depressive symptoms in older adults in a 6-year follow-up study. Results showed that church attendance is

negatively related to depressive symptoms: people who attend church on a frequent basis show lower depression symptoms. Research by Strawbidge, Shema, Cohen and Kaplan (2001) showed that in both men and woman, weekly attendance was related with a significant improvement in quitting smoking and not becoming depressed. Oman, Kurata, Strawbidge and Cohen (2002) showed that over a period of 31 years, infrequent attenders had significantly or marginally significantly higher rates of death

from cardiovascular diseases. Furthermore, these results showed that this relationship was explained by that religion promotes a healthier lifestyle.

Based on the studies above it is plausible to assume that religion may also lead to increased physical activity, but existing research about the relationship between religion and physical activity is scarce and limited. Research by Wallace and Forman (1998) showed that religious adolescents are more likely to eat proper nutrition and exercise more to promote their health relative to their peers. Strawbidge, Shema, Cohen and Kaplan (2001) examined the relationship between religious attendance and physical activity in adults in a 30-years follow-up study. Results showed that weekly attendance was significantly related with becoming more physically active. A

limitation of this study was that it only controlled for gender and not for other demographic factors. Merrill and Thygerson (2001) showed that within religious groups, individuals who attend church weekly are more likely to exercise than those who attend church less than weekly. However, after controlling for demographic factors this relationship became insignificant and differences in exercise within religious groups disappeared. Thus, it can be concluded that research about the relationship between religion and physical activity is limited and further examination is needed.

Religion may lead to increased physical activity by providing social support. Shumaker and Brownell (1984) define social support as an exchange ofresources between two individuals perceived by the provider or the recipient to be intended to enhance the wellbeing of the recipient. Social support can be given and received. There exists some discussion about the types of social support but most agree on the following four types distinguished by House (1981): emotional, instrumental, informational and appraise) support. Research shows that there is a positive

relationship between religion and social support (Koenig, Hays, George, Blazer,

Larson & Landerman, 1997). Religious activities involve a lot of social contact and interactions with people with the same religious beliefs, values and interests offering a social context where close social networks and friendships develop and social support is received. This is what Ellison and George (1994) showed in their study: people who visit church frequently report having larger and more contact with network members and receiving more types of social support including instrumental support (moneys, good and services) and socioemotional support, than people who do not visit church frequently. Furthermore, there are several studies showing that social support is significantly related to increased physical activity in students (Lesie et al., 1999; Steptoe et al., 1997) in adults (Eyler et al., 1999, Sallis, Hovell, Hofstetter, 1992,

Stemfeld, Ainsworth & Quesenberry, 1999) and older adults (Chogahara, Cousins,

Wankel, 1998). Based on these findings it is plausible to assume that religion may have a positive impact on physical activity by offering general social support. Specific, it can be suggested that the more religious people are, the more social support they receive which promotes physical activity. There is only one study that examines the relationship between religion, social support and physical activity,

namely the study of Kim and Sobal (2004). They examined the relationship between religion, social support and physical activity in 546 adults with an age ranging from

17 to 91 years. Their results showed almost no significant relationships between religion and physical activity. The only significant results they found where that for women, giving more money to religion was significantly related to increased

moderate and vigorous physical activity. For men, greater prayer was significantly related to increased moderate physical activity. Adding social support as a mediator did not change these relationships significantly. A possible explanation for not finding

significant results could be explained by the limited range ofreligiosity in their study. The sample consisted of mostly religious people and a limited number of non-

religious people making it hard to find significant differences between the two groups.

Due to the fact that existing research about the relationship between religion and physical activity is scarce and limited, this study ought to examine the

relationship between religion and physical activity. Social support is expected to mediate the relationship between religion and physical activity and is therefore examined as a mediator. Based on previous research it is hypothesized that greater religiosity will result in increased physical activity and that this relationship is mediated by social support. Specific, 4 hypotheses are formulated: 1) religion is a significant predictor of physical activity, 2) religion is a significant predictor of social support, 3) social support is a significant predictor of physical activity, and 4) the relationship between religion and physical activity is mediated by social support.

Figure 1.

H

y

pothesized model of

relationships

N

ote.

All relationships are positive ( +)

Methods Sample/Subjects

In total, 181 subjects participated in this study, of which 91 women and 90 men. All subjects were Dutch. Age ranged from 18 to 28 with a mean age of M = 21.50

(SD

=2.26). 97 subjects were recruited from the

Christelijke Hogeschool Ede

(CHE) and 84 subjects were recruited from University of Amsterdam (UvA) and

Hogeschool van Amsterdam

(Hv A).

Procedure

At CHE, Uv A and Hv A subjects were approached in the canteen and asked if they wanted to fill out a questionnaire that took about 10 minutes and was meant for a bachelor these about the relationship between religion, social support and physical activity.

If

subjects agreed to participate, they were given the questionnaire and a pencil. After the subjects were done, they were thanked and the questionnaires were collected. Subjects received no reward for filling out the questionnaire. Subjects younger than 18 years old were excluded from the study because they are minors and need permission from their parents or legal representatives.

Measurement of

physical

activity

Physical activity was determined by using the Godin-Shephard Leisure-Time Physical Activity Questionnaire (GSL TPAQ; Godin, 2011 ), which classifies people into active and insufficiently active categories. The questionnaire distinguish mild, moderate and strenuous activities and physical activity is expressed in unites. Total score is calculated by multiplying each category with the following value: frequency of mild leisure time physical activity (LTPA) x 3; frequency of moderate LTPA x 5;

frequency of strenuous L TP A x 9. In a study to assess evidence for the validity of GSLTPAQ, Amireault and Godin (2015) used V02max, percentage of body fat and electronic records of fitness center attendance as validation variables. One hundred members of a fitness center filled out the questionnaire; subjects with a score index

2:

24 were classified as active and subjects with a score index :'.S 23 were classified as insufficiently active. A multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOV A) revealed that the group classified as active had higher V02max and lower percentage of body fat than the group classified as insufficiently active. An analysis of covariance (ANCOV A) revealed that the group classified as active had higher electronic records of fitness attendance than the group classified as insufficiently active. In the current study the GSL TPAQ was translated in Dutch.

Measurement of

religiosity

To assess religiosity, the Religious Commitment

Inventory=

l 0 (RCI-1

O;

Worthington et al., 2003) was used, consisting of 10 items about religious commitment. The RCI-10 distinguishes two subscales, namely Intrapersonal

Religious Commitment and Interpersonal Religious Commitment. Items are rated on a 5-point Likert-scale ranging from 1 = not at all true of me to 5 = totally true of me. Examples of items are: 'My religious beliefs lie behind my whole approach to life'

and 'I often read books and magazines about my faith'. Total score of the RCI-10 range from 10 to 50 where higher scores on the RCI-10 indicate a higher degree of religiosity. The RCI-10 has a high reliability; Cronbach's alpha's of the full scale is

a

=.93 and of the subscales

a

=

, 92 for Intrapersonal Religious Commitment and

a = .87 for Interpersonal Religious Commitment. The subscale intercorrelation is also high, namely r = .72. The 3-week test-retest reliability of the full scale is r = .87 and the 5-mont test-retest reliability is r = .84 (Worthington, Wade, Hight, Ripley,

McCullough, Berry, O'Connor, 2003). In the current study the RCI-10 was translated

in Dutch and therefore the reliability of the translated version was recalculated.

Results showed that

a

= . 97, which means the Dutch version of RCI-10 still has a high reliability and can be used.

Measurement of

social support

To assess social support, the Sociale Steun Lijst-Interacties (SSL-I; van

Sonderen, 1993) was used. This assessment tool consists of 34 items assessing 6 types of social support, giving it 6 subscales: 1) emotional interactions, 2) problem-focused emotional support, 3) esteem support, 4) instrumental support 5) social

companionship, and 6) informational support. The items are rated on a 4-point Likert- scale, ranging from 1 =

'

seldom or never

to 4 = '

very often

'.

Total score of SSL-I range from 34 to 136; higher scores indicate a higher degree of social support. SSL-I has a high reliability, Cronbach's alpha of the full scale is

a =

.91. The subscales have the following reliabilities: emotional interactions a = . 81, problem-focused emotional support

a=

.83, esteem support

a

= .79, instrumental support

a=

.69, social

companionship

a =

81, informational support

a

= .62. Scales with a Cronbach' s alpha between .7 and .8 have a high reliability (Field, 2009, p. 715). The 4-week test-retest reliability of the full scale is r = .77. In the current study, something went wrong composing the questionnaire, making 2 out of 34 items incorrect and SSL-I

incomplete. These items were item 1 of subscale emotional interactions and item 22 of subscale instrumental support. Therefore the reliability of the full scale and of the subscales were recalculated. Results of the reliability analyses showed that the full scale still had a high reliability,

a

=

.89. The subscales had the following internal consistencies: emotional interactions

a

= .59, problem-focused emotional support

a

= .79, esteem support

a =

.77, instrumental support

a

= .59, social companionship

a =

.74, informational support

a

=

.54. As can been seen, the subscales emotional

interactions and instrumental support ( of which an item is missing) and informational support did not have an acceptable reliability anymore. Therefore, the decision was made to treat social support as one dimension and not to examine the relationship between religion and different kinds of socials support.

Statistical analyses

Frequencies were examined for all variables. After which a mediation analyses was conducted. Mediation analyses was based on the mediation model of Baron & Kenny (1986) which suggests that a particular variable functions as a mediator if it meets the following conditions: a) the independent variable is a significant predictor of the mediator, b) the mediator is a significant predictor of the independent variable and c) a previously significant relation between the independent and dependent variable is no longer significant when the mediator is taking into account. As a result, this mediation analyses includes for steps: 1) a simple linear regression between the predictor and outcome variable 2) a simple linear regression between the predictor and mediator 3) a simple linear regression between the mediator and outcome variable and 4) a multiple regression between the predictor, mediator and outcome variable. This was done in the current study: first, a linear regression was conducted between religion and physical activity with religion as the predictor and physical activity as the outcome variable. Next, a linear regression was conducted between religion and social support with religion as the predictor and social support as the outcome variable. Third, a simple linear regression was conducted between social support and physical activity with social support as the predictor and physical activity as the outcome variable. At last, a multiple regression was conducted between religion, social support

and physical activity, with religion and social support as the predictors and physical activity as the outcome variable.

Results Frequencies

The average age of the sample was 21 years. Frequencies showed that on average subjects scored 30.7 on the RCI-10, 85.9 on SSL-I and 48.1 on LTPA.

Furthermore, frequencies showed that the sample consisted of mostly religious people with only 12.1 % being not religious. Most subjects had HBO as their education level, followed by VWO.

Table 1

M

e

an and

s

tandard d

ev

i

a

tion

s

(in paranth

eses)

for a

ge

,

religiou

s c

ommitm

e

nt,

s

ocial

su

pport and

ph

ys

i

c

al a

c

tivi

ty

Variables Subjects Total (N=99) Age Religious commitment Social support LTPA 20.8 (2.2) 30.7 (10.7) 85.9 (11.0) 48.1 (19.3)

N

ot

e.

N=99 Table 2

Fr

e

qu

e

nci

es a

nd

p

e

r

ce

nta

ges (

in paran

t

h

eses) fo

r

e

d

uc

ation l

eve

l

a

nd r

e

li

g

iou

s

a

ffiliation

Variables Subjects Total (N=99)

E

du

ca

tion l

eve

l

Middelbaar beroeps- onderwijs (MBO) Hoger algemeen

Voortgezet onderwijs (HA VO) Voorbereidend wetenschappelijk onderwijs (VWO)

Hoger beroepsonderwijs (HBO) Wetenschappelijk onderwijs (WO)

R

e

li

g

iou

s

affiliati

o

n

Evangelisch Gereformeerd 6 (6.1%) 9(9.1%) 7 (7.1 %) 60 (60.6%) 17 (17.2%) 14(14.1%) 30 (30.3%)

Katholiek

Nederlands Hervormd Protestantse Kerk Nederland Anders ( christelijk)

Niet gelovig/seculier Anders 1 (1.0%) 5 (5.1%) 15 (15.2%) 8 (8.1 %) 12 (12.1 %) 14 (14.1 %) Note. N=99

Regression analyses

181 subjects participated in the current study. Before main analyses were conducted, box-plots were used to spot outliers. Results showed two extreme outliers (*), case 147 and 164, and seven moderate outliers on GSLTPAQ, namely case 2, 51, 64, 102, 131, 134 and 145. These outliers scored above a total score of 100 so all scores above 100 were excluded from the raw data and all analyses. For religion, the box-plot showed no outliers on RCI-10. For social support, box-plot showed two mild outliers on SSL12-I, namely case 3 (low score) and case 90 (high score), but these were no extreme outliers and had no influence on the normality of the distribution so these cases were not excluded from the raw data. Furthermore, the histogram of the RCI-10 showed that there was almost a binary split between the distribution of religious and non-religious subjects. A lot of subjects had a total score of 10 on the RCI-10, meaning they were non-religious, followed by a fairly even distribution of subjects in their degree of religiosity. Therefore, the decision was made to exclude all participants who scored 10 on the RCI-10. This way the distribution of the RCI-10 would be better distributed and religious commitment would stay a continue variable which fits our hypotheses. As a result, the analyses were conducted on a total of 99 participants. Next, A Shapiro- Wilk test was conducted to check the assumption of normality. The results of this test showed that the assumption of normality was not violated for physical activity

D

(99) = .985,

p

= .319 and social support

D

(99) = .991, p = .770, but was violated for religion, D (99) = .955, p = .002. Given the sample size

of the current study (N=99) the violation of the assumption of normality is not a big problem because of the central limit theorem (Field, 2009)

A simple linear regression was conducted between religion and physical activity with religion as the predictor and physical activity as the outcome variable, to examine if religion was a significant predictor of physical activity. Before the results could be interpreted it was checked if the main assumptions were met. The

assumptions of a linear regression are: additivity and linearity, independent errors, homoscedasticity and the assumption of normally distributed errors (Field, 2009, p. 309-311 ). The assumption of additivity and linearity was met: to meet this assumption the points in the scatterplot must not show a curve. The assumption of independent errors was met (Durbin-Watson value= 1.88). To meet the assumption of independent errors, Durbin- Watson value should fall between 1 and 3. The assumption of

homoscedasticity was met: to meet this assumption the points in the scatterplot must not show a funnel. The assumption of normally distributed errors was met: the normal P-P plot of standardized residual showed that almost all points were on the line and the histogram showed no skew. To meet the assumption of normally distributed errors, all points have to be on or close to the line. Results showed that religion is not a significant predictor of physical activity, R2 _{= .00, F (1,97) = .00, p = .948.}

Furthermore, results showed that there is a positive trend between religion and physical activity, f3 = .01, t = .065,p = .948, 95% CI [-.35, .38]. Because religion is not a significant predictor of physical activity, it is not possible for social support to function as a potential mediator between religion and physical activity because there has to be at least a significant relation between the predictor (religion) and the

relationship between the predictor and outcome variable (Field, 2009). Nevertheless, the other regression analyses were still conducted.

Next, a simple linear regression was conducted between religion and social support to examine if religion was a significant predictor of social support, with religion as the predictor variable and social support as the outcome variable. Before the results could be interpreted it was checked if the main assumptions were met. The assumption of additivity and linearity was met, the assumption of independent errors was met (Durbin-Watson value= 2.09), the assumption ofhomoscedasticity was met and the assumption of normally distributed errors was also met. Results showed that religion is a significant predictor of social support: R2 _{= .10 F (1,97) = 11.05, p =} .001. Furthermore, results showed that there is a small significant positive relation between religion and social support: B = .32, t = 3.324,p = .001, 95% CI [.13, .53].

After which, a simple linear regression was conducted between social support and physical activity, with social support as the predictor and physical activity as the outcome variable, to examine if social support is a significant predictor of physical activity. First it was checked if the main assumptions were met. The assumption of additivity and linearity was met, the assumption of independent errors was met (Durbin-Watson value = 1.88), the assumption of homoscedasticity was met and the assumption of normally distributed errors was met. Results showed that social support is not significant predictor of physical activity: R2 _{= .00, F (1,97) = .06, p = .811.} Furthermore, results showed that there is a positive trend between the two, B = .02, t =

.240,p

=

.811, 95% CI [-.31, .40]

At last, a multiple regression was conducted between religion, social support and physical activity with religion and social support as the predictors and physical activity as the outcome variable. Before the results could be interpreted, it was

checked if the main assumptions were met. The assumption of additivity and linearity, independent errors (Durbin-Watson value

=

1.88), homoscedasticity and the

assumption of normally distributed errors were all met. An extra assumption of a multiple regression is the assumption of multicollinearity: VIF-values > 10 and tolerance values < 0.2 indicate multicollinearity in the data (Field, 2009). The

assumption was not violated because for both social support and religion tolerance (T) = .898 and variance inflation factor (VIF) = 1.114. Results showed that religion and social support are not significant predictors of physical activity,

R

2 _{= .00,}

_F

_{(2, 96) =} .03, p = .972. Furthermore, results showed that there is no relationship between religion and physical activity:

B

= -.00, t = -.013, p = .990 95% CI [-.40 .39]. Between social support and physical activity there was a positive trend: B = .03, t = .230, p = .818, 95% CI [-.33, .42]. Based on these results it can be concluded that social support does not mediate the relation between religion and physical activity because a)

religion is not a significant predictor of physical activity, b) social support is not a significant predictor of physical activity and d) adding social support does not change the relationship between religion and physical activity.

Discussion

The current study examined the relationship between religion, social support and physical activity. Specific, it was examined ifreligion was a significant predictor of physical activity and if this relationship was mediated by social support. Results showed that religion is not a significant predictor of physical activity and that social support is not a significant mediator of the two. This means that the hypothesis of the current study, namely that greater religiosity will result in increased physical activity and that this relationship is mediated by social support, is not supported.

The results of the current study failed to confirm hypothesis 1 because results showed that religion is not a significant predictor of physical activity, showing a positive trend between the two. This means that the results are not in line with existing research about the relationship between religion and physical activity. A possible explanation for not finding a significant relationship between the two is that the current study measured religiosity differently than the existing research. Meri! & Thygerson (2001) and Strawbidge et al., (2001) measured religiosity by frequency of church attendance and the current study measured religiosity by religious

commitment. Frequency of church attendance measures other aspects of religiosity than religious commitment and it could be that different aspects of religiosity have different relationships with physical activity. For example, Kim and Sobal (2004) showed that for woman giving money was related to increased physical activity but for men greater prayer was.

The results confirmed hypothesis 2 because results showed that religion is a significant predictor of social support. Furthermore, results showed a small significant positive relationship between the two, which is in line with existing research.

It

would be interesting for future research to examine the relationship between religion and the different types social support to see if these differ, because this will give a better picture about the relationship between the two. For example, Ellison and George (1994) showed in their study that frequent churchgoers report receiving more instrumental and socioemotional support than infrequent churchgoers.

The results failed to confirm hypothesis 3 because results showed that social support is not a significant predictor of physical activity, showing a positive trend between the two. Based on existing research, a significant positive relationship was expected. A possible explanation for not finding a significant relationship could be

that the measurement of social support was too broad in the current study. Existing research about the relationship between social support and physical activity measured social support by asking participants to rate their perceived support from friends or family members for physical activity. The current study measured perceived social support in general and not specific for physical activity. This could suggest that general social support is not enough to get people more active but that social support specific for physical activity is needed.

With hypothesis 1 and 3 not being confirmed by the results, it was expected that hypothesis 4 would also not be confirmed and results showed this: social support was not a significant mediator of religion and physical activity.

Limitations

Several limitations must be taken into account interpreting the results

.

The

current study examined only one religion

,

namely Christianity

,

so the sample was

comprised only of

Christian people

.

It could be possible that other religions have

different or

/

and stronger relationships with social support and physical activity

,

because religions differ in their values and beliefs (Kahan

,

2002). Researching

different kinds of

religion will give a better picture about the relationships between

religion

,

social support and physical activity and could maybe reveal more significant

relationships. Future research should therefore include more than one religion in their

sample.

Another limitation is that all participants who had a total score of 10 on the

RCI-10 were excluded from the analyses because there was almost a binary split

between religious and non-religious people

,

having a lot of

non-religious subjects

following by a fairly even distribution of

subjects in their degree of

religiosity. By

excluding all subjects with a total score of 10

,

the RCI-10 would be more normally

distributed and religious commitment stayed a continue variable which fits the hypotheses. But as a result, the sample did not contain any non-religious subjects making the range of religiosity incomplete and hard to find differences between religious and non-religious subjects. Future research should therefore include also non-religious subjects in their sample so better conclusions can be drawn about the relationship between religion and physical activity.

At last, conclusions about the direction of the trends found in the current study cannot be drawn with certainty because of the cross-sectional nature of the design. It stead of social support being a predictor of physical activity it could be that people who are physically active receive more social support because these people also receive social support from their team players and trainers next to family and peers. A possible solution is to conduct a longitudinal study so conclusions about cause and effect can be drawn with more certainty.

Conclusion

Given the limitations of the current study and not finding significant

relationships, this study does give some insights. The results do show that religion is an important provider of social support and that general social support is not enough to get people more physically active. Future research should also include non- religious subjects in their sample and measure social support specific for physical activity so better conclusion can be drawn. Furthermore, based on the results of the current study it can be concluded that religion is not related to physical activity, but it would be interesting for future research to examine the relationship between different kinds of religion and physical activity. Given that social relationships have a big influence on healthy lifestyles (Berkman, Glass, Brissette & Seeman, 2000), solutions

to solve the problem of increasing body weight and obesity can be found in this context. Religion is a highly social environment, so future research is needed to examine the relationship between religion and physical activity.

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