T R A D I T I O N A L C H I N E S E V E G E T A B L E F A R M I N G P R A C T I C E S AN A L T E R N A T I V E TO W E S T E R N T E C H N O L O G Y IN V E G E T A B L E F A R M I N G IN S O U T H E A S T A S I A ?
BY
A L A N E D W A R D B A C K H U R S T
T H E S I S S U B M I T T E D F O R T H E D E G R E E O F M A S T E R O F P H I L O S O P H Y IN G E O G R A P H Y
S C H O O L O F O R I E N T A L A N D A F R I C A N S T U D I E S U N I V E R S I T Y O F L O N D O N
J A N U A R Y 1 98 3
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2 ABSTRACT
TRADITIONAL CHINESE VEGETABLE FARMING PRACTICES:
AN ALTERNATIVE TO WESTERN TECHNOLOGY IN VEGETABLE FARMING IN SOUTHEAST ASIA?
In t he field of a g r i c u l t u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t in S o u t h e a s t Asia l i t tl e r e s e a r c h has as y e t b e en c a r r i e d o ut on d e t e r m i n i n g w h a t possibilities exist for using t h e t r a d i t i o n a l p r a c t i c e s of i nte ns ive C hi ne se f a rm in g s y s t e m s as a l t e r n a t i v e s t o m o d e r n We st e rn a g r i c u l t u r a l t e c h n o l o g y for i ncr eas ing t he p r o d u c t i v i t y of land. The aim of this s t ud y is to d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r t h e t r a d i t i o n a l p r a c t i c e s of t h e i n te n si ve v e g e t a b l e f ar m i n g s y s t e m of South Chi na r e p r e s e n t p r a c t i c a l a l t e r n a t i v e s to m o d e r n We st e rn a g r i c u l t u r a l t e c h n ol o g y in v e g e t a b l e f a r m i n g in S ou th eas t Asia.
I n f or ma t io n was g a t h e r e d on t h e use of Chi ne se v e g e t a b l e f a rm in g p r a c t i c e s in a n u m b e r of d i f f e r e n t e n v i r o n m e n t s . Fi el dw or k was u n d e r t a k e n in e i gh t c a s e stud y a r e a s in six c ou nt ri es : C a n t o n in South Chi na; t h e New T e r r i t o r i e s of Hong Kong; Bangkok in Thai land; Lim Chu Ka ng in Si ngapore; t h e C a m e r o n Highlands in Malaysia; and Manila, Cebu and Baguio in t h e Phi li ppines.
Analysis of t h e d a t a c o l l e c t e d shows t h a t t h e use of t r a d i t i o n a l Ch in es e v e g e t a b l e f a r m i n g p r a c t i c e s in South Chi na is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by (i) high p r o d u c t i v i t y of land (ii) negligible use of fossil fuel e n e rg y (iii) n egli gibl e pollution of t h e e n v i r o n m e n t and (iv) high use of l abour. It also shows t h a t t r a d i t i o n a l Chi ne se v e g e t a b l e f ar m i n g p r a c t i c e s ha ve a l r e a d y b e en s u c ce s sf ul l y used in a n u m b e r of widely d i f f e r e n t v e g e t a b l e f a r m i n g e n v i r o n m e n t s in S ou t h e as t Asia.
Whilst the c u r r e n t v e g e t a b l e f a rm in g p r a c t i c e s in the c a se s t ud y a r ea s involve a m i x t u r e of t r a d i t i o n a l Chi ne se and m o d er n W e st e rn p r a c t i c e s , it is d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t t h e use of t h e s e m od er n W e st e rn p r a c t i c e s has n o w h e r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n c r e a s e d t h e p r od uc t i vi t y of land ove r t h a t a c hi eve d by t h e use of t r a d i t i o n a l C hi ne se p r a c t i c e s . Mo re o ve r , t he t r a d i t i o n a l C h i ne s e p r a c t i c e s c a r r y wi t h t h e m s o me i m p o r t a n t , indeed c r i t i c a l , a d v a n t a g e s , r e l a t e d to e ne rgy, pol lution and labour.
The g e n e ra l conclusi on is dr awn t h a t t ra d i t i o n a l Ch i ne s e v e g e t a b l e f a rm ing p r a c t i c e s r e p r e s e n t p r a c t i c a l and highly des ir able a l t e r n a t i v e s to m o d e r n We st er n a g r i c u l t u r a l t e chno lo gy in helping to r ai se t he p r o d u c t i v i t y of land in a nu mb er of widely d i f f e r e n t v e g e t a b l e f a r m i n g e n v i r o n m e n t s in S o u t h e a s t Asia.
4
KONG
r 20
SINGAPORE
- O '
Case stu d y areas
- 10'
100' 110
F r o n t i s p i e c e . L o c a t i o n s o f c a s e s t u d y a r e a s i n S o u t h C h in a a n d S o u t h e a s t A s i a .
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Many p e opl e h a ve ge ne rous ly he lped m e to u n d e r t a k e and c o m p l e t e this study. I a m p a r t i c u l a r l y g r a t e f u l to my r e s e a r c h s upervi sor, P r o f e s s o r B.W. Hodde r of t h e School of O r i e n t a l and Af r ic a n Studies, for his g u i da nc e and e n c o u r a g e m e n t t hro ug ho ut t h e s t ud y period.
In c o n n e c t i o n w it h t h e fie ldwor k, which was c a r r i e d o u t in a n u mb e r of d i f f e r e n t c o u n t r i e s , I am i ndebt ed t o ma ny pe ople who he lped in l o ca ti ng r e l e v a n t l i t e r a t u r e , mu ch of it unpublished, and who a rr a n g e d f a r m visits and kindly i n t e r p r e t e d during t h o se vi si ts. Of all t h e se p eople, s pe ci a l t ha nk s a r e due t o t h e following:
(a) Chi na : Dean Le e P u i - m a n , Pr o f e s s o r Kwan Pui -c hung, P r o fe s so r Lin Kung-hsun, Ms Wong Ki n- kwa n and Mr Che n Tso-pu of t h e South China A g r i c u l t u r a l C o l l eg e , C a n t o n , and local g o v e r n m e n t o f f i ci al s c o n c e r n e d w it h v e g e t a b l e p r o d u ct i o n in C a n t o n .
(b) Hong Kong: Many s t a f f , t he w r i t e r ' s f o r m e r co ll eag ue s, of t he A g r i c u l t u r e and F i s h er i e s D e p a r t m e n t , es pec ial l y Mr Tang, of t h e Land Use Uni t, and Mr Y. C. Lin.
(c) Thailand: Ms A m p a r T an t i s i r a and Mr Vichan Supanish of t he Ag r i cu l t u r a l Ext ens ion D e p a r t m e n t . Bangkok, and P r o f e s s o r T ha v a t L a v a p a o r a y a of K a s e t s a r t Un i v e rs i t y , Bangkok.
(d) Si ngapore: Mr F. Suijkerbuijk of t h e Un i ve rs i ty of U t r e c h t , visiting r e s e a r c h p o s t g r a d u a t e , and Dr J.W. Hu m p h r ey of t h e Na t io na l Uni ve rs i ty o f Si ngapore a t K e n t Ri dge.
(e) Ma lays ia: Mr Shukor Nurdin of t h e Malaysian A g r i c u l t u r a l R e s e a r c h and D e v e l o p m e n t I n s t i t u t e , Tanah R a t a , C a m e r o n Highlands.
6 (f) Philippines: Dr A. Pal o and Mr B. C a b r e r a of the Bureau of Pl ant Industry, Los Banos and Ce bu; P r o f e s s o r J . R. Deanon of t h e Uni ve rs i ty of t h e Philippines a t Los Banos, Col l ege of A g r i c u l t u r e ; P r o fe s so r E.
Sano of Mo unta in S t a t e A g r i c u l t u r e Co ll eg e, La Trini dad; and Dr M.
P o t t s of t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l P o t a t o C e n t e r , s t a t i o n e d a t La Trini dad.
(g) Tai wan: Mr T. Griggs, and Dr C. G. Kuo of t h e Asian Ve ge t ab l e R e s e a r c h and D e v e l o p m e n t C e n t e r , and Mr K.C. Su of t he Tai chung D i s t r i c t A g r i c u l t u r a l I m p r o v e m e n t S t a ti o n.
In addit ion, I am g r a t e f u l to t h e ma ny f a r m e r s in t h e s e d i f f e r e n t c o u nt r i es who ge ne rous ly gave up t i m e t o show m e a round t h e i r f a r m s and to a n s we r que sti ons on t h e i r f a r m i n g p r a c t i c e s , I am also g r a t e f u l to pe rs on al f ri en ds in bot h Hong Kong and t h e Philippines whose h os pi ta li ty I enjoyed while u n d e r t a k i n g f iel dwork in t h e i r l oc al it ie s .
In c o n n e c t i o n wi t h t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of t h e t hes i s, I a m i nd eb t ed to Dr J .A. Allan and Dr H. D e m a i n e of t h e School of O r i e n t a l and Af ric an Studies f or t h e i r helpful c o m m e n t s on a n u m b e r of occ as ions . Special t hanks a r e due t o Gina Gasson, Sa mmy J a n e O'Brien and Sally J a n e Si lverman for wor d proce ss ing of t h e m a n u s c r i p t and t o Liz Johnson f or help wi t h dr awing t h e ma ps . Fi nall y, I am very g r a t e f u l to my p a r e n t s for t h e i r c o n s t a n t m o r a l s u p p o rt t h ro u g h o u t t h e s tu dy peri od.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION CONTEXT AND METHODOLOGY ... 18
C ontext ... 18
Methodology ... 24
CHAPTER 1 VEGETABLE FARMING IN SOUTH CHINA A BASELINE CASE STUDY OF CANTON ... 33
In tr o d u c tio n ... . ... 33
P h y s ic a l environm ent ... 36
Human environm ent ... . ... 40
C u rren t p r a c ti c e s ... 47
Crop y ie ld s ... 74
Labour use ... 79
T r a d itio n a l p r a c t ic e s ... 84
C onclusion ... 94
2 VEGETABLE FARMING IN SOUTH CHINA1 A BASELINE CASE STUDY OF HONG KONG ... 95
I n tr o d u c tio n ... 95
P h y s ic a l and human environm ent ... 95
C u rren t p r a c ti c e s ... 99
Crop y ie l d s ... 115
Labour u se ... 115
C onclusion ... 122
8
3 CHINESE VEGETABLE FARMING IN SOUTHEAST ASIA:
BACKGROUND AND ENVIRONMENTS ... 123
I n tr o d u c tio n ... 123
M ig ratio n o f Chinese to S o u th east Asia ... 123
L o catio n s o f C hinese v e g e ta b le farm ing a re a s in S o u th e a st A s i a ... ... 131
P h y s ic a l environm ents o f case stu d y a re a s in S o u th e a st Asia ... 134
Human environm ents o f c ase study a re a s in S o u th e a st Asia ... 134
C onclusion ... ... 146
4 CHINESE VEGETABLE FARMING PRACTICES IN THAILAND: A CASE STUDY OF BANGKOK ... 147
I n tr o d u c tio n ... 147
C u rren t p r a c tic e s ... 147
Crop y ie ld s ... 158
Labour use ... .. 160
C o n c l u s io n ... 160
5 CHINESE VEGETABLE FARMING PRACTICES IN SINGAPORE AND MALAYSIA: CASE STUDIES OF LIM CHU KANG IN SINGAPORE AND THE CAMERON HIGHLANDS IN MALAYSIA ... 165
I n tr o d u c tio n ... 165
(A) A case stu dy o f Lim Chu Kang ... 166
C u rren t p r a c tic e s ... 166
Crop y ie ld s ... 181
Labour u se ... .... 183
(B) A case stu d y o f th e Cameron H ighlands ... 184
C u rren t p r a c tic e s ... 184
Crop y ie ld s .... ... 190
Labour u se ... 190
C onclusion ... 196
6 CHINESE VEGETABLE FARMING PRACTICES IN THE PHILIPPINES: CASE STUDIES OF MANILA t CEBU AND BAGUIO ... 197
In tr o d u c tio n ... 197
(A) A c ase stu d y o f M a n i l a ... 197
C u rren t p r a c t ic e s . ... 197
Crop y ie ld s ... 203
Labour u se... 204
(B) A c ase stu d y o f C e b u ... 205
C u rren t p r a c tic e s ... 205
Crop y ie ld s ... 211
Labour u se... 211
(C) A case study o f Baguio ... 213
C u rren t p r a c tic e s ... 213
Crop y ie ld s ... 221
Labour u se ... 223
C o n c lu s io n ... 230
10
7 A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE USE OF TRADITIONAL CHINESE
VEGETABLE FARMING PRACTICES IN SOUTHEAST ASIA ... 231
I n t r o d u c t i o n ... 231
Types o f environm ent ... 232
Use o f t r a d i t i o n a l Chinese v e g e ta b le farm ing p r a c tic e s in d i f f e r e n t ty p e s o f environm ent ... 243
C onclusion ... 256
8 THE USE OF MODERN WESTERN VEGETABLE FARMING PRACTICES IN THE CASE STUDY AREAS ... 259
In tr o d u c tio n ... 259
E x ten t o f c u r r e n t use o f modern W estern p r a c t ic e s . . . 260
Reasons u n d e rly in g in tr o d u c tio n o f modern W estern p r a c tic e s ... 264
E f f e c ts o f use o f modern W estern p r a c t ic e s ... 265
C onclusion ... 272
CONCLUSIONS ... 273
APPENDIX A NAMES OF VEGETABLE CROPS GROWN IN CASE STUDY AREAS 275
B ESTIMATION OF FERTILIZER APPLICATION RATES AND CROP YIELDS ... 283
C ESTIMATION OF LABOUR USE 285
D FARMER INTERVIEW FORMAT 287
BIBLIOGRAPHY ... 289
LIST OF TABLES
1.1 L o catio n s o f p ro d u c tio n b rig a d e farms v i s i t e d ,
Canton ..., ... 34
1.2 Mean monthly te m p e ra tu re and r a i n f a l l ,
Canton ... 38
1.3 V eg etab le c ro p s grown, sample d u ra tio n s and p la n tin g
methods, Canton ... 48
1.4 F e r t i l i z e r n u t r i e n t s a p p lie d to v e g e ta b le c ro p s ,
Canton ... 68
1.5 Main in s e c t p e s ts o f v e g e ta b le crops and in s e c t i c i d e s used in t h e i r c o n tr o l , C a n t o n ... 72
1.6 V eg etab le crop y i e l d s , C a n t o n ... 75
1.7 Annual crop y i e l d s , Siugong P ro d u ctio n B rig a d e ,
C a n t o n ... 78
1.8 T r a d itio n a l farm ing p r a c t ic e s and th e e f f e c t s o f
e f f e c t s o f u sin g them, Canton ... 86
1.9 Comparison o f av erag e v e g e ta b le crop y ie ld s in Canton and s e le c te d c o u n tr ie s , in t / h a /c r o p ... 91
2.1 P h y s ic a l environm ent, Hong Kong ... 97
2 .2 Mean monthly te m p e ra tu re and r a i n f a l l ,
Hong Kong ... 97
12
2.3 Human environm ent, Hong Kong ... 98
2 .4 V eg etab le cro p s grown, sample d u ra tio n s and
p la n tin g m ethods, Hong K o n g ... 100
2 .5 V eg etab le crop y i e l d s , Hong Kong ... 116
3.1 O rig in and d i s t r i b u t i o n o f Chinese in S o u th e a st A sia, by d i a l e c t groups ... 127
3.2 D i s tr ib u tio n o f e th n ic Chinese in S o u th e a st A sia by c o u n tr ie s ... 128
3.3 L o catio n o f case stu d y a re a s in S o u th e a st
A sia ... 135
3.4 R e l ie f and n a tu r a l d ra in a g e , case stu d y a re a s in
S o u th e a st A sia ... 137
3 . 5 C lim ate and s e a s o n a l it y , case stu d y a re a s in
S o u th e a st A sia ... 138
3.6 Mean monthly te m p e ra tu re , ° C , case stu d y a re a s in
S o u th e a st A sia ... 139
3 . 7 Mean monthly r a i n f a l l , mm, case stu d y a re a s in
S o u th e a st A sia ... 140
3 . 8 S o i l s , c a se stu d y a re a s in S o u th e a st Asia ... 141
3 . 9 M arkets, c ase stu d y a re a s in S o u th e a st A sia ... 142
3.10 Farming s t r u c t u r e , case study a re a s in S o u th e a st
A sia ... 143
3.11 Farm Labour su p p ly , case study a re a s in S o u th e a st
A sia ... *... 144
3.12 Farm in p u t su p p ly , case study a re a s in S o u th e a st
A sia ... 145
4.1 V eg etab le crops grown, sample d u ra tio n s and p la n tin g m ethods, Bangkok ... 148
4.2 F e r t i l i z e r n u t r i e n t s a p p lie d to v e g e ta b le c ro p s ,
Bangkok ... 155
4.3 V eg etab le crop y i e l d s , Bangkok ... 159
5.1 V eg etab le cro p s grown, sample d u ra tio n s and p la n tin g methods, Singapore ... 167
5 .2 F e r t i l i z e r n u t r i e n t s a p p lie d to v e g e ta b le c ro p s ,
S ingapore ... 176
5 .3 V eg etab le crop y i e l d s , Lim Chu Kang,
Singapore ... 182
6.1 V eg etab le c ro p s grown, sample d u r a tio n s , and p la n tin g methods, M a n i l a ... 198
6 .2 V eg etab le cro p s grown, sample d u ra tio n s , and p la n tin g m ethods, Cebu ... 206
14 6 .3 V egetable cro p y i e l d s , Cebu ... 212
6.4 V eg etab le cro p s grown, sample d u ra tio n s and p la n tin g m ethods, Baguio ... 214
6.5 V eg etable cro p y i e l d s , Baguio ... 222
7.1 Comparison o f th e p h y s ic a l environm ents o f case stu d y a re a s ... 233
7 .2 Comparison o f th e human environm ents o f case stu d y
a re a s ... 237
7 .3 Comparison o f th e v e g e ta b le farm ing environm ents o f case stu d y a r e a s : s i m i l a r i t i e s and d if f e r e n c e s between S o u th e a st Asia and South China ... 242
7.4 Use o f t r a d i t i o n a l C hinese v e g e ta b le farm ing p r a c tic e s in th e case stu d y a re a s in
S o u th e a st Asia ... 244
7 .5 Use o f m ulching m a te r ia ls in th e case stu d y a re a s in S o u th e a st Asia ... 247
7 .6 Use o f o rg a n ic f e r t i l i z e r m a te ria ls in th e c ase stu d y a re a s in S o u th e a st Asia ... 248
7 .7 The e x te n t o f use o f t r a d i t i o n a l Chinese v e g e ta b le farm ing p r a c tic e s in th e d i f f e r e n t ty p e s o f
v e g e ta b le farm ing environm ent ... 257
7 .8 The use o f t r a d i t i o n a l Chinese v e g e ta b le farm ing p r a c tic e s in S o u th e a st A sia, acco rd in g to
ty p e o f v e g e ta b le farm ing environm ent . . . 258
8.1 C u rren t use o f modern W estern farm ing p r a c tic e s on
sample farms in c ase study a re a s ... 262
8.2 Average y ie ld s o f le a f y v e g e ta b le cro p s in c ase study
a re a s ... 266
8.3 E f f e c ts o f m ech an izatio n and c h e m ic a liz a tio n on p r o d u c tiv ity o f la n d , f o s s i l f u e l energy u s e ,
environm ental p o llu tio n and la b o u r u se ... 269
APPENDIX
A.1 Names o f v e g e ta b le c ro p s grown in case stu d y
a re a s ... 277
16
LIST OF FIGURES
F ro n tis p ie c e L o catio n s o f c ase stu d y a re a s in
South China and S o u th east Asia ... 4
1.1 L o c a tio n s o f p ro d u c tio n b rig a d e farms
v i s i t e d in Canton ... 35
1.2 V eg etable cro p p in g p a t t e r n s , Canton ... 49
1.3 The achievem ent o f high annual crop
p ro d u c tio n in v e g e ta b le farm ing, throu g h th e u se o f t r a d i t i o n a l
p r a c t i c e s , Canton ... 88
1.4 T r a d itio n a l v e g e ta b le farm ing system ,
C a n t o n ... 89
2.1 L o c a tio n s o f v e g e ta b le farms v i s i t e d
in Hong Kong ... 96
3.1 P la c e s o f o r ig in in China o f Chinese
in S o u th e a st Asia ... 125
3.2 D is tr i b u tio n o f e th n ic Chinese in
S o u th e a st A sia ... 129
3.3 L o c a tio n s o f v e g e ta b le farms v i s i t e d in th e case stu d y a re a s in
S o u th e a st Asia ... 136
1 .1 -1 .4 V egetable farm ing in Canton ... 80
1 .1 -2 .4 V egetable farm ing in Hong Kong ... 118
4.1-4. l| V egetable farm ing in Bangkok ... ... 161
5 .1 - 5 .4 V egetable farm ing in Singapore ... 191
5 .5 V eg etab le farm ing in th e Cameron H ighlands ... 195
6 .1 - 6 .2 V egetable farm ing in M anila ... 224
6 .3 - 6 .4 V egetable farm ing in Cebu ... 226
6 .5 - 6 .6 V egetable farm ing in Baguio ... 228
INTRODUCTION: CONTEXT AND METHODOLOGY
18
CONTEXT
C o n v e n tio n a l s t r a t e g y o f a g r ic u ltu r a l d e v e l o p m e n t planning in S o u th e a st A s i a .
In t h e n o n - c o m m u n i s t developi ng c o un tr i es of S ou t h e as t Asia, g o v e r n m e n t a g r i c u l t u r a l d e p a r t m e n t s a t bot h na ti o na l and local levels m o re or less follow t h e c u r r e n t l y c o n v e nt i o na l s t r a t e g y of a g r i c u l t u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t planning. This s t r a t e g y , propounded for e x a mp l e by FAO (1970: 1-236), ma y be v ery b r ie f ly s u m m a r i z e d as follows:
(a) The ov er al l goal is t o p r od u c e m o r e food l ocally:
(i) t o m e e t t h e e v e r - g r o w i n g food r e q u i r e m e n t s of rising p op ul at io ns , b ot h r u r a l and u r b an ,
(ii) to m a k e possible higher level s of food c o ns u m p t i o n and d i e t a r y i m p r o v e m e n t s , and
(iii) t o m i n i m i z e t h e i m p o r t s of f o o d s t u f f s f ro m f ore ig n c o u nt r i es and so s a v e f or ei gn e x c h a n g e .
(b) The s p e c i f i c o b j e c t i v e is t o i n c r e a s e t h e p r o d u ct i v i t y of a g r i c u l t u r a l l and, p a r t i c u l a r l y in a r e a s w h e r e t h e s c o p e for e xt en d in g a g r i c u l t u r a l land is l i m i t e d or w h e r e such s cope exis ts but w h e r e g o v e r n m e n t policy is n o t to e x t e n d t h e a r e a of c u l t i v a t i o n .
(c) The a c t u a l s t r a t e g y a d o p t e d to a c h ie v e t his o b j e c t i v e , in t h e c a s e of food c r op p r od u c t i o n , is t o i nt ens if y e xis ting f a r m i n g s y s t e m s by m o d e r n i z i n g f a r m i n g p r a c t i c e s , e.g.:
(i) by growi ng high yielding crop v a r i e t i e s and i ncr eas ing croppi ng i nt e n s i t i e s ,
(ii) by applying c h e m i c a l f e r t i l i z e r s t o m a i n t a i n soil f e r t i l i t y u nd e r c on dit ions of m o r e i n t e ns i ve c u lt iv a ti on ,
(iii) by applying c h e m i c a l biocides ( pest ici des) to co nt ro l we eds , p e st s and d i se as es,
(iv) by m e c h a n i z i n g land p r e p a r a t i o n to save t i m e b e t w e e n c rops , and (v) by i m p l e m e n t i n g l ar ge s c a l e i rr ig at io n and d r a i n a g e p r o j e c t s , to i n c r e a s e t h e e f f i c i e n c y of w a t e r use and c o nt r o l .
In o t h e r wor ds , t h e s t r a t e g y is t h e p r omo ti on of " G r e e n Re vo lu ti on "
a g ri c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s and, in e s s e nc e , is t he p r o m o t i o n of m oder n We st er n a g r i c u l t u r a l t e c hnol og y.
P r o d u c t i v i t y of a g r i c u l t u r a l land is de fi ne d, in this s tudy, as being a m e a s u r e o f t h e q u a n t i t y of food p r od uc ed p e r un it a r e a of a g r i c u l t u r a l land. It can be m e a s u r e d in t e r m s of annual c r op yield pe r unit a r e a
0 d f i t \
of land, in uni ts of tor|s p e r h e c t a r e pe r ye ar ( t / h a / y e a r ) .
Modern We st ern a g r i c u l t u r a l t ec h no l og y ( mo d er n W e s t e r n f a r mi ng p r a c t i c e s ) is d e fi n e d as l abour s aving, c a p i t a l i nt en si ve a g r i c u l t u r a l t e c hn ol o gy , b a s e d on t h e use of fossil fuel e n e r g y in t h e f orm of a g r i c u l t u r a l c h e m i c a l s and m a c h i n e s . It wa s deve lope d in W e st e rn Europe and N o r t h A m e r i c a during t h e n i n e t e e n t h and t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r i e s , l ar gely as a r es p on s e t o t h e rising and high c os t of f a r m l abour , wi t h t h e o b j e c t i v e of o bt a i n i n g high p r o d u c t i v i t y of l and w i t h mini ma l use of l abour. Duri ng t h e se cond h a lf of t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , m o d er n We st e rn a g r i c u l t u r a l t ec hn ol o gy has been i n t r o d u c e d and p r o m o t e d in S o u t h e a s t Asia.
P ro b lem s a s s o c i a t e d w ith th e c o n v e n tio n a l s t r a t e g y
The use of m o d e r n W e st e rn a g r i c u l t u r a l t e ch n ol o gy in t he developing c o u n t r i e s , i ncluding t h o se o f S o u t h e a s t Asia, has r e s u l t e d , undeniabl y, in i n c r e a s e d c r op yields and i n c r e a s e d p r o d u c t i v i t y of a g r i c u l t u r a l land in m a n y i n s t a n c e s . H o w e v e r , t h e r e a r e s o m e m a j o r p r ob le ms a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e use of this t e c hn o l og y , e xpounded
20 for e x a mp l e by Ward and Dubos (1972: 107 and 235), D as m a n n e t al (1973:
153), and R i c h a rd s o n and Stubbs (1978: 297). These p r o bl em s a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e c h e m i c a l i z a t i o n and m e c h a n i z a t i o n of local f ar m i n g s y s t e m s and m a y be s u m m a r i z e d as follows:
(a) Gr owi ng d e p e n d e n c e of poor f a r m e r s and poor food c o n s um er s on i ncr eas ingly e xpe n si v e fossil fuel e n er g y , which is u l t i m a t e l y l im it e d in supply, i.e., poor f a r m e r s , mai nly small hol der s, find it i ncr eas ing ly d i ff i c u l t to buy a g r i c u l t u r a l c h e m i c a l s an d m a c h i n e s and, a t t h e s a m e t i m e , poor c o n s u m e r s have to pay m o r e for food p roduced wi t h t h e s e fossil fuel b as ed i nputs.
(b) Pol lut ion of t h e n a t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t w i t h a g r i c u l t u r a l c h e mi c al s , e. g. , pol lut ion o f w a t e r c o u rs e s w it h c h e m i c a l f e r t i l i z e r s and p e s t i c i d e s , r e s u l t i n g in t he d e a t h of fish and f i s h - e a t i n g p r e d a t o r y birds, and c o n t a m i n a t i o n of f o od s t u f f s w i th p e s t i c i d e r es idue s, e.g. , i n se c t i c i d e s on v e g e t a b l e l ea ve s.
(c) D e s t r u c t i o n of jobs for poor f a r m w o r k e r s w i t h o u t land of t h ei r own, t h ro ug h t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of labour s aving t ec h n i q u e s , e.g., t r a c t o r c u l t i v a t i o n , t o r e p l a c e hand m e t h o d s . Such job d e s t r u c t i o n , added t o a g e n e ra l lack of job c r e a t i o n , c o n t r i b u t e s t o s h o r t a g e s of e m p l o y m e n t o p p o r t u n i t i e s for rising r ur al p a p u la t io n s, whi ch in t u r n e n c o u r a g e s poor r ura l pe ople to m i g r a t e t o a l r e a d y o v e r c r o w d e d c it ie s .
R e c e n t l y , t h e n e e d to d eve lop f ar m i n g s y s t e m s a p p r o p r i a t e to local c i r c u m s t a n c e s in de ve lopi ng c o u n t r i e s in ge ne ra l ha s be e n r ec o g n i z e d . The B r a n dt Co m mi s s i o n R e p o r t (1980: 94), for e x a m p l e , s t r e s s e d t h a t ,
"... new m o de l s a r e n e e d e d for a g r i c u l t u r e in t h e Third World. The w e s t e r n a g r i c u l t u r a l m od el w i t h its high d e g r e e of m e c h a n i z a t i o n and use of c h e m i c a l s c a n n o t simply be t r a n s f e r r e d t o d evelopi ng c ou n tr i es " .
Towards an a l t e r n a t i v e s t r a t e g y
If it ca n be a c c e p t e d t h a t t h e r e a r e i m p o r t a n t p r o b le m s a s so c i a t e d wi t h t he use of m o d e r n W es t e r n a g r i c u l t u r a l t e chno lo gy in S ou t h e as t Asia, and t h a t "new m o de ls for a g r i c u l t u r e " a r e n e e d e d , t h e n t h e following questi ons arise:
(a) Is it possible t h a t t h e p r o d u c t i v i t y of land could be i n c r e as e d w i t h o u t t h e use of m o d er n We st e rn a g r i c u l t u r a l t e ch no l og y and, t h e r e f o r e , w i t h o u t incur ring t h e a s s o c i a t e d e n er g y , pol lution and u n e m p l o y m e n t p r o b l e m s ?
(b) Ar e t h e r e any t r a d i t i o n a l f ar m i n g s y s t e m s to be found, in any p a r t s of S o u t h e a s t Asia or in any a r e a s out si de S o u t h e a s t Asia, wi t h t he n e c e s s a r y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of:
(i) high p r o d u c t i v i t y of land,
(ii) negli gibl e use of fossil fuel e n e rg y,
(iii) negl igi bl e pollution o f t h e e n v i r o n m e n t , and (iv) high use o f l abour ?
(c) If such s y s t e m s , possessi ng all o f t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , a r e t o be found still in e x i s t e n c e , or have e x i s t e d in t h e p a s t , is it possible t h a t t h e f a r m i n g p r a c t i c e s i n he r e n t w i t hi n t h e m could be used as a l t e r n a t i v e s t o m o d e r n W es t e r n f a r m i n g p r a c t i c e s ?
(d) If such s y s t e m s are t o be found out si de S o u t h e a s t Asia, could t h e i r p r a c t i c e s be used s uc ce s sf ul l y in t he d i f f e r e n t e n v i r o n m e n t s of So ut h ea st Asi a?
N eed for r e s e a r c h
As yet, l i t t l e r e s e a r c h has been done into t h e s e que sti ons on finding a l t e r n a t i v e p r a c t i c e s and d e t e r m i n i n g w h e t h e r t h e y could be used in d i f f e r e n t S o u t h e a s t Asian e n v i r o n m e n t s . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e r e is at
22 p r e s e n t a lack of i n fo r m a t i o n , i.e., a gap in p r e se n t knowl edge, c o nc er n in g such a l t e r n a t i v e s , and f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h is n e e d e d if this gap is to be filled and t h e n e c e s s a r y i n f or m a t i on m a d e a v ai labl e.
Aim o f , th is stud y
The p r e s e n t s t udy ha s been c a r r i e d o ut in o r d er t o help fill this gap in knowl edge , t h ro ug h an i n v es t ig a ti on of s o me of t h e possible a l t e r n a t i v e s f rom Chi na . It is hoped t h a t t his i n v es t ig a ti on will provide s o me a ns we rs t o t h e four questi ons s e t out a bove .
The s p e ci f i c aim of t h e s t ud y is t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r t h e p r a c t i c e s of t he t r a d i t i o n a l , i n te n s i v e , v e g e t a b l e f a rm in g s y s t e m of South Chi na r e p r e s e n t p r a c t i c a l a l t e r n a t i v e s t o m o d e r n W e s t e r n a g r i c u l t u r a l t ec hn ol o gy f or i n c r e as i ng t h e p r o d u c t i v i t y of land in v e g e t a b l e f ar m i n g in S ou t h e as t Asia.
The p r a c t i c e s of t h e t r a d i t i o n a l , i n te ns ive , v e g e t a b l e f ar m i n g s y s t e m of South Ch i na , r e f e r r e d t o as t r a d i t i o n a l C h i n e s e v e g e t a b l e f a rm in g p r a c t i c e s in this s tudy, a r e d e fi n ed as labour i n te ns ive p r a c t i c e s used for t h e p r o d u ct i o n of v e g e t a b l e s in South Ch i na ove r m a n y c e n t u r i e s . During t he l as t two c e n t u r i e s or so, t h e s e C hi n es e p r a c t i c e s have been i n tr o d u c e d into S o u t h e a s t Asia by i m m i g r a n t C h i n es e f a r m e r s and h a ve b een used t h e r e not only by i m m i g r a n t C hi ne se but also by s o m e indigenous f a r m e r s , t h e l a t t e r c opying t h e f o r m e r . It is n o t i nt en d ed t o imply by t his d e fi n i t i o n t h a t all t h e s e p r a c t i c e s a r e , n e c e ss a ri ly , of C h i n e s e origin or i n vent ion. It is r e a l i z e d t h a t c e r t a i n o f t h e m mi ght well h a v e e vol ve d origi nall y in o t h e r a r e a s ou tsi de Chi na.
H o w e v e r , as a group of p r a c t i c e s used t o g e t h e r in v e g e t a b l e f a rm in g, t h e y h a ve b e en in use in South Chi na for many c e n t u r i e s and as a group
of p r a c t i c e s t h ey ha v e be en i n tr o d u c e d into various p a r t s of S out he as t Asia, during t h e l a s t t wo c e n t u r i e s or so, by i m m i g r a n t Chi ne se f a r m e r s . H e n c e , for t he pur pose of this s tu dy , this group of p r a c t i c e s m a y r e a s o n a b l y be c al le d t r a d i t i o n a l Chi ne se v e g e t a b l e f ar m i n g p r a c t i c e s . The questi on of w h e t h e r or n ot c e r t a i n of t h e m , when c o n s id e re d on an individual basis, m ig ht ha ve originally evolved out si de Chi na , and a r e t h e r e f o r e n ot C hi ne se in t h e s t r i c t sense of t he word, is bey on d t h e s cop e of this study. In this study, t h e s e p r a c t i c e s a r e d e fi n e d as t r a d i t i o n a l C hi n es e p r a c t i c e s in or de r to c o n t r a s t t h e m w it h m o d er n W e st e rn p r a c t i c e s and also wi th t r a d i t i o n a l So u th e as t Asian p r a c t i c e s , i.e., t h e labour e x t e n s i v e p r a c t i c e s of t r a d i t i o n a l h o m e g ar de ni ng (mixed gardeni ng) as d e sc r i b e d f or e x a m p l e by Oomen and G rubbe n (1977: 61-63) and T e r r a (1934: 33-43).
C h o ic e o f fo c u s
This stu dy is f ocus ed on t r a d i t i o n a l C hi ne se v e g e t a b l e f ar m i n g p r a c t i c e s , as opposed t o o t h e r Chi ne se f a r m i n g p r a c t i c e s , for t wo r e a so ns . F i r st ly , of all Ch i n e s e f a r m i n g s y s t e m s , m an y of which are highly p r o d u c t i v e p e r uni t a r e a of land, t h e v e g e t a b l e f ar m i n g s y s te m s a r e t h e m o s t i n t en s iv e ( P l u c k n e t t and B e e m e r , 1981: 5), and t h e r e f o r e , t h e i r p r a c t i c e s a re possibly t h e m o s t r e l e v a n t to study.
Secondly, as t r a d i t i o n a l C h i ne s e v e g e t a b l e f a r m i n g p r a c t i c e s have a lr eady be en t r a n s f e r r e d t o a l i m i t e d e x t e n t to various c o u n t r i e s in
So u th e as t Asia, e.g., Thai land, Malaysia, Singapore and t h e
Philippines, t h e s t ud y of t h e m pr ovides a good o p p o r tu ni ty to d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r or not s uch p r a c t i c e s can be s uc ce s sf ul l y used in S o u t h e a s t Asian e n v i r o n m e n t s .
24 E x ten t of p rev io u s s tu d ie s
A smal l n u m b e r of d e t a i l e d s tudi e s on t ra d i t i o n a l C hi ne se v e g e t a b l e f ar m in g p r a c t i c e s h a v e be en c a r r i e d ou t in t h e p a s t , and c o n ta i n i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e use of t h e s e p r a c t i c e s in South Ch ina, e .g. , P l u c k n e t t and B e e m e r (1981), and in p a r t s of S o u t h e a s t Asia, e.g., Blaut (1953) and Milsum and G r i st (1941). H o w e v e r , none of t h e s e st ud ie s has e v a l u a t e d how s uc ce s sf ul l y t h e p r a c t i c e s h a ve b een used in S ou t h e as t Asian e n v i r o n m e n t s or w h e t h e r t hey r e p r e s e n t a l t e r n a t i v e s t o mo der n W es t e r n p r a c t i c e s .
METHODOLOGY
G e neral Approach
To a ch ie ve t h e aim of t h e s tudy an a t t e m p t has be en m a d e to:
(a) work out t h e e s s e n t i a l n a t u r e , i.e., t h e m ai n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t he t r a d i t i o n a l v e g e t a b l e f ar m i n g p r a c t i c e s of South C h i na , in r e l a t i o n t o t h e e n v i r o n m e n t w h e r e t hos e p r a c t i c e s w e r e de ve lope d;
(b) show w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e s e t r a d i t i o n a l C h i n es e p r a c t i c e s ha ve been su cce ss fu ll y used in t h e d i f f e r e n t e n v i r o n m e n t s of S o u t h e a s t Asia, and
(c) assess t h e e x t e n t of and e f f e c t s o f t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of m o d e r n We st er n p r a c t i c e s into v e g e t a b l e f a r m i n g in b o th South Chi na and S o u t h e a s t Asia.
C a se S tu d ie s
At t h e o u t s e t o f t h e s t ud y it wa s soon r e a l i z e d t h a t it would not be possible to s t ud y in any d e t a i l all t h e v e g e t a b l e f a r m i n g a r e a s of South Chi na nor i ndeed of S o u t h e a s t Asia, w h e r e t r a d i t i o n a l Chi ne se v e g e t a b l e f a r m i n g p r a c t i c e s w e r e known to be or t h o u g h t t o be in use.
It would only be possibl e, w i t h t h e l im i t e d t i m e and funds a va il abl e, t o s e l e c t a small n u m b e r of v e g e t a b l e f ar m i n g a r e a s as a rea sona bly
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s a mp l e and t hen c a r r y out d e t a i l e d c a s e s t u di e s on t h e s e s e l e c t e d a r e a s .
Thr ee basic c r i t e r i a w e r e a d o p t e d for t h e s e l e c t i o n of v e g e t a b l e f a rm in g a r e a s for c a s e s tudy, as follows:
(a) t h e a r e a s should be r e l a t i v e l y i m p o r t a n t v e g e t a b l e f a r m i n g a r e a s , i.e., r ea s o n a b ly l a rg e , w h e r e a t l e a s t s o m e t r a d i t i o n a l Chi ne se v e g e t a b l e f a r m i n g p r a c t i c e s w e r e known t o be or t h o u g h t t o be in use, such v e g e t a b l e f a r m i n g a r e a s being i dent if i ed f r o m a r evi ew of pr eviously publ ished l i t e r a t u r e ;
(b) t h e a r e a s should r e p r e s e n t a r ange of t h e d i f f e r e n t e n v ir o n m e n t s , b o t h physical and h u m a n , found in t he v e g e t a b l e f a r m i n g a r e a s of South Chi na and S o u t h e a s t Asia;
(c) t he a r e a s should be r ea s o n a b ly a c c e s s i b l e for field work.
S e le c t io n o f a re a s
As the p r ovi nc es of K w a n g t u n g (Guangdong) and Fuki en (Fujian) in South Chi na a r e t he pr inc ipal a r e a s of origin of t h e v a s t m a j o r i t y of i m m i g r a n t C h i n e s e v e g e t a b l e f a r m e r s in S o u t h e a s t Asia, i t was c o ns i d e r e d e s s e n t i a l t o study v e g e t a b l e f a r mi ng p r a c t i c e s in s o m e s e l e c t e d l o c a t i o n s in t h e s e p r o vi nc e s, in o r d er t o o b t a i n a c l e a r u nd e rs t a n d i n g o f t h e n a t u r e of t r a d i t i o n a l C hi ne se v e g e t a b l e f a rm in g p r a c t i c e s in t h e e n v i r o n m e n t s w h e r e t h e p r a c t i c e s w e r e d eve lope d.
K w a n g t u n g P r o v i n c e is t h e p l a c e of origin o f t h e C a n t o n e s e v e g e t a b l e f a r m e r s in S o u t h e a s t Asia, m a n y of whom o r g i n a t e f ro m f ar m i n g a r e a s n e a r t o t he c i t y of C a n t o n (Guangzhou), t h e provinci al c a p i t a l . K w a n g t u n g P r o v i n c e is also t h e p l ac e of origin of t h e Teochiu (Chi uchau) v e g e t a b l e f a r m e r s in S ou t h e as t Asia. These f a r m e r s o r i g i n a t e f ro m S wa to w in t h e e a s t e r n p a r t of t h e P r o v i n c e . Fukien P r ov i n c e is t he p l ac e of origin of t h e Hokkien v e g e t a b l e f a r m e r s in So ut h ea st Asia.
26 In the e v e n t , it was only possible for t h e w r i t e r t o o b t ai n a visa t o visit C a n t o n for fieldwork pur poses. It was no t possible for t h e w r i t e r t o o b t a i n a visa t o visit any o t h e r p a r t s of South Chi na , so no visit could be m a d e t o Sw at o w, nor to Fuki en. H e n c e , t h e s t ud y of v e g e t a b l e f a r m i n g p r a c t i c e s in South Chi na was l i m i t e d to l ocat ions around t he c i t y of C a n t o n . These l oca tions , t hough, whi ch a r e mai nl y in t h e l ow-lying poorly d rai ne d p a r t s of t he P e a r l R i v e r d e l t a , p ro du ce a l ar ge q u a n t i t y of f re sh v e g e t a b l e s for t h e local m a r k e t and also for e x p o r t t o t h e d i s t a n t Hong Kong m a r k e t . Be ca us e i t was no t possible to study v e g e t a b l e f a r m i n g p r a c t i c e s in Swat ow and Fu ki en , it was de ci de d to include a s t ud y o f t he p r a c t i c e s in Hong Kong, in o r d er to obt ai n s u p p l e m e n t a r y d a t a on t he use of t r a d i t i o n a l C hi n es e p r a c t i c e s in a Ch in es e e n v i r o n m e n t .
In applyi ng t h e c r i t e r i a for t h e s e l e c t i o n of v e g e t a b l e f ar mi ng a r e as for c a s e s t u d y t o S o u t he as t Asia, it was soon r e a l i z e d t h a t it would only be possible t o u n d e r t a k e f iel dwork in Thai land, Malays ia, Si ngapore, I ndonesia and t h e Phi lippines. Fo r r ea so ns of r e s t r i c t i o n s on t r a v e l l i n g , it would be impossible t o do so in V i e t n a m , Laos and C a m b o d i a and d i f f i c u l t to do so in Bu r ma . B e c a u s e of t h e l i m it a ti o ns on t i m e and funds a v ai lab le for fiel dwor k it wa s d e c id e d t o c o n c e n t r a t e on a smal l n u m b e r of v e g e t a b l e f a r m i n g a r e a s , as follows:
(a) in Thai land, on t h e lowland poorly d r a i ne d d e l t a a r e a around Bangkok, t h e c a p i t a l cit y;
(b) in Si ng apo re , on t h e lowland b u t well dr ai ne d a r ea s a t Lim Chu Kang, l o c a t e d in t h e n o r t h w e s t e r n p a r t of Singapore Island;
(c) in t h e Phi li ppines, on a r a ng e of bo th lowland and highland well d rai ne d a r e a s a r ound t h e c i t i e s of Manila, Ce b u and Baguio, w it h a r an g e of n e a r b y and d i s t a n t m a r k e t s .
Ho we v er , during t he earl y s t a ge s of fieldwork, an o pp o rt un i ty also a ros e to include a b r i e f visit t o t h e C a m e r o n Highlands in Malaysia, this l o ca ti on being a highland well dr ai ne d v e g e t a b l e f ar m i n g a r e a d i s ta n t f ro m a m a r k e t . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , in t h e t i m e a va il ab l e, it was not possible to include visits t o t h e lowland v e g e t a b l e f a r mi ng a r ea s a round t he c a p i t a l c i t i e s of Ku a la Lumpur in Ma lays ia and J a k a r t a in Indonesia.
N e v e r t h e l e s s , it is f el t t h a t t h e a c t u a l a r e a s vi si t ed an d s tudi ed are r ea s ona bl y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e d i f f e r e n t v e g e t a b l e f ar m i n g a r e a s in South China and S o u t h e a s t Asia, w h e r e s o m e t r a d i t i o n a l Chi nese v e g e t a b l e f a r m i n g p r a c t i c e s a r e c u r r e n t l y in use. The a r e as s t u di e d do r e p r e s e n t a r a ng e of t he d i f f e r e n t physical and h u m an e n v i r o n m e n t s found in t h e v e g e t a b l e f a r m i n g a r e a s of South Ch i na and S out he as t Asia.
In a ddi ti on t o t h es e a r e a s s e l e c t e d for fie ld wo rk , a visit was also made to Ta iwa n to g a t h e r s u p p l e m e n t a r y i n f o r m a t i o n on t r a d i ti o n al Chi ne se v e g e t a b l e f ar m i n g p r a c t i c e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y f rom t h e Asian Ve ge t ab l e R e s e a r c h and D e v e l o p m e n t C e n t e r .
S ources o f In fo r m a tio n
I n f or ma t io n has be en g a t h e r e d on t h e e n v i r o n m e n t s , b ot h physical and h uman, and on t he c u r r e n t v e g e t a b l e f ar mi ng p r a c t i c e s of all t he a r e a s s e l e c t e d far c a s e s tu dy . Several s o u rc e s of i n f o r m a t i o n h ave been used in t he g a t h e r i n g of this i n f o r m a t i o n , as follows:
(a) published and unpubl ished l i t e r a t u r e a v ai labl e in t he Uni t ed Ki ngdom and in t h e c o u n t r i e s vi si ted for fieldwork;
(b) i n te r v i e w s w i t h v e g e t a b l e f a r m e r s in t h e c o u n t r i e s vi sited;
(c) pers onal o b s e r v a t i o n of f a rm in g p r a c t i c e s in t h e f a r m e r s ' fields and t he r e c o r d i n g of t h e s e p r a c t i c e s phot o gr ap hi ca l ly ; and
(d) discussions w i t h local a g r i c u l t u r a l of fi cials and r e s e a r c h w or k er s in t he c o u n t r i e s vi si ted.
28 An initial r evi ew of published l i t e r a t u r e f a c i l i t a t e d s e l e c t i o n of p o t e n t i a l l y s u i t a b l e a r e a s for c a s e s tudy, alt hough t h e final s e l e c t i o n of a r e a s for c a s e s t u d y wa s m a d e during t h e c o u rs e of f iel dwork, a f t e r t h e p o t e n t i a l l y s u i t a b l e a r e a s ha d be en vi si ted and c h e c k e d . The mai n r ev i ew of l i t e r a t u r e has b ee n m a d e during t h e c o u rs e of and a f t e r t h e c o m p l e t i o n of f ie ldwor k, as a s u b s t a n t i a l a m o u n t of t h e l i t e r a t u r e r e v i e w e d was o b t a i n e d in t h e c o u n t r i e s vi si ted during t h e a c t u a l c ours e of f ie ldwor k.
Several d i f f e r e n t t y p e s of l i t e r a t u r e ha ve be en r e v i e w e d including f ir stl y, books and published p a p e r s , s ome of whi ch w e r e published prior to t h e w i d e - s c a l e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f m o d e r n We st e rn a g r i c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s into South Ch i na and S o u t h e a s t Asia, but m o s t of whi ch w e r e m o r e r e c e n t l y published. Secondly, a nu mb er of unpublished p a p e r s have b een r e v i e w e d including g o v e r n m e n t - p r o d u c e d m i m e o g r a p h e d m a t e r i a l and also a c a d e m i c t h e s e s a t d o c t o r a l , m a s t e r ' s and ba chel or ' s d e g r e e levels.
The r e vi e ws of p a r t i c u l a r p i e c e s of l i t e r a t u r e a r e in cl ud ed in this t hes is in t h e r e l e v a n t c h a p t e r s , r a t h e r t h a n as an i nitial body of i n f o r m a t i o n a t t h e c o m m e n c e m e n t o f t h e t hes is . L i t e r a t u r e r ev ie ws have been p r e s e n t e d in t his wa y b e c a u s e it is c on s id e re d t h a t t h e y will m o r e c l e ar l y s u p p l e m e n t and c o n f i r m , or o t h e r w i s e , original d a t a and i n fo r m a t i o n , o b t a i n e d during t h e c o u r s e of f iel dwor k, wh en p r e s e n t e d in t h e r e l e v a n t c h a p t e r s .
Fi eld work c a r r i e d o ut in Ch i na , Hong Kong, Thai land, Singapore, and t h e Philippines w a s b a s e d on f a r m e r i n te r vi ews . The se i n t e r v i e w s w e r e designed t o r e v e a l a g e n e ra l p i c t u r e of v e g e t a b l e f a r m i n g p r a c t i c e s , as opposed to pr ovidi ng r a n do m s a m p l e s of f a r m d a t a for s t a t i s t i c a l analysis. The f o r m a t of que st ions asked is s e t out in Appendix D. The
d e t ai l e d i n f or m a t i on o b t ai n ed from the i nt er vi ews is set out and di scussed in t h e r e l e v a n t c h a p t e r s . In Malays ia, a m uc h s imp ler t yp e of fieldwork wa s c a r r i e d out ba sed on personal o b s e r v a t i o n of v e g e t a b l e f ar m in g p r a c t i c e s and g e n e ra l discussion w it h f a r m e r s .
The i n fo r m a t i o n o bt ai ne d f r o m t he f a r m e r i n te r v i e w s c ons is ts e s se n ti al ly of t h e f a r m e r s ' a n s w e r s to s p e c i f i c q ue st ions . Q u a n t i t a t i v e d a t a o b t a i n e d , s uch as f e r t i l i z e r a ppl ic at i on r a t e s and c rop yields, a r e ba sed an t h e f a r m e r s ' own e s t i m a t e s , as it was not possible in t h e t i m e a va il abl e to s c i e n t i f i c a l l y m e a s u r e t h e a c t u a l q u a n t i t i e s involved. H o w e v e r , it is b e l ie v ed t h a t this kind of d a t a , when c o l l e c t e d f ro m s e v er a l d i f f e r e n t f a r m s in one l o ca t io n still p r e s e n t s a valid p i c t u r e of local f ar m i n g p r a c t i c e s , d e s p it e s o me oc cas ional q u a n t i t a t i v e i n a c c u r a c i e s whi ch m ig h t a ri se . In this r e g a r d , it is r e q u e s t e d t h a t t h e r e a d e r b e a r in mi nd t h a t t h e w r i t e r has had a n u m b e r of y ea rs of e x p e r i e n c e in t r o p i c a l a g r i cu lt u ra l advis or y wor k and in discussing f a r m i n g p r a c t i c e s w i t h f a r m e r s . Also, f or m an y o f t h e f a r m e r i n t e r v i e w s , skilled i n t e r p r e t a t i o n was pr ov id ed by local e x p e r i e n c e d , English s p ea ki ng, a g r i c u l t u r a l o f fi c i a l s and r e s e a r c h wor ke rs . The se t wo f a c t o r s , i t is f e l t , h a v e pr ov id ed s u bs t a n t i a l c h e ck s on a c c e p t i n g a p p a r e n t l y i n c o r r e c t a ns we rs f r o m f a r m e r s w i t h o u t c o n f i r m a t o r y ques ti oni ng and on m ak i n g wr ong i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of answers pr ovided by f a r m e r s . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , h o we v er , t h e r e a r e a few gaps in t h e i n f o r m a t i o n o b t a i n e d and t h e s e ha v e o c c u r r e d for s e v e r a l r ea s on s.
S o m e t i m e s it w a s j u s t n ot possible t o ask all t h e p r e p a r e d questi ons in a f a r m e r i n t e r v i e w , so t h a t only a s e l e c t i o n of t h e m o r e i m p o r t a n t questi ons could, in t h e e v e n t , be asked. At o t h e r t i m e s a few f a r m e r s w e r e una bl e or, in a ve ry f ew c a se s , unwilling t o pr ovide a ns we rs t o c e r t a i n p a r t i c u l a r que st ions asked.
30 As well as c a r r y i n g out f a r m e r i n te r vi ews and m ak i ng personal o b s e r va t io ns of c u r r e n t v e g e t a b l e f ar mi ng p r a c t i c e s in t h e c o u n t r i e s vi si ted, p h o t o g r a p h i c r e c o r d s w e r e m a d e of t he v e g e t a b l e f a r mi ng p r a c t i c e s o b s e rv e d. In addi ti on, s o m e fai rly l engt hy discussions w e r e held w i th local a g r i c u l t u r a l o f f i ci al s and r e s e a r c h w o r k e r s c o nc er ni ng th e use of t r a d i t i o n a l C hi ne se v e g e t a b l e f a r mi ng p r a c t i c e s in t h ei r l oca li ti es . I n f or m a t i on c o n c e r n i n g t h e s e local v e g e t a b l e f ar mi ng p r a c t i c e s was also g a t h e r e d f rom local published and unpublished l i t e r a t u r e , whi ch was kindly m a d e a va il abl e to t h e w r i t e r by t he se a g r i c u l t u r a l i s t s . D e t a i l s o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r a g r i c u l t u r a l and o t h e r i n s t it ut io n s c o ns u l t e d a r e as follows:
(a) Chi na (b) Hong Kong
(c) Thai land
(d) Singapore
(e) Malaysia
(f) Philippines
South Chi na Ag ri cu lt ur al C o l l eg e , C a n t o n A g r i c u l t u r e and Fi sher ies D e p a r t m e n t
Uni ve rs ity o f Hong Kong, D e p a r t m e n t of G e og ra ph y and Geology
Ag r ic u l t u r a l Ext ensi on D e p a r t m e n t , Bangkok K a s e t s a r t Uni ve rs i ty , D e p a r t m e n t of A g r i c u l t u r e , Bangkok
P r i m a r y P r o d u c t i o n D e p a r t m e n t , Maxwell Road Na t io na l Uni ve rs it y of Si nga pore , D e p a r t m e n t of Ge o gr a ph y , K e n t Ri dge
Malaysian Ag ri cu lt ur al R e s e a r c h and D e v e l o p m e n t I n s t i t u t e , Ta na h R a t a , C a m e r o n Highlands
Bu re au o f P l an t Indust ry, Los Banos and Ce bu Ci t y
Philippine Counci l for Ag r ic u l t u r a l and R e s o u r c e s R e s e a r c h , Los Banos
Un i ve rs i ty of t he Phi lippines, Col l ege of A g r i c u l t u r e , D e p a r t m e n t of H o r t i c u l t u r e , Los Banos
Banos
Mountai n S t a t e Agr i cul t ur al C ol l eg e , Baguio (g) Tai wan Asian V e g et a bl e R e s e a r c h and D e v e l o p m e n t
C e n t e r , Tainan
Tai chung D i s t r i c t Ag r ic u l t u r a l I mp r o v e m e n t S t a ti o n
Council for Agr i cul t ur al Pl anning and
D e v e l o p m e n t , Taipei
N a t io n al Taiwan U n i v e r s i t y , Co ll eg e of A g r i c u l t u r e , Taipei
Asian and P a c i f i c C ou nc i l, Food and F e r t i l i z e r Technology C e n t e r , Taipei
Per io d o f I n v e s t i g a t i o n
The o veral l pe ri od of fiel dwor k e x t e n d e d f r o m Au gu st 1980 until D e c e m b e r 1981. Ho we v er , only p a r t s of t h e ove ra ll t i m e pe ri od w e r e ava il ab le for a c t u a l f iel dwor k, as t h e w r i t e r was e n ga g e d in a gr i c u l t u r a l c o n s u l t a n c y work in Hong Kong during p a r t s of t h e period and in g a t h e r i n g i n f o r m a t i o n in t h e U ni t e d Ki ngdom during o t h e r p a r t s of t he peri od. The a c t ua l peri ods of t i m e t h a t t h e w r i t e r s p en t in e a c h c o u n t r y in u n d e r t a k i n g f iel dwor k, w e r e as follows:-
(a) Chi na: July 1981 2 Weeks
(b) Hong Kong: J uly 1981 2 Weeks
(c) Thailand: Augus t 1980 and May 1981 2 Weeks
(d) Singapore: May 1981 2 Weeks
(e) Malaysia: August 1980 1 Week
(f) Philippines: Ma rc h, April and D e c e m b e r 1981 7 Weeks
(g) Tai wan: F e b r u a r y 1981 3 Weeks
32
Although it may s eem t h a t t he t o t a l period of t i m e s p e n t in u n d e r t a k in g fiel dwor k in t h e s e d i f f e r e n t c o u n t r i e s is s h o rt , it is r e q u e s t e d t h a t t he r e a d e r b e ar in mind t h a t t h e w r i t e r has been involved in a g r i c u l t u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t and advisory wor k in E as t and So u th e as t Asia for m os t of t he l as t t en ye ars . This work has been mai nly in t h e field of i r r ig a ti on agro no my in Hong Kong and Indonesia.
The knowl edge of local f a rm in g p r a c t i c e s gained f r o m this work has e na ble d t h e w r i t e r to u n d e r t a k e t h e fieldwork r e q u i r e d f or t h e p r es e n t s tu d y in w h a t m a y s e e m a r e l a t i v e l y s h o rt period of t i m e .
S tr u ct u re o f t h e s i s
C h a p t e r s 1 and 2 are bas el ine c a se studi es of v e g e t a b l e f a r m i n g in South Chi na, in C a n t o n and Hong Kong. C h a p t e r 3 is a linking c h a p t e r c o n c e r n e d w it h t h e ba ckgrou nd and e n vi r o n m e n t s of Chi ne se v e g e t a b l e f a r m i n g in S o u t h e a s t Asia. C h a p t e r s 4, 5 and 6 a r e c a se s tudi es of t h e use of C hi ne se v e g e t a b l e f a r m i n g p r a c t i c e s in S ou t h e as t Asia, in Thai land, Singapore and Malaysia, and t h e Philippines. C h a p t e r s 7 and 8 a re a n a l y t i c a l c h a p t e r s c o n c er n e d wi th t he use of t r ad i t i o na l Ch in es e and m o d e r n We st ern f ar m i n g p r a c t i c e s in t h e c a s e study a r ea s , following which t he Concl usions a r e p r es e n t e d .
Appendix A gives de t a i l s of t h e English, Lat in and local n a me s of t h e v e g e t a b l e crops grown. Appendix B gives de ta ils of t h e conversion f a c t o r s used in e s t i m a t i n g f e r t i l i z e r ap pl ic at io n r a t e s and crop yields, f ro m d a t a provided in local units. Appendix C gives detai ls of t he a ss um pt ion s and m et h od o lo gy used in e s t i m a t i n g labour use.
Appendix D s e t s out t h e f o r m a t of questions asked in t h e f a r m e r i n t e r vi ew s. The Bibliography follows Appendix D.
Photographic records of vegetable farming are included at the ends of the relevant case study chapters.
A BASELINE CASE STUDY OF CANTON
INTRODUCTION
This c h a p t e r f ocus es on t h e e n vi r o n m e n t and p r a c t i c e s of v e g e t a b l e f a r m i n g in C an t o n . The aim of t he c h a p t e r is t o provide a baseline of i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e use of and main c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t r a d i t i o n a l Chi ne se v e g e t a b l e f a r m i n g p r a c t i c e s in t he e n v i r o n m e n t w h e r e t h e y w e r e developed. Most of t h e i n f o r m a t i o n on c u r r e n t p r a c t i c e s in this c h a p t e r wa s o b t ai n ed during t h e w r i t e r ' s fieldwork in C a n t o n in July 1981. In t h e c our se o f this fiel dwor k i nt er vi ews w e r e c a r r i e d o ut wi t h five pr od uc ti o n br igade l e a d e r s . Where a vail abl e, c o m p a r a b l e and c o n f i r m a t o r y d a t a f r o m pr evi ous l i t e r a t u r e a r e incl uded in t his c h a p t e r , in t h e r e l e v a n t s e ct i o n s .
The c i t y of C a n t o n is l o c a t e d j us t to t h e south of t h e Tropic of C a n c e r , a t 23 0 N and 113 0 E, in the n or t h e r n p a r t of t h e P e a r l River d e l ta . The P e a r l R i ve r flows t hr ough t he c e n t r e of t h e c it y, which has an e le v a t i o n of only a f ew m e t r e s above s e a l eve l. The 5 product ion br ig ad e f a r m s vi si ted by t h e w r i t e r in July 1981 f o rm p a r t s of 3 d i f f e r e n t c o mm u n e s , which are l o c a t e d on t h e n o r t h e r n and s o u th e r n e dge s of t h e c i ty , as shown in Table 1.1 and Fi gu re 1.1
34 Table J.J L o c at io n s of p ro d uc ti o n br igade f a r m s visited,
C a n t o n .
P r o d uc t i o n brigade
C o m m u n e L o c a t i on r e l a t i v e to c it y of C a nt o n
De ngf eng Shahe N o r t h e r n edge ( nea r Lu Hu Lake)
Fe n gh e Xinjiao Sout hern e dge (Henan)
Lianxing Xinjiao Sout he rn edge (Henan)
Siugong Sanyuanli N e a r n o r t h e r n edge ( near a ir po rt )
Sanyuanli Sanyuanli N o r t h e r n edge (at Sanyuanli)
N ot e : C hi ne se n a m e s a r e in r o m a n i z e d Mandarin (Pinyin), e x c e p t for
"Siugong" which is r o m a n i z e d C a n t o n e s e .
. C A N T O N
M A C A O
Agricultural College
^Sanyuanli
^ P B .
Lianxing P. B
Approxim ate ex ten t of _____
built up area (central s »ogong# O Can ton P*r * CTtV )
A irport Production brigade
. . . . e
farm s visited O ther locations m entioned in th e tex t
0 k m 4
1
__________________ 1_________________ I
A pproxim ate scale
F i g u r e 1.1 L o c a t i o n s of p r o d u c t i o n b r i g a d e farms v i s i t e d in Canton.
36 PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
R e l i e f
The 5 p r o du ct i on b ri ga d e f a r m s a r e all l o c a t e d on f l a t , low-lying, d e l t a i c land, e x c e p t for D e ng f en g, which is l o c a t e d on a g entl y sloping vall ey floor in t h e l ower p a r t of a hilly a r e a .
Nat ural d ra in ag e
Ove ra ll , t h e P e a r l Ri v e r d e l t a m e a s u r e s a bout 110 km f ro m nor th to so uth and 90 km f rom e a s t t o w e s t . It consist s of a n e tw o rk of d i s t r i b u t a r i e s , bu t has a wide mai n c ha nn el , t h e P e a rl R i ve r, on t he e a s t side, whi ch pas ses t hrough t he c i t y of C a n t o n and e m p t i e s out into t h e South Chi na Sea b e t w e e n Ma ca o and Hong Kong.
Much of t h e v e g e t a b l e f a r m land in t he C a n t o n a r e a of t h e d e l t a has very poor n a t u r a l d r ai n a g e . H o w ev er , this land has be en m a d e s u i t a bl e for v e g e t a b l e f a r m i n g t hr ough t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of dykes and drai ns and t he pumping o u t of e x c e s s w a t e r f rom t he f a r m land into t h e drains.
P r o t e c t i o n of t h e v e g e t a b l e crops f rom f r e q u e n t flooding is also a c hi e v e d t h ro ug h growing t h e crops on t h e tops of high r ai s ed beds. The na tur al d r a i n a g e of ge nt ly sloping v e g e t a b l e f a r m land, as at D engf eng, is good, and n e i t h e r pump d r a i n a g e nor high r a i s ed beds a r e n e c e s s a r y . The P e a r l Ri ver at C a n t o n is t idal, but n ot saline, and this f a c i l i t a t e s g r a v i t y flow of i r r i g a t i o n w a t e r t hr ou g h s ome of t he v e g e t a b l e f a r m i n g a r e a s , when c anal g a t e s a re o pe ne d a t high t i de .
C l i m a t e
C a n t o n e x p e r i e n c e s a monsoon c l i m a t e with d i s t i n c t cool dry and w a r m r ainy s ea sons . F i g ur es for a v e r a g e mont hl y t e m p e r a t u r e and r ainfall a re given in Table 1.2. F r o m t h e s e figures it c an be s e en t h a t C a n t o n has a y e a r - r o u n d growi ng se as on. F r o s t , which is only e x p e r i e n c e d on higher ground ( T r e g e a r 1981: 301), is not a limit ing f a c t o r .
H ow e v er , heavy r ai nf al l e x p e r i e n c e d during t h e s u m m e r r ai ny s ea son c a n ca use e x t e n s i v e d a m a g e t o v e g e t a b l e c rops , e s p e ci al l y t hose in t h e s eedl ing s t a g e . This heavy r a i nf al l is a s s o c i a t e d bo th wi t h t h u n d e r s t o r m s and w i t h typhoons. The t yphoons, which hit South Chi na during t h e l a t t e r p a r t of t he r ai ny se as on, also c a u s e e x t e n s i v e d a m a g e t o v e g e t a b l e c rops grown on t re l li s e s , which a r e e asi ly blown down in t he high winds. Long dry pe ri ods , o c cu r r i n g during t h e w i n t e r m on th s , m a k e i r r i g a t i o n e s se n t ia l for s u c c es s fu l v e g e t a b l e growi ng. Irr igat ion is also n e c e s s a r y on hot dry days during t h e s u m m e r r a i n y s eas on, whe n v e g e t a b l e f a r m e r s a r e o f t e n t o be s een w a t e r i n g t h e i r crops.
This s e a s o n a l i t y in t h e c l i m a t e i nf lue nce s t h e kinds of v e g e t a b l e crops grown a t d i f f e r e n t t i m e s of t h e y e a r . D i f f e r e n t cool s eas on and w a r m s eas on crops a re grown, e.g., C h i n e s e kale in t h e c o o le r , d r ie r , w i n t e r m o n th s and w a t e r s pi na ch in t h e w a r m e r , w e t t e r , s u m m e r mo n th s . Th er e are s o m e c rops , t hough, which a r e grown t h r o u g h o u t t h e y e a r, e.g., floweri ng w h i t e c a b b a g e .
38 Table 1.2 Mean monthly tem p eratu re and r a i n f a l l , Canton.
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun J u l Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Mean monthly te m p e ra tu re ,
°C 13 14 17 22 27 27 28 28 27 24 19 16
Mean monthly
r a i n f a l l , mm 23 48 107 173 269 269 205 219 165 86 31 23
Source: T regear (1981: 2 0 ).
Notes : (a) Average monthly te m p e ratu re i s 22°C.
(b) T o ta l annual r a i n f a l l is 1,618 mm.
Soils
Soils in t he v e g e t a b l e f ar m i n g a re a around C a n t o n are alluvial in origin. The re is c o n s i d e r a b l e v a ri a t i o n , t hough, in soil t yp e b e t w e e n th e d i f f e r e n t p r o d uc ti o n b r i ga d e f a r m s . The w r i t e r ' s o b se rv a t i o n s in t he field r e v e a l e d soil t y p es r angi ng f rom sandy c l a y l oams and silty loams in d e l t a i c a r e a s , t o a c o a r s e sandy loam in t h e g e nt ly sloping valley floor a r e a . No very h e av y c lay soils w e r e s e e n on any of t he f ar ms vi si ted.
R e g a r d i n g soil f e r t i l i t y , r e c e n t l y published i n f o r m a t i o n ( Cha ndle r, 1981: 11,15) i n d i c a t e s t h a t soils in s o ut h e r n Chi na , including t h e C a n t o n v e g e t a b l e f a r m i n g a r e a , a r e heavil y w e a t h e r e d and highly l ea c he d , owing t o t he high t e m p e r a t u r e s and he avy r a in f al l. The soils ar e acid, w i t h a pH b e t w e e n 4.0 and 5.5. They a r e low in f e r t i l i t y , d e f i c i e n t in phosphorus and p o t a s s i u m , and have a low c a ti o n e x c h a n g e c a p a c i t y . They r equi r e i n t en s iv e m a n a g e m e n t in o r d e r t o grow v e g e t a b l e s and, in f a c t , r e c e i v e e no rm ou s q u a n t i t i e s of o rg an ic f e r t i l i z e r s in o r d e r t h a t a soil of a r t i f i c i a l l y high f e r t i l i t y m a y be deve lo pe d.
Mc Ca ll a and P l u c k n e t t (1981: 37) r e p o r t e d t h a t a lt ho ug h o rg an ic f e r t i l i z e r a p p l i c a t i o n s ha ve been high o v er long peri ods in t h e C a n t o n a r e a , t h e o r g an i c m a t t e r c o n t e n t of t h e soil a p p e a r s to be low. This i nd ic a te s high biological a c t i v i t y in the soil, r apid oxi dat io n o f t h e a dd ed o rg an ic m a t t e r , and r api d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of t h e o rg an i c m a t e r i a l s into t h e i n or ga ni c n u t r i e n t s of t h e soil, which p rovide s t h e v e g e t a b l e s w i th an a d e q u a t e n u t r i e n t s o u r c e . They also r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e av a il ab i li ty of n i t r o g e n , phosphorus and p ot as s iu m is high and a d e q u a t e for o p t i m u m v e g e t a b l e g r o w t h .
