JOB SATISFACTION: DOES CONTEXT MATTER?

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Master Thesis S.A.E. Koedam Page 1 of 54

Job Satisfaction: Does Context Matter?

A comparative study

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Master Thesis

Job Satisfaction: Does Context Matter?

A comparative study

by

Sjoerd Aart Eelko Koedam

Advanced International Business and Management

University of Groningen

Faculty of Economics and Business

P.O. Box 800, 9700 AV Groningen, Netherlands

Name: Sjoerd Aart Eelko Koedam Student number: 1687239

E-mail: saekoedam@outlook.com

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Abstract

The relation between Job Satisfaction and Organizational Culture has been described extensively in the literature. (Zavyalova & Kucherov, (2010) Zazzali et al. (2007), Cameron and Freeman (1991), Quinn and Spreitzer (1991), Lund (2003)), however little attention has been given to National Culture as an additional component. In this master thesis we relate National Culture to the relation between Job Satisfaction and Organizational Culture to find out it makes sense to include this factor as a relevant variable. This thesis will make use of the Organizational Culture Assessment Instrument of Cameron and Quinn (2001), and the Cultural Dimensions of Hofstede (2001) to research if the influence of Organizational Culture on Job Satisfaction is different among different National Cultures. For the national culture this thesis will make use of a study on the differences between the Netherlands and México.

Acknowledgements

It is a pleasure to thank those who made this thesis possible. I am thankful to the people who provided me the possibility for research by filling out the surveys. Especially I would like to send my thanks to Patricia Hernández Medina, Heleen Groenevelt, and Eric Koedam who helped me with the questionnaire development.

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1. Introduction

A variety of work attitudes, such as organizational commitment, job performance, absenteeism and turnover intentions, are significantly impacted by what the literature calls Job Satisfaction. As a result, this component receives increasing attention in the Business Literature. (Opkara, 2004; Edmands, 2012)

One of the main reasons for Job Satisfaction to be taken into account in the literature is that a high Job Satisfaction can lead to high efficiency and effectiveness; while low Job Satisfaction can lead a company to incur higher costs. (Judge & Klinger, 2008) It is because of these factors that more companies are moving their resources towards Job Satisfaction accomplishments, rather than focusing exclusively on low-cost labor. One relevant example is IKEA, the Swedish furniture retailer, which has its own Employee’s Council with the sole purpose of guarding the interests of the employees. IKEA has also started a global campaign to improve Job Satisfaction called “I make

IKEA”, giving employees the opportunity to develop themselves inside the company. (Annual

Report IKEA 2011)

The attention given by companies to this topic has been addressed numerous times in the existing literature. Many authors have aimed their research on finding the attributes that lead and increase Job Satisfaction of an employee. For example, Judge and Klinger (2008) argue that appraisal and reward systems, the assessment of opinions, and the mental challenging of the work improves Job Satisfaction. While Johnston & Wang-Sheng (2013) argue that promotions increase Job Satisfaction in the short run, though the stress that comes with it outweighs the benefits and then decreases Job Satisfaction in the long run.

Other articles focus more on general terms such as Organizational Culture to explain how Job Satisfaction is influenced. Instead of looking at which individual attributes contribute to a higher level of Job Satisfaction, they refer to the Organizational Cultures in which these attributes can be placed or classified as well. For instance, Zavyalova & Kucherov (Zavyalova & Kucherov, 2010) who are using the Organizational Culture Assessment Instrument (OCAI) for determining Organizational Cultures, argue that Job Satisfaction tends to be higher among firms with clan or adhocratic types of culture. This is supported by the findings of Zazzali et al. (2007) and Cameron and Freeman (1991) who conversely found that Job Satisfaction tends to be lower in Hierarchal and Market cultures.

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Master Thesis S.A.E. Koedam Page 6 of 54 enterprises. As such, these studies inherently assume that National Context is not a significant factor in explaining Job Satisfaction, defending this argument by referring to other authors who did the same research in a different country (Zazzali et al 2010).This is not a valid reason to generalize any findings to an international context, however, especially since most of the work cited is based on the US (Zazzali et al 2010; Goodman, Zammuto, and Gifford 2001; Lund 2003). The argument that Job Satisfaction is higher in Clan and Adhocracy Organizational Cultures might be valid in a national context, yet if that argument would be applied to a different country it might no longer be applicable. For instance, it might be well possible, in contrast to the cited literature, that Job Satisfaction could be higher within Hierarchical and Market cultures. This Master Thesis would like research if National Cultures is a relevant factor to include in the relation between Job Satisfaction and Organizational Culture. This will allow managers to adapt effectively to the new environment when investing abroad and enhance Job Satisfaction in their new investment. They could also invest beforehand in an environment in which their own Organizational Culture is likely to have higher levels of Job Satisfaction, thus creating lower agency costs and higher efficiency. In order to find whether National Culture is a relevant factor, this Thesis will be looking at two different National Cultures, Mexico and The Netherlands. Based on the cultural dimensions of Hofstede (2001), these two countries exhibit an almost exact opposite culture from each other, which is the reason they are chosen. If within these two nations a trend/niche can be found, then it means that there is space for further investigation, that more and different nations can be included into the research. Thus, the intention of this research is to provide a better overview of Job Satisfaction and predict in which contexts (National and Organizational Culture) it is more likely to increase.

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2. Literature review

In business and corporate literature the terms Job Satisfaction, Organizational Culture, and National Culture are broadly used. In spite of this, there is not a clear consensus on how to conceptualize these different notions. This literature review will analyze the different schools of thought of numerous authors and determine which definitions should be utilized for the rest of the thesis. The definitions which will be used will be coherent with the aim of the thesis to explore these different topics. Therefore, it is necessary that the definitions used should be chosen based on the degree standardization, considering this will make it easier to compare these factors with the existing literature, and also give the opportunity to be further investigated, since there is less ambiguity of the topics. Furthermore the literature will be further discussed by looking at the relationship between Organizational Culture and Job Satisfaction. It becomes apparent that the existing literature has put emphasis on this relationship and that it consciously rejected National Culture as a relevant factor. This so called gap will be explained by this thesis, and it will be argued why it should be included. This will lead to the research question and the rationale for the hypotheses and will be followed by a conceptual model to summarize and concretize the argumentation of this dissertation. Thus in short, this chapter first conceptualizes the main topics of this thesis based on the literature; afterwards the relationship between Organizational Culture and Job Satisfaction in the literature will be discussed, then the lack of the existing literature to include National Culture, followed by the reasoning for why this dissertation argues that National Culture should be reckoned with in this relationship. Finally, based on these circumstances, the Research Question will be addressed, and the rationale for the hypotheses to answer the research question will be given.

2.1 Background to Theoretical Approaches

Job Satisfaction

There are many perspectives from which to analyze Job Satisfaction, as it has been one of the most addressed concepts in the literature of Organizational Behavior. This concept is very hard to determine, especially when there is no general consensus on what a job is. (Judge & Klinger, 2008) One of the many definitions provided in the literature of Job Satisfaction comes down to Locke (1976), who outlines Job Satisfaction as "a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from

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Master Thesis S.A.E. Koedam Page 8 of 54 dimension of the work nature, where a worker will denote a positive emotional state by the degree of satisfaction on his experiences.

This concept has been investigated by several disciplines such as psychology, sociology, economics and management sciences Based on the premise where experts believe that the patterns and trends that Job Satisfaction follows could influence in labor market behavior and work productivity, as well as employee attitudes such as work effort, employee absenteeism and turnover. It can be a predictor of overall individual well-being (Diaz-Serrano & Rodriguez-Pose, 2012), or a predictor of the intentions or decisions of employees to leave a job (Gazioglu & Tansel, 2006).

Yet another simpler definition tells: “Job Satisfaction is simply how people feel about their jobs and

different aspects of their jobs. It is the extent to which people like (satisfaction) or dislike (dissatisfaction) their jobs”. (Specter, 1997)

A basic definition based on the assumption that there are basic and universal human needs, and that, if an individual’s needs are fulfilled in their current situation, then that individual will be happy. This was proposed by Sousa Poza (Sousa-Poza & Sousa-Poza, 2007). Based on their arguments, Job Satisfaction depends on the balance between work related inputs (education, working time, effort); and work-related outputs (wages, fringe benefits, status, working conditions, intrinsic aspects of the job). If the outputs increase the amount of work inputs, then Job Satisfaction will increase. (Sousa-Poza & Sousa-Poza, 2007).

The most accurate definition of Job Satisfaction for the purposes of this study is the one provided by Weiss (2002) who defined Job Satisfaction as an attitude. “Defined as an attitude, Job

Satisfaction is a positive (or negative) evaluative judgment one makes about one’s job or job situation” In this definition, he argues that Job Satisfaction is an attitude, however he also

mentions that researchers should clearly identify “the objects of cognitive evaluation which affect

emotion, opinions and behavior.” The definition provided by Weiss is of primary importance for

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Organizational Culture:

Organizational Culture is defined as a set of norms, values and beliefs, and is reflected in legends, rituals, symbols, and language (Daft 1994). According to Martin (1992) there are three theoretical views in which you may divide the literature considering the field of Organizational Culture (OC): Integration, Differentiation, and Fragmentation.

In the Integration perspective, which is reflected as an example in the view of articles of Schein (1985), Collins and Porras (2002) and Schultz and Hatch (1996), it is argued that an OC is categorized by consistency, consensus and clarity, which means that throughout the whole company there is a coherency based on the values of the higher managers of the company. Followers of the Differentiation view, (e.g. Bartunek and Moch as well as Van Maanen’s (both in Frost et al 1991)), point out that the OC is characterized by being “overlapping,” meaning that there is not one type of OC, but that there are several subcultures existing simultaneously within the organization either conflicting or coherent. (Martin 2002). The latter of the three views, Fragmentation, is mainly arguing that OC is being ambiguous, which makes it hard to define OC into one single concept; All in all, they argue that OC’s ambiguity is being characterized by all the paradoxes, irony, etc. and that it defines the true essence of the Organizational Culture (Martin 2002)

Based on the previous types of Organizational Culture, this thesis uses the Integration Perspective, proposed by Cameron and Quinn (2001) mainly because they conducted an extensive research about Organizational Culture, and in that way it provides a good point of reference. One important tool of this study is their framework “Organizational Culture Assessment Instrument” (OCAI) which provides a reliable source that can be useful to determine a more in depth look at the JS and OC relationship by focusing more specifically at the different types of OC. Based on the four groups analyzed by Cameron and Quinn (2001), the present study targets four groups for the statistical analysis used on this paper, providing the opportunity to evaluate different OC characteristics and analyze their effect on JS in a both qualitative and quantitatively way.

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Master Thesis S.A.E. Koedam Page 10 of 54 One way to evaluate these differences between dynamic environment companies and governmental institutions can be done by applying terms such as internal/external orientation and differentiation/integration. These four types are incorporated in the framework, since they represent different types of values, management styles and thus it represents the OC. These types are categorized in: hierarchic (bureaucratic) culture, market culture, clan culture, and adhocracy Organizational Culture. (See figure 1)(Quinn 2001) These terms described are elaborated further in the research of (Zavyalova and Kucherov, 2010) where they describe the different types as follows:

1. Hierarchic cultures: The top management acts as a mentor; efficiency is measured by

profitability; control is a primary value.

2. Market cultures: The top management acts as a strict supervisor, competitor and shaper;

efficiency is measured in terms of achieving the objective; competition is a primary value.

3. Clan cultures: The top management acts as a parent; the climate is positive and aimed at

developing human resources; dedication is primary value.

4. Adhocracy cultures: The top management acts as an entrepreneur; the results are creativity

and growth; innovation is the primary value.”

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Figure 1 OCAI by Cameron and Quinn (2001)

National Culture:

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Master Thesis S.A.E. Koedam Page 12 of 54 Hofstede provided a solid base for different authors looking to analyze the National Culture of numerous countries, because his National Culture dimensions are widely used by others in the literature. By using his cultural dimensions, instead of other frames like Schwartz’s cultural dimensions, this paper will be based on a standardized platform that can be compared to other authors’ work about Job Satisfaction, having a common framework that is highly recognized within the business field. A second advantage of relying on this database is that Hofstede’s work has been reviewed and revised many times and still his dimensions are accepted to be valid, making it ideal for comparisons with other findings. On the other hand, Hofstede’s work will have the limitation of exclusively focusing on the previously mentioned dimensions, always raising the question whether these dimensions truly cover all of the aspects of National Culture. For the purposes of this research the dimensions of Hofstede will provide enough bases to describe the National Culture and what effect it has on Organizational Culture and thus Job Satisfaction. Despite the effectiveness of Hofstede’s study, there are many other studies which are worth mentioning with regards to National Culture. One other valuable study on cultural dimensions is the work of E. Hall and M. Hall, who “developed a cultural model that emphasized the importance

of nonverbal signals and modes of awareness over explicit messages. These insights proved invaluable in studying how members of different cultures interact and how they often fail to understand one other.” (Hall 1990) He captures high and low context cultures, where the high

context (E.g. Japanese culture) is represented by the fact that there are many ‘unwritten rules’ which should be taken out of the context; while low context (E.g. America) indicates that there is less context which can be derived from the culture and thus more explanations are needed. Furthermore, they also take Time (monochromic time vs. polychromic time) and Space (high territoriality vs. low territoriality) into consideration when talking about cultural differences (Hall 2011).

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Master Thesis S.A.E. Koedam Page 13 of 54 program focuses on the relation between different cultures of societies but it also gives an in-depth insight of Organizational Culture and leadership (TU Chemnitz 2011).

The GLOBE study identifies 9 cultural dimensions (Performance Orientation, Uncertainty Avoidance, Humane Orientation, Institutional Collectivism, In-Group Collectivism, Assertiveness, Gender Egalitarianism, Future Orientation, and Power Distance). (House et al. 2004; Grove 2011) Naturally there are many other academics that have studied and identified different cultural dimensions. In any case, the previously mentioned studies give a very broad view on the subject and are one of the most cited and used in this field. Even though there are many dimensions identified in different forms, the fact that there are so many dimensions which can be identified, clearly shows the nature of culture itself: it is different everywhere and many differences can be found. Additionally, by comparing the results of the studies mentioned above, it can be seen that certain dimensions or variations of a dimension are suggested in more than one approach. It suggests that Power distance, Uncertainty avoidance, Collectivism, Time orientation and Gender orientation are the most important aspects, which differ from culture to culture.

2.2 Definitions utilized

Through the above literature review it is intended to give the reader a better insight on how the topics of this thesis are developed and to remark that there are ambiguous terminologies in the literature. Yet for this thesis, the definition of Weiss (2002) for Job Satisfaction is used, because it is a very basic definition, and it is a definition which today is still mostly assumed when talking about Job Satisfaction. (Diaz-Serrano and Cabral Vieira, 2005; Gazioglu and Tansel, 2006)

Regarding the Organizational Culture definition, there are many different ways to classify the different cultures of a firm, as can be seen in the literature review. Despite the variety, this paper uses the classifications given by the OCAI model of Cameron and Quinn (2001). The reason for this is that their model is standardized and designed to obtain quantitative data. Questionnaires and surveys are available in a lot of languages (Including, Dutch/Spanish) and have been widely tested on their validity and reliability. The OCAI model has been more standardized than its rival models such as (Hall, 1976) or (Porras & Collins, 2002), which are models that collect more qualitative characteristics with their data.

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Master Thesis S.A.E. Koedam Page 14 of 54 Dimensions. Overall, this thesis is focusing on the usage of the most standardized definitions, in order to make it compatible for further researchers.

2.3 Job Satisfaction and Organizational Culture

A lot of attention has been given in the business literature to Job Satisfaction, due to the fact that Job Satisfaction is highly associated with organizational commitment, job performance, absenteeism and turnover intentions (Weiss, 2002). These are all factors that influence a firm’s costs and performance. The exact reason why is not yet known, but there are many different articles exploring different causal relationships between Job Satisfaction and firms’ performances (Ashley M. Guidroz, 2009). At the same time, much attention has been given to what influences Job Satisfaction. One major factor discussed thoroughly in the literature is Organizational Culture, and how different Organizational Cultures are associated with different levels of Job Satisfaction. Several researchers have examined the link between Organizational Culture and behavior. The values and believes of the company are understood to have a substantial influence on the behavior of employees (Locke and Lathan, 1976), and a changing Organizational Culture is frequently evoked as explanation for employee problems in the workplace (Nord, Brief, Atieh and Doherty, 1988), as well as an increase in unethical business practices (Mitchell and Scott, 1990). At the organizational level, values are viewed as a major component of Organizational Culture (O’Reilly, 1996; Schein, 1985), and are often described as principles responsible for the successful management of a number of companies (Mitchell and O’Neal, 1994). Rokeach (1979) characterized values as “the most distinctive property or defining characteristic of a social institution.” Organizations do not really possess values apart from the values of their members. In consequence, it may be said that organizational values are shared among the individual members of the organization. Shared values are a major component of an organization’s culture (O’Reilly and Chatman, 1996).

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Master Thesis S.A.E. Koedam Page 15 of 54 share is the values. It is easy to generate examples to show that individuals would be more comfortable in an environment that is consistent with their values. A person who values honesty and integrity and works in an organization that believes in ‘getting the job done at all costs’ will not be very comfortable. In all likelihood, the result of placing people in situations at odds with their personal values will not be positive for either the employee or the organization. Not only could employees’ well-being be at risk but it is also possible that they would be less devoted to the organization and possibly less productive.

Zavyalova et al. 2010 studied Job Satisfaction among Russian enterprises and compared different levels of Job Satisfaction with different Organizational Cultures of the OCAI model of Quinn. Their results showed enough evidence to assume that some Organizational Cultures such as the Clan and Adhocracy cultures have higher degrees of Job Satisfaction This is supported by the findings of Zazzali et al. (2007) and Cameron and Freeman (1991) who conversely found that Job Satisfaction tend to be lower in Hierarchal and Market cultures.

2.4 National Culture as Additional Component

One important problem with the previously mentioned investigations is that they base their conclusions on only one country. Also they discarded the National Culture factor; Zazzali et al (2007) argue that other papers that have done research about the same topic have similar results while they are conducted in different contexts (Cameron and Freeman 1991; Quinn and Spreitzer 1991; Zammuto and Krakower 1991; Nystrom 1993; Goodman, Zammuto, and Gifford 2001; Lund 2003) and thus National Culture is not a relevant factor. The problem with these cited articles of Zazzali et al is that they base their conclusion on mainly US and Western firms. The argumentation is that they all use different frameworks and contexts and yet still have similar results and for that reason it is argued that National Culture is not included. Even though that is true, and they do have similar results, it is hard to discard the National Culture factor, since they fail to include Asian or Latin Cultures, which might give different results.

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2.5 Rationale for the Research Question and Hypotheses

This paper investigates the variance of Job Satisfaction at organizational level and discerns if this variance is different in other contexts and whether this difference can be explained by National Culture. This means that it is not only the content of the Organizational Culture that creates Job Satisfaction, but the context in which it operates that influences Job Satisfaction. This idea is in contrast with the just cited articles that only provide significant evidence on the positive relationship between Organizational Culture and Job Satisfaction in only one context (Zavyalova & Kucherov, 2010); (Sarros, Gray, & Densten, 2002) For instance, in their article (Zavyalova & Kucherov, 2010) discusses that some Organizational Cultures such as the Clan and Adhocracy cultures (from the OCAI model) have higher degrees of Job Satisfaction. Zazzali et al (2007) found similar results in the US. Because their inquiries are based on Russian and US enterprises, their conclusions might be slightly different when tested in a more international context. Seeing that the Clan and Adhocracy models might be more favorable in Russia and US, it is possible that in different National Cultures other Organizational Cultures are favored. It is interesting to know whether it holds true that there are different Organizational Cultures preferred among different National Cultures, and if this variance can conduct to different levels of Job Satisfaction.

All the previous, leads to the research question:

Is National Culture a relevant variable in the relation between Job Satisfaction and Organizational Culture?

To provide better understanding of this research question, it is needed to remark that it could be possible that within one type of Organizational Culture, the factor Job Satisfaction has different levels among different National Cultures. This is against the existing literature which argues that each Organizational Culture has a certain degree of Job Satisfaction, which does not change among National Cultures. The key argument for this Master’s thesis is to provide evidence to prove that there are different levels of variance of Job Satisfaction within the same Organizational Culture. And that those outcomes can be explained by the National Culture of the employees in an international context.

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Master Thesis S.A.E. Koedam Page 17 of 54 and Job Satisfaction. To be able to answer such a Research Question, two different National Cultures are required to be researched in order to find any pattern for further examination.

For this reason, this dissertation will be based upon findings of the Netherlands and Mexico; two countries that are opposites on all cultural dimensions, based on Hofstede’s model, thus providing an opportunity to review opposite extremes of these dimensions and grasp a better understanding of the dynamics of Job Satisfaction. Organizational Cultures will be explained by the OCAI model of Cameron & Quinn 2001.

By reviewing this paper, some predictions will be made about which Organizational Cultures fits best with which National Culture. Based on the research of Scheffknecht (2011), who looked at competing values between organizational and National Culture within Multinational corporations, and to look at the work of Quinn (2001) and Hofstede (2001, 2010) it is suggested that Hierarchic

cultures are better associated with High power distance, masculinity, high uncertainty avoidance,

and that they tend to be individualistic and short term orientated. This appears to be more favorable for Mexican employees. Clan cultures are associated with High power distance, masculinity, high uncertainty avoidance, and they tend to be Collectivistic and long term orientated. This is coherent with Hofstede’s dimensions (2001) in Mexico. The third Organizational Culture of Quinn is Market culture and that is associated with low power distance, femininity, low uncertainty avoidance, and they tend to be individualistic and short term orientated. Finally, Adhocracy Organizational Culture is associated with low power distance, femininity, low uncertainty avoidance, and they tend to be collectivistic and long term orientated. When these associations are examined and compared with the characteristics of the Dutch and Mexican National Culture, two hypotheses are conceived in order to determine whether National Culture can explain some of the variance of Job Satisfaction at organizational level.

1. In the Netherlands Job Satisfaction (among Dutch employees) will be relatively higher in firms with a market or adhocracy Organizational Culture compared to México.

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Master Thesis S.A.E. Koedam Page 18 of 54 Some explanation of these hypotheses is necessary. The term “relatively” in these hypotheses refers to the fact that it is possible that the overall level of job satisfaction is higher in either Mexico or the Netherlands. If that would be the case, it would be very likely that there is always 1 H0 which fails to be rejected and one H0 that will be rejected. The conclusions acquired from this analytical study can be used to find a niche to continue further research. There has been little comparable data on this topic, and if the hypotheses hold true for opposite countries such as México and the Netherlands, it is possible to do more research within other combinations of countries and include other factors, to add more significance to the topic. Finally, this paper’s purpose is to give more insight on Job Satisfaction, showing that the context, in which companies operate, is indeed important for Job Satisfaction.

Furthermore based on the on the research question, a conceptual model was constructed. This conceptual model summarizes the hypothesized relationships between Organizational Culture and Job Satisfaction and that it is different among National Cultures.

Organizational Culture

Job Satisfaction

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3. Methodology

3.1 Research Objective

This thesis has two research objectives. Firstly it aims to develop a theoretical framework of Job Satisfaction arguing that the influence of Organizational Culture on Job Satisfaction is different among different National Cultures. Secondly, this dissertation would like to perform some exploratory empirical tests to these hypotheses about the role of National Culture on Organizational Culture and Job Satisfaction, and see whether there is a niche that can be further explored with more empirical data.

3.2 Research Design

This thesis looks at the relationship between the variables Job Satisfaction and Organizational Culture and whether this correlation is different among National Cultures. In the literature review it has already been discussed which definitions are used for these variables. In order to find a niche and see if the relationship is indeed different among National Cultures, two populations will be taken into the research; México and The Netherlands.

To obtain data for this paper internet surveys will be used, which is (due to the increased usage of internet) an easy and inexpensive way to obtain data. It gives the opportunity to collect respondents from México and The Netherlands without the necessity to be physically present in either country. Also it has the advantage that it is much easier to convert the data into a statistical program. Unfortunately, this type of research has some limitations. It is hard to control the respondents; it is not known whether they took the test seriously. Also you will automatically get biased results, due to the fact that not everybody has internet. There is also the danger that due to the cultural differences the Dutch tend to complain a lot, so there is a chance that only dissatisfied people will fill in the questionnaire as a sort of outlet for their complaints, while Mexicans complain less about their job since they are exposed to extreme poverty and they are happy that they have a job, and are afraid that if they complain about it they will lose it, meaning that more satisfied people will fill in the questionnaire.

3.3 Questionnaire Development

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Master Thesis S.A.E. Koedam Page 20 of 54 model of Quinn (2001) were implemented in the Questionnaire. To analyze Job Satisfaction, this paper added the questionnaire of Professor A. Meier of Munich University (Chiker 2003). This questionnaire was used to correlate the Satisfaction of employees with the various characteristics of their jobs, such as salary, growth opportunities, autonomy, and variety of the job etc. The questions will be short and trying to avoid any ambiguousness, with questions written to be answered with a 1 till 7 likert scale in order to make it measurable. In order to make an effective modification to this questionnaire some exploratory interviews with semi-structured questions are constructed in order to discover which questions of the Meier’s questionnaire, or OCAI assessment can be maintained and which ones can be discarded or altered, and complement the questionnaire if there is any missing topic that should be accounted as important to the analysis. The first step with the altering of the questionnaire consisted on the translation of the questionnaires. OCAI assessment was already available in Dutch and Spanish, and only A. Meiers questionnaire had to be properly translated. Translations were done by native speakers of Dutch and Spanish, and verified by two other native speakers. All native speakers were excellent at English scoring C1 or 600+ on TOEFL test.

Next, to test if the questions hold validity, multiple comprehension tests were conducted between a few representatives of the different groups which were interviewed, to review if they understood the questions in the same way as they were intended to be. Also to test for content validity, two independent reviewers (A MSc. in IB&M and MSc. in HRM) known to the subject, reviewed the questionnaire to confirm most important topics are included and that redundant questions are deleted. A difficulty encountered with the usage of this method is that it relies heavily on qualitative assessment, but due to the lack of other instruments to measure Job Satisfaction, OCAI and Meier’s assessments proved to be ideal.

In order to test reliability of the questionnaires, two tests were done: The Test-retest and the Alternate form reliability. The alternate form reliability was done first in order to simplify the test. Two Mexicans and Two Dutch, all four relatively highly educated, did the test twice. (All had at least a Bachelor degree). First the original test was done, after a week the same test was done but then in simplified form, to see if there were any significant different answers. Only one question gave significant different answers and was restored to its original form. All the other answers were not significantly different.

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Master Thesis S.A.E. Koedam Page 21 of 54 test before launching the questionnaire. Five Mexicans and five Dutch were asked to do the test, and to re-do the test two weeks later, to see if it yields the same results. After comparing the two results, 9 out of 10 participants significantly answered the same. The tenth participant had answered some questions in a different way; however this was not answered differently due to miscomprehension, but due to a change of work atmosphere.

3.4 Data Collection

Data was collected by sending questionnaires to various companies in the Netherlands and México. Random people working within a company were asked to answer the questionnaire. Only company owners or top management were not allowed to fill out the questionnaire, in order to reveal whether different types of jobs or responsibilities create different levels of Job Satisfaction. After approaching the employees to complete the online questionnaire, 139 people answered the questionnaire of which 116 cases were useable. In total 52 Mexican and 64 Dutch employees took the test. According to the AAPOR in order to have an estimate about a total population of a country at least 600 random cases are necessary. This Master Thesis has 116 usable cases to conduct estimates about two populations, thus there is the increased risk of unreliability of the data.

4. Analysis

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4.1 Measures

Dependent Variable:

Job Satisfaction

The dependent variable of this thesis is Job Satisfaction. It is measured in the dataset as an aggregated function of 23 variables, which were asked in the questionnaire. It contains 23 questions of a 7 point liking scale requesting the respondent his/her opinion about different facets of his/her job. It ranges from opinion about payment and compensation to recognition, autonomy, among other features of the job performed. Before the Job Satisfaction aggregated variable was composed, a Cronbach Alpha is necessary to determine the internal consistency of the variable. Reliability is important, because in the absence of reliability it is impossible to have any validity with the variables. (Tacq, 2011) Chronbach is helping to determine whether it is justifiable to interpret scores that have been aggregated together. According to Pallant (2005) a Cronbach’s alpha of higher than 0.5 is needed to know if a scale is reliable. The Chronbach alpha coefficient of the 23 items is 0.944 and the standardized Cronbach Alpha is 0.945 (see Table 1.1). The difference between the two is very little, because the 23 items have roughly the same standard deviation. In this case there is internal consistency with the 23 items, since the Cronbach’s alpha is higher than 0.5. Which means the composite score of Job Satisfaction can be used for further interpretation of the data. The composite variable is named in SPSS as “Total_Job_S”. In table 1.2 the descriptive statistics are shown for Job Satisfaction in both México and The Netherlands. While in the appendix table 1.3 shows the descriptive statistics for México and 1.4 for The Netherlands.

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Master Thesis S.A.E. Koedam Page 23 of 54 Table 1.2 Descriptive Statistics N Minimu m Maximu m Mean Std. Deviation Total_Job_S 116 1.42 6.98 5.1476 1.10507 Valid N (listwise) 116 Independent Variables Organizational Culture

Organizational Culture is determined by the OCAI assessment, which was part of the questionnaire. The participants had to first answer questions about the six different dimensions of Organizational Culture. Questions were asked about the Dominant Characteristics, Organizational Leadership, Management of Employees, the organizational glue, strategic emphases, and as last the Criteria of success of the organization. Based on these six dimensions the organizational culture in which the respondent is operating could be determined. In SPSS the variable is named “Org_Cult”. After the assessment it is clear which Organizational Culture fits most with the job of the respondent, the different cultures are coded from 1 to 4. Number 1 stands for the Adhocracy, 2 for Clan, 3 for Hierarchy, and as last 4 stands for the Market Organizational Culture. In table 2.1 the frequencies of each Organizational Culture are displayed. The tables 2.2 and 2.3 in the appendix show the frequencies of the Organizational Cultures of the Mexican and Dutch respondents.

Table 2.1

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Master Thesis S.A.E. Koedam Page 24 of 54 Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent Valid 1 Adhocracy 16 13.8 13.8 13.8 2 Clan 44 37.9 37.9 51.7 3 Hierarchy 24 20.7 20.7 72.4 4 Market 32 27.6 27.6 100.0 Total 116 100.0 100.0 National Culture

National Culture is added to the data as well. This thesis, as mentioned before, is solely looking at Dutch and Mexican employees of the different Organizational Cultures. National Culture is a nominal variable. Dutch Participants are coded as 0 and Mexican participants as 1.

Table 3

Country

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Valid México 52 44.8 44.8 44.8 The Netherlands 64 55.2 55.2 100.0 Total 116 100.0 100.0 Control Variables

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Master Thesis S.A.E. Koedam Page 25 of 54 workers, more than 86% is younger than 34, this might be explained by the fact that the younger generation is more comfortable with internet and are less reluctant to fill out an online survey. Work duration is almost equally distributed with 87.9% of the respondents having worked less than 6 years for their current employer. Which is logical since most respondents are younger than 34, also in professional life people working more than 10 years for the same employers get more rare. So it is not necessarily a misrepresentation of the facts.

4.2 Method

In order to answer the Research question and test the two hypotheses, it is necessary to know if the two National Cultures are significantly different in their overall levels of Job Satisfaction. This will be done by an independent T-test. If they would be significantly different it would mean that the word “relatively” is important in the Hypotheses. If the two countries are not significantly different it would be possible to compare the different levels of Job Satisfaction in Organizational Cultures in a more absolute way.

After that a multi factor ANOVA will be conducted in order to see if any of the Control variables have a significant effect, and if they can be excluded in further statistical testing. If there are any excluded control variables, the multi factor ANOVA will be done again. The last multifactor ANOVA will test whether National Culture and Organizational Culture have together a significant influence on Job Satisfaction, and if so Post-Hoc testing will be done to see which Organizational Culture has significantly higher Job Satisfaction. The reason why ANOVA is used is because a lot of the variables are nominal or ordinal, and only the dependent variable is Ratio, which means multiple regression analysis will not be possible.

Following the multifactor ANOVA two separate ANOVA test were executed of each of the National Cultures to get more insight than the Multifactor ANOVA to see if there is a significant variance among the different Organizational Cultures in their particular National Culture (See tables 7.1 and 7.4). The Separate ANOVA’s are complementary to the already test Multi Factor ANOVA, because it will give more specific information about the two National Cultures. It will provide their values for homogeneity of variance, the ANOVA result for each country, and the separate post-hoc testing to see which Organizational Culture has the highest level of Job Satisfaction.

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Master Thesis S.A.E. Koedam Page 26 of 54 The first test is to see if the levels of Job Satisfaction is different between the two National Cultures an independent t-test between México and the Netherlands was conducted (Table 6.2). For the Mexican (M=5.46, SD=1.13) and Dutch (M=4.90, SD=1.02) conditions; t(114)=2.797, p =0.006, it is assumed that there is a significant difference in the levels of Job Satisfaction with an alpha lower than 5%.

Table 5 Independent Sample Test between Mexican and Dutch respondents

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Table 6.1 Multifactor ANOVA results for Control variables.

Tests of Between-Subjects Effects Dependent Variable: Total_Job_S

Source Type III Sum of Squares

df Mean Square F Sig.

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4.3.1 Two factor ANOVA

For the two Two factor ANOVA all the descriptive results can be seen in table section 7.1.1 and 7.1.2. Then Levene’s test is executed to see if the error variance of Job Satisfaction is equal across the different Organizational Culturs. In table 7.1.3 it can be seen that Levene’s Test of Equality of Error Variances is significant at a 0.05 confidence level. The value for is 0.005 which is lower than <.05, thus the variances of the groups are significantly different. This is an assumption of the ANOVA-test, so it is necessary that the outcomes of this test are interpreted carefully.

Table 7.1.3

Levene's Test of Equality of Error Variancesa

Dependent Variable: Total_Job_S

F df1 df2 Sig.

3.116 7 108 .005

Tests the null hypothesis that the error variance of the dependent variable is equal across groups. a. Design: Intercept + Country + Org_Cult + Country * Org_Cult

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Table 7.1.4

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Table 7.1.5

Multiple Comparisons Dependent Variable: Total_Job_S

(I) Org_Cult (J) Org_Cult Mean Difference (I-J)

Std. Error Sig. 95% Confidence Interval Lower Bound Upper Bound

Tukey HSD Adhocracy Clan -.6853 .31635 .139 -1.5104 .1397

Hierarchy -.2546 .34974 .886 -1.1667 .6575 Market -.1131 .33179 .986 -.9784 .7522 Clan Adhocracy .6853 .31635 .139 -.1397 1.5104 Hierarchy .4308 .27498 .402 -.2864 1.1479 Market .5722 .25176 .111 -.0844 1.2288 Hierarchy Adhocracy .2546 .34974 .886 -.6575 1.1667 Clan -.4308 .27498 .402 -1.1479 .2864 Market .1415 .29261 .963 -.6217 .9046 Market Adhocracy .1131 .33179 .986 -.7522 .9784 Clan -.5722 .25176 .111 -1.2288 .0844 Hierarchy -.1415 .29261 .963 -.9046 .6217 Games-Howell Adhocracy Clan -.6853 .28548 .099 -1.4615 .0908 Hierarchy -.2546 .28908 .815 -1.0419 .5328 Market -.1131 .33073 .986 -.9996 .7734 Clan Adhocracy .6853 .28548 .099 -.0908 1.4615 Hierarchy .4308 .23261 .260 -.1844 1.0459 Market .5722 .28270 .191 -.1754 1.3199 Hierarchy Adhocracy .2546 .28908 .815 -.5328 1.0419 Clan -.4308 .23261 .260 -1.0459 .1844 Market .1415 .28634 .960 -.6183 .9012 Market Adhocracy .1131 .33073 .986 -.7734 .9996 Clan -.5722 .28270 .191 -1.3199 .1754 Hierarchy -.1415 .28634 .960 -.9012 .6183

Based on observed means.

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4.3.2 Results Mexican Respondents

This one-way ANOVA between subjects was conducted to compare the effect of Organizational Culture on Job Satisfaction and to review if the Dutch and Mexican population yield different results. In the two factors ANOVA, significant influence was found of the influence of Organizational Culture for Job Satisfaction however Post-Hoc Testing could not find any significant results. Therefor separate ANOVA’s are helpful to obtain more insight.

The descriptive analysis of the Mexican ANOVA can be found in table 7.2.1. For the Mexican respondents Levene’s test show in table 7.2.2 that the variances of the groups are significantly different. This is still an assumption of ANOVA so again precaution is needed with evaluating the results.

Table 7.2.2

Test of Homogeneity of Variances Total_Job_S

Levene Statistic df1 df2 Sig.

8.593 3 48 .000

Table 7.2.3

ANOVA Total_Job_S

Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Between Groups 12.406 3 4.135 3.742 .017

Within Groups 53.038 48 1.105

Total 65.444 51

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Table 7.2.4

Robust Tests of Equality of Means Total_Job_S

Statistica df1 df2 Sig.

Welch 5.615 3 18.376 .007

Brown-Forsythe 5.283 3 35.066 .004 a. Asymptotically F distributed.

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Table 7.2.5

Tukey HSD Adhoc Clan -.81750 .42374 .230 -1.8153 .1803

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4.3.3 Results Dutch Respondents

The descriptive analysis of the ANOVA of the Dutch Respondents can be found in table 7.3.1. Levene’s test shows in table 7.3.2 the results for homogeneity of variance is 0.577 thus it is higher than 0.05, this means that equal variances are assumed of the groups, thus the assumption of ANOVA has been met.

Table 7.3.2

.665 3 60 .577

Table 7.3.3

Between Groups 6.303 3 2.101 2.113 .108

Within Groups 59.670 60 .994

Total 65.972 63

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4.3.4Conclusion of Results

This Master Thesis wanted to research if National Culture a relevant variable in the relation between Job Satisfaction and Organizational Culture. Unfortunately the two-factor ANOVA showed that in this database it is not the case. National Culture is not a relevant factor in the relation between Job Satisfaction and Organizational Culture. However it did find significant influence for Organizational Culture and National Culture, separately.

For answering the main research question the two H0 hypotheses based on the main

research question should be rejected. Namely;

In the Netherlands Job Satisfaction (among Dutch employees) will be relatively higher in firms with a market or adhocracy Organizational Culture compared to México, and in México Job Satisfaction (among Mexican employees) will be relatively higher in firms with a clan or hierarchic Organizational Culture compared to the Netherlands.

First it needs to be tested if the word “relatively” is necessary in these hypotheses. The independent t-test found that in Mexico the overall Job Satisfaction is significantly higher than in the Netherlands. This firstly explains the significant relationship of National Culture on Job Satisfaction, and secondly it shows that indeed the relative results should be looked at.

After that separate ANOVA’s of the Netherlands and Mexico were conducted. For the Mexican respondents it can be concluded that the Job Satisfaction in Clan Organizational Cultures is significantly higher than the Job Satisfaction in Adhocracy and Market Organizational Cultures. Also it must be noted that Hierarchy has a high mean of Job Satisfaction as well, but due to the limited respondents it is not significant. If there were more respondents for Hierarchy and it would still have the same mean, it would have been significant as well. This would mean the H0 of the second hypotheses can be rejected, provided that Netherlands will not have Clan and Hierarchy with significantly higher Job Satisfaction.

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5. Discussion and Future Research

This thesis tried to explore a possible niche in the literature about the relationship between Organizational Culture and Job Satisfaction and that this relationship variances among National Cultures. The reason for exploring the influence of National Culture on this relationship is that it has been numerous times consciously rejected by the literature (Zazzali et al 2010; Goodman, Zammuto, and Gifford 2001; Lund 2003). Furthermore this Master Thesis argues that within different National Cultures different Organizational Cultures are preferred. It would be interesting to know because it will give insight to a very ambiguous concept. Managers could more efficiently adapt to different environments, by knowing which organizational culture is preferred. However adapting a firm’s organizational Culture can be challenging, thus this new insight could also be used to invest in countries where your organizational culture is more likely to yield higher levels of Job Satisfaction. Therefore this thesis constructed the research question: “Is National Culture a

relevant variable in the relation between Job Satisfaction and Organizational Culture?”

For answering the first part of the research question, this Master Thesis tried to find significant differences between México and The Netherlands and see if the relationship between Organizational Culture and Job Satisfaction is different among these two countries. Mexico and the Netherlands are almost exact opposites when their cultural dimensions (Hofstede, 2001) are compared. If between these two complete different National Cultures a significant difference can be found, subsequently it would mean that there is a possibility that National Culture indeed is important in the relationship between Job Satisfaction and Organizational Culture. Therefore two hypotheses were constructed about these differences, namely: “In the Netherlands Job Satisfaction (among Dutch employees) will be relatively higher in firms with a market or adhocracy Organizational Culture compared to Mexico.” And “In México Job Satisfaction (among Mexican employees) will be relatively higher in firms with a clan or hierarchic Organizational Culture compared to the Netherlands.”

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Master Thesis S.A.E. Koedam Page 37 of 54 Netherlands in general is known for its complaining culture. Dutch tend to compare themselves with people who have “better” Jobs, and thus complain about what they think they are missing. After the Independent T-test the multi factor ANOVA pointed out that none of the Control Variables are influential, and that unfortunately Organizational Culture and National Culture don’t have a joint effect on Job Satisfaction. This was one of the assumptions of this thesis. The data only found sufficient evidence that National culture and Organizational Culture have separate influence on Job Satisfaction. This can be explained by the fact that the sample might be too small with some types of Organizational Cultures and Country. For example for the Netherlands there were very little participants who are working in an Adhocracy culture and for the Mexicans there were very little people working in a Hierarchy culture. That could be the reason that those Organizational Cultures are not represented enough to have an influence on the Joint effect of Organizational Culture and National Culture on Job Satisfaction.

With a significant joint effect two separate ANOVA’s of each of the country samples is needed to know the homogeneity of the variance of them separately and to see which Organizational Cultures are preferred. However in this case it is only useful to explain why Organizational Culture has a significant effect. Also to look at those separately could give more insight on in why the joint effect is not significant.

In the separate ANOVA tests of the two samples, only significant variance of Job Satisfaction among Organizational Cultures was found for the Mexican respondents and the results show that for the Mexican respondents the Clan Organizational Culture has significant higher Job Satisfaction. Explanation for this can be that in México they value family life and authority which of both are not mutual exclusive. As mostly seen in México, people are raised in whole families, with a clear hierarchy of power, putting the grandparents at top of this hierarchy. This can be seen in their working life as well, since Mexicans prefer a more top down approach with clear hierarchy of power.

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Master Thesis S.A.E. Koedam Page 38 of 54 with the main Organizational Culture. Another explanation followed by the first might be that Dutch organizations by themselves are more an integrated between the different Organizational Cultures, than Mexican organizations who can be defined more clearly. As last it is possible that there was a bias among the Dutch Respondents in the data set, it was still are very small data for representing the Netherlands and a bias is almost unavoidable. This leads to the conclusion that with the presented data of the thesis, not enough support has been found that among different National Cultures other results are found of the relationship between Organizational Cultures and Job Satisfaction.

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Limitations and future research

As with all articles, this dissertation is not without limitations. Some of these limitations of this thesis are found in the sample. The sample size itself was high enough to do some testing, but to make conclusions about a whole population it is too small. Also the sample itself might be biased since most Mexicans who filled in the questionnaire had medium to high level education, and had at least internet connection, which means they are in the top 20% of Mexicans looking at connectivity and income. Overall the dataset tends to be biased towards young professionals; more than 86% of the respondents are younger than 35 years. Also it is noteworthy that in the total dataset only National Culture has a significant influence on Job Satisfaction. Job Satisfaction in general tends to be higher in México than in the Netherlands. Explanation for this can be that in México people are more reluctant to complain about a job when confronted with extreme poverty. While in the Netherlands poverty is not as dominantly visible. Yet Organizational Culture itself has no significant influence on Job Satisfaction. This can be explained by the fact that with the Dutch respondents Organizational Cultures has no significant influence on Job Satisfaction, and when looked solely at the Mexican respondents Organizational Culture has a significant effect. Another limitation of this thesis is based on the variety of National Culture. All data is based only two different countries México and The Netherlands. This will add to the existing literature since most authors base their conclusions on data from the United States. More insight might be acquired when more National Cultures are added to the equation.

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Master Thesis S.A.E. Koedam Page 40 of 54 Appendix

Table 1.1 Cronbach’s Alpha of Job Satisfaction

Reliability Statistics Cronbach's Alpha Cronbach's Alpha Based on Standardized Items N of Items .944 .945 23

Table 1.2 Descriptive statistics of Job Satisfaction

Descriptive Statistics N Minimu m Maximu m Mean Std. Deviation Total_Job_S 116 1.42 6.98 5.1476 1.10507 Valid N (listwise) 116

Table 1.3 Descriptive statistics of Job Satisfaction of the Mexican respondents

Descriptive Statistics N Minimu m Maximu m Mean Std. Deviation Total_Job_S 52 2.21 6.98 5.4569 1.13279 Valid N (listwise) 52

Table 1.4 Descriptive statistics of Job Satisfaction of the Dutch Respondents

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Table 2.1 Frequency Organizational Cultures of the Mexican and Dutch respondents

Org_Cult

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Valid 1 Adhocracy 16 13.8 13.8 13.8 2 Clan 44 37.9 37.9 51.7 3 Hierarchy 24 20.7 20.7 72.4 4 Market 32 27.6 27.6 100.0 Total 116 100.0 100.0

Table 2.2 Frequency Organizational Cultures of the Mexican respondents

Org_Cult

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent Valid 1 Adhocracy 10 19.2 19.2 19.2 2 Clan 16 30.8 30.8 50.0 3 Hierarchy 6 11.5 11.5 61.5 4 Market 20 38.5 38.5 100.0 Total 52 100.0 100.0

Table 2.3 Frequency Organizational Cultures of the Dutch respondents

Org_Cult

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Table 3 Frequencies of Countries

Country Frequenc

y

Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid

México 52 44.8 44.8 44.8

The Netherlands 64 55.2 55.2 100.0

Total 116 100.0 100.0

Table 4.1 Frequency of Gender of the total sample

Gender Frequenc

y

Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Valid

Male 64 55.2 55.2 55.2

Female 52 44.8 44.8 100.0

Total 116 100.0 100.0

Table 4.2 Frequency of Age of the total sample

age

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

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Table 4.3 Frequencies of the total years worked at current employer of the total sample

Work_dur

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Table 5 Independent Sample Test between Mexican and Dutch respondents

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Table 7.1.2

Descriptive Statistics Dependent Variable: Total_Job_S

Country Org_Cult Mean Std. Deviation N

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Table 7.1.3

Levene's Test of Equality of Error Variancesa

Dependent Variable: Total_Job_S

F df1 df2 Sig.

3.116 7 108 .005

Tests the null hypothesis that the error variance of the dependent variable is equal across groups. a. Design: Intercept + Country + Org_Cult + Country * Org_Cult

Table 7.1.4

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Table 7.1.5

Tukey HSD Adhocracy Clan -.6853 .31635 .139 -1.5104 .1397 Hierarchy -.2546 .34974 .886 -1.1667 .6575 Market -.1131 .33179 .986 -.9784 .7522 Clan Adhocracy .6853 .31635 .139 -.1397 1.5104 Hierarchy .4308 .27498 .402 -.2864 1.1479 Market .5722 .25176 .111 -.0844 1.2288 Hierarchy Adhocracy .2546 .34974 .886 -.6575 1.1667 Clan -.4308 .27498 .402 -1.1479 .2864 Market .1415 .29261 .963 -.6217 .9046 Market Adhocracy .1131 .33179 .986 -.7522 .9784 Clan -.5722 .25176 .111 -1.2288 .0844 Hierarchy -.1415 .29261 .963 -.9046 .6217 Games-Howell Adhocracy Clan -.6853 .28548 .099 -1.4615 .0908 Hierarchy -.2546 .28908 .815 -1.0419 .5328 Market -.1131 .33073 .986 -.9996 .7734 Clan Adhocracy .6853 .28548 .099 -.0908 1.4615 Hierarchy .4308 .23261 .260 -.1844 1.0459 Market .5722 .28270 .191 -.1754 1.3199 Hierarchy Adhocracy .2546 .28908 .815 -.5328 1.0419 Clan -.4308 .23261 .260 -1.0459 .1844 Market .1415 .28634 .960 -.6183 .9012 Market Adhocracy .1131 .33073 .986 -.7734 .9996 Clan -.5722 .28270 .191 -1.3199 .1754 Hierarchy -.1415 .28634 .960 -.9012 .6183

Based on observed means.

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Table 7.2.1

Descriptives Total_Job_S

N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error 95% Confidence Interval for Mean Minimum Maximum Lower Bound Upper Bound

Adhoc 10 5.2400 .57034 .18036 4.8320 5.6480 4.31 5.83 Clan 16 6.0575 .57359 .14340 5.7519 6.3631 5.25 6.98 Hierarchy 6 5.8900 .73892 .30166 5.1146 6.6654 5.04 6.69 Market 20 4.9550 1.49464 .33421 4.2555 5.6545 2.21 6.77 Total 52 5.4569 1.13279 .15709 5.1416 5.7723 2.21 6.98 Table 7.2.2

8.593 3 48 .000

Table 7.2.3

Between Groups 12.406 3 4.135 3.742 .017

Within Groups 53.038 48 1.105

Total 65.444 51

Table 7.2.4

Robust Tests of Equality of Means Total_Job_S

Statistica df1 df2 Sig.

Welch 5.615 3 18.376 .007

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Table 7.2.5

Tukey HSD Adhoc Clan -.81750 .42374 .230 -1.8153 .1803

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Table 7.3.1

Table 7.3.2

.665 3 60 .577

Table 7.3.3

Between Groups 6.303 3 2.101 2.113 .108

Within Groups 59.670 60 .994

Total 65.972 63

Descriptives Total_Job_S

N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error 95% Confidence Interval for Mean Minimum Maximum Lower Bound Upper Bound

Adhocracy 6 4.0767 1.03078 .42081 2.9949 5.1584 2.75 4.83

Clan 28 5.1643 1.15735 .21872 4.7155 5.6131 1.42 6.05

Hierarchy 18 4.7811 .65266 .15383 4.4566 5.1057 3.50 5.60

Market 12 4.8533 .99774 .28802 4.2194 5.4873 3.56 6.54

JOB SATISFACTION: DOES CONTEXT MATTER?

Job Satisfaction: Does Context Matter?

A comparative study

Master Thesis

Job Satisfaction: Does Context Matter?

A comparative study

by

Sjoerd Aart Eelko Koedam

Advanced International Business and Management

University of Groningen

Faculty of Economics and Business

P.O. Box 800, 9700 AV Groningen, Netherlands

Table of Contents

Abstract

Acknowledgements

1. Introduction

2. Literature review

Organizational Culture

Organizational Culture

Job Satisfaction

Job Satisfaction

3. Methodology

4. Analysis

For answering the main research question the two H0 hypotheses based on the main

research question should be rejected. Namely;

5. Discussion and Future Research