Job satisfaction: Did the Dutch get more satisfied?

Job satisfaction: Did the Dutch get

more satisfied?

A comparison study between the level of job satisfaction in 2004

and 2012 based on the Labour Supply Panel of the “Sociaal

Cultureel Plan Bureau” (SCP).

June, 14, 2015 JOEY SCHMEITZ Student number: 2787202 Gratamastraat 34 9714HS Groningen Tel: +31-622250565 E-mail: j.c.m.schmeitz@student.rug

Supervisor: dr. P.H. van der Meer

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Job satisfaction: Did the Dutch get more satisfied?

ABSTRACT

This study examines the difference in the level of job satisfaction of working population in the Netherlands between 2004 and 2012 over the course of the economic crisis. The main research question within this study is: ‘To what extent does the level of job satisfaction of the

working population of the Netherlands in 2012 differ to the level of the job satisfaction of the working population of the Netherlands in 2004 and what creates this difference’? Contrary to

theory this study did not find a decrease in job satisfaction over the time of the crisis. However clear relationships have been found between certain extrinsic and intrinsic job characteristics and job satisfaction. This study ends with a conclusion that offers possible explanation for this result and will offer theoretical and practical recommendations as well give tips for future research.

Keywords: job satisfaction, job characteristics, The Netherlands, SCP Labour Supply Panel.

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INTRODUCTION

Since the industrial revolution in the nineteenth century, the line of thought on how to organise an organisation changed over the time. With this change in how to organise organisations another change occurred, namely the change in how organisations view their Human Resources (HR) or basically said the people in an organisation. The field of HR rapidly developed during the twentieth century and with that development organisations increasingly cared about how people feel when working in an organisation. This led to the discovery of job satisfaction in the nineteen-thirties (Locke, 1969). After the discovery of job satisfaction the research on this topic increased quickly, leading up to 1.760.000 hits on Google Scholar today. The most used definition and most comprehensive definition of job satisfaction comes from Locke (1976, p. 1300) who describes job satisfaction as “a pleasurable or positive emotional

state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job or job experiences”. Because of the frequent use

and the comprehensiveness of the definition of Locke, it will be used as the central definition within this research.

In the last decade, the world again saw a lot of change and in 2008 not for the better. An economic crisis hit the world (Grigor’ev & Salikhov, 2009). Due to the economic crisis some major changes in the Dutch labour market erupted; the drop in number of jobs in the Netherlands and the rise of the unemployment rate. According to the “Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek” (CBS, 2015) the number of jobs in the Netherlands decreased from 8,25 million jobs in the fourth quarter of 2008 to 7,7 million jobs in the third quarter of 2014. Furthermore the unemployment rose from approximately 310,000 people in the Dutch labour force in the fourth quarter of 2008 to 642,000 in the third quarter of 2014. All of these mayor changes lead to the feeling of job insecurity which on its turn will influence how people feel about their job and how satisfied they are (Adkins, Werbel & Farh, 2001).

Because of these possible differences in job satisfaction this study will research the following research question: ‘To what extent does the level of job satisfaction of the working

population of the Netherlands in 2012 differ to the level of the job satisfaction of the working population of the Netherlands in 2004 and what creates this difference?’

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THEORETICAL BACKGROUND & HYPOTHESES Job Satisfaction

Job satisfaction is one of the most researched topics in the Human Resources (HR) work field and thousands of studies can be found throughout journals worldwide. This is mainly caused by to the fact that organisations are interested in how their employees feel and if they are satisfied with their job. Job satisfaction is simply described by Spector (1997) as how employees think about their job and different job aspects and if they are still satisfied with their job and these job aspects. Another description is given by Ilies and Judge (2004) and states that job satisfaction is described as the emotional reaction an employee has on his work situation. As already mentioned in the introduction the most frequently used and comprehensive definition of job satisfaction comes from Locke (1976, p. 1300) who describes job satisfaction as “a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job or job

experiences”.

Now that the definition of job satisfaction is clear it is important to stress the importance of job satisfaction. Markovits, Davis, Fay and van Dick (2010, p. 178) state that “the

importance of job satisfaction has been acknowledged for years”. This statement shows that

the importance of job has been recognized, but it does not show why job satisfaction is important. According to Spector (1997) job satisfaction is strongly related to employee performance, and therefore is of significant interest of employers. This view of Spector is again underlined by a study of Bouckenooghe, Raja and Butt (2013) who claim that job satisfaction is significantly related to job performance. Another study that stresses the importance of job satisfaction is from Federici (2013), who states that job satisfaction is related to work motivation, job content, absenteeism and turnover intentions. This view is supported by a recent study of Chung-Yan (2010) who concludes that job satisfaction leads to general psychological employee well-being. Next to the positive results for the employer and the fact that the employee will be more satisfied Yukl (2013, p. 78) adds that “increasing job satisfaction is

likely to result in less absenteeism, less turnover, less alcoholism and less drug abuse”.

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Job Satisfaction & Economic Crisis

As already mentioned in the introduction, the world has been in a worldwide economic crisis since 2008. During this economic crisis people lost their jobs and unemployment rose (CBS, 2015). This data is supported by a statement from Lee, Wang and Ip (2011) who state that the economic crisis of the last seven years is the worst recession since World War II and that unemployment in countries has risen dramatically and is leaving people without jobs. As a result of this rise in unemployment Bell and Branchflower (2011) reported a strong decrease in satisfaction figures in Southern Europe during the period between 2007 and 2010, especially amongst the younger age categories of society. Furthermore on the other side of Europe research of Solberg, Tómasson, Aasland and Tyssen (2014) shows that Islandic doctors had lower job satisfaction in 2010 (during crisis) than in 2003 (before crisis). A more comprehensive description is given by Markovits, Boer and van Dick (2014) who state that during economic crisis people will have less positive feelings attributed to their work although it becomes harder to stay employed. Furthermore Markovits et al. (2014) mention that people are willing to accept worse employment opportunities or working conditions to get a job or maintain their job. These changes in the labour market and the results of the research above cause this study to propose that:

Hypothesis 1: The level of job satisfaction of the working population of the Netherlands has negatively changed over the period between 2004 and 2012.

Antecedents of job satisfaction

Antecedents of job satisfaction can be regarded as the factors that have to be fulfilled in order for an employee to achieve job satisfaction (Spector, 1997). According to Kristof (1996) these antecedents can be split in two different categories; (1.) extrinsic job characteristics and (2.) intrinsic job characteristics.

Extrinsic job characteristics

The extrinsic job characteristics are referred to by Kluytmans (2005) as the job context (e.g. salary, working hours) and have to be on a sufficient level in order for the employee to be satisfied with his job. This is also mentioned by Giauque, Resenterra and Siggen (2014) who state that different extrinsic characteristics such as supervision and pay have to be of sufficient level, however, the intrinsic job characteristics are seen as most important.

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chose pay as the leading reason to take or hold a job and for twenty-six percent it was the second reason. This view is supported by Boxall and Purcell (2011) who state that pay is the most important extrinsic motivator for employees, since the first reason for working is earning money to live. Boselie (2010) adds to this that money is indeed one of the first reasons why people need to work, however, adds that pay is a tool to steer employees, motivate them or increase their job satisfaction. A logical consequence of the emergence of the economic crisis is that the growth of salaries stagnates. Data of the CBS (2014) shows that between 2003 and 2007 the mean standardised nominal income for a working person in the Netherlands grew by 15,71% but between 2008 and 2012 only grew by 1,21% and thus showing a significant decrease in salary growth. Other research of the Asian Development Bank (2010) in the Philippines shows a decrease in actual salary between 2007 and 2009 instead of an increase which is normally the case. Thus, it can be concluded that in times of economic recession the salaries are likely to drop or increase significantly less compared to economically prosperous times.

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study the influence of the extrinsic job characteristics on job satisfaction. Based on these previous findings this study states the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 2a: The extrinsic job characteristics worsened, contributing to a decrease in job satisfaction of the working population of the Netherlands over the period between 2004 and 2012.

Intrinsic Job Characteristics

The second category or the intrinsic category is extensively explained by Hackman and Oldham in their Job Characteristics Theory (JCT) and the associated Job Characteristics Model (JCM), which can be found below.

Figure 1. Reprinted from Beyond improved quality: the motivational effects of statistical process control (p. 658), by M. Rungtusanatham, 2001, Tempe:

Journal of Operations Management. Copyright 2001 by Elsevier Science B.V

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and (3.) knowledge of results. On its turn these three psychological states will result in intrinsic job satisfaction and other positive outcomes (Hackman & Oldham, 1976).

Skill variety is the first core job dimension and is explained as the amount of various skills that an employee holds and needs to execute his job properly (Chen, Shih & Yeh, 2011). This explanation is based on the explanation that Hackman and Oldham (1976) give for skill variety. Hackman and Oldham (1976) state that skill variety is the variety of different activities that an employee encounters when executing his job, which on its turn utilises a set of different skills that the employee possesses.

The second core job dimension is task identity and is described by Hackman and Oldham (1976) as the fact that an employee can identify himself with the job and that the tasks he is doing are a ‘whole’ piece of work instead of small loose pieces and that the task has a visible outcome. Built on the work of Hackman and Oldham (1976), Hoonakker, Marian and Carayon (2004) showed that task identity is a predictor of job satisfaction and that employees who experience a high level of task identity report a higher level op job satisfaction as well. The third core job dimension is task significance, and is described by Hackman and Oldham (1976) as the degree of how much impact the task of the employee has on work of other employees. As can be seen in the model above, skill variety, task identity and task significance together lead to the critical psychological state “experienced meaningfulness of the work”. This experienced meaningfulness is explained by Hackman and Oldham (1976) as the fact that an employee experiences that his job adds something to the organisation and that he experiences that other employees in the organisation need that he does his job well.

The fourth core job dimension is autonomy and is described by Hackman and Oldham (1976) as the degree to which an employee is able to make his own choices and the freedom an employee has to decide what job he is going to do when and how he is going to do it. Later research of Hackman and Oldham (1980) clarified that autonomy is a predictor for job satisfaction and that employees who have a high amount of autonomy in their job are more satisfied than employees with a low amount of autonomy. As can be seen in the model, autonomy is directed linked to the second critical psychological state; experienced responsibility for work outcomes. This critical psychological state is explained by Hackman and Oldham (1976) as the responsibility an employee experiences for the job he is doing and the responsibility an employee experiences for the results of his job.

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if he is doing his job right or not. As can be seen in the model feedback is directly linked to the critical psychological state; knowledge of the actual results of the work activities. This psychological state is explained by Hackman and Oldham (1976) as the fact that an employee needs to know the results his job has; if the employee is doing his work properly and where he can improve his work. By knowing this the employee has the possibility to see how he can improve and deliver better work in the future.

The final variable that is covered in the JCM is employee growth need strength. This variable considers the fact that every employee responds differently to the job characteristics (Hulin, 1971). Based on this view Hackman and Oldham (1976) conceptualised that people who hold a higher level of need for personal growth will respond more positive to the job than people who hold a lower level of need for personal growth. According to Hackman and Oldham (1976) this variable has a moderating effect and can affect the JCM in two different places; (1) an effect on the link between the core job characteristics and (2) an effect on the link between the critical psychological states and the outcomes. According to Hackman and Oldham (1976), the first effect means that people with a high level of need for personal growth experience the critical psychological states stronger, than people who hold a low level of need for personal growth when the job characteristics are good. The second effect is explained by Hackman and Oldham (1976) as the fact that all people experience the critical psychological states the same but that they have a different response to them, resulting in different outcomes. Finally this moderating effect can influence one of the two links but can also coexist.

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Furthermore, jobs with flexible contracts increase in number during economic crisis. In the Netherlands the number of jobs that have flexible contracts increased with 11% over the period between 2001 and 2011 (CBS, 2012). The main difference between jobs with flexible contracts and jobs with fixed contracts or permanent contracts is that flexible jobs in general have worse job characteristics (Guest, 2004) Therefore when the level of flexible contracts rises, more people will report worse intrinsic job characteristics. On its turn these worsened intrinsic job characteristics will lead to a decrease in job satisfaction. Therefore, this study states the following hypothesis:

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METHODS & DATA Data collection

The purpose of this study is to research if the job satisfaction among the working population in the Netherlands has increased in the period between 2004 and 2012. In order to study the job satisfaction of the working population of the Netherlands this study used data supplied by the SCP of the corresponding years. The SCP distributed questionnaires under the working population of the Netherlands between the age of 16 and 66. Of the distributed questionnaires 2692 people responded in 2004 and 2685 people responded in 2012.

Conceptual model

Measures

This study used the data that is provided by the SCP from the years 2004 and 2012. In order to compare both questionnaires, the questions in both questionnaires were overviewed and questions compared to ensure that they measure the same variable. Due to several changes in the questionnaire over the time some questions are formulated slightly different, but still measured the same variable. These differences are treated pragmatically within this study.

Job satisfaction

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Extrinsic job characteristics

To measure the extrinsic job characteristics this study used three questions to measure the variables salary satisfaction, working hours and sick leave. Salary satisfaction is measured by a straight question in which the respondent had to answer to what extent he is satisfied with his salary. This question asked the respondent to indicate on a Likert scale without neutral midpoint, ranging from (1) high, to (4) low, to what extent he is satisfied with his salary. Again in order to make the measurement of this variable consistent with the other variables, the variable was recoded into (1) low, to (4) high.

To measure the working hours the questionnaire used a straight question in which the respondent had to answer how many hours per week he is working. This question used a numerical open ended question in which the respondent had to fill in how many hours he was working per week. Again these two questions stayed the same in the 2004 questionnaire as in the 2012 questionnaire. Finally the variable of working hours is recoded into a logarithmic variable, since the effect of working hours changes when they become too high.

The variable sick leave is measured by a dichotomous question in which the respondent had to indicate if he or she was sick for longer than two weeks, excluding maternity leave, in the year before the questionnaire was issued. Again these two questions stayed the same in the 2004 questionnaire as in the 2012 questionnaire. Finally this question was recoded into a dummy variable, in which (0) is no and (1) is yes.

Intrinsic job characteristics

The intrinsic job characteristics were measured by two sets of questions from which selected questions were used to measure the different intrinsic job characteristics. The sets were different in the way of how they asked the respondent to answer. Unfortunately the questionnaire and data set provided by the SCP did not include the possibility to measure all intrinsic job characteristics; task significance could not be measured. Skill variety was measured by question 57i in 2004 and 69h in 2012; “repeating the same simple work activities”. Although the number of the question changed over the years the question itself stayed the same. The respondent first had to indicate on a dichotomous scale, (1) not applicable or (2) yes applicable. When the respondent answered yes applicable on the question, his job contained low skill variety. In the data set this variable was recoded into a dummy variable with (0) varied and (1) not varied.

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neutral midpoint, ranging from (1) strongly disagree to (5) strongly agree, to what extent he agrees on the questions. Task identity was measured by question 59a in 2004 and 71a 2012;

“the content of my work is nice”. Again the question did not change over the years.

Autonomy was measured by the questions 59b, 59e, 59k, 59l and 59o in 2004 and 71b, 71e, 71k and 71o in 2012. The respondent had to indicate on a five-point Likert scale with neutral midpoint, ranging from (1) strongly disagree to (5) strongly agree, to what extent he agrees on the questions. A specific question was for example: “I have sufficient influence on

the content of my job”. For both years the questions were computed into the new variable

‘autonomy’. To measure the internal consistency of the new variable ‘autonomy’ Cronbach’s alpha was used. For both years the internal consistency was acceptable (α = .759 in 2004 and α = .796 in 2012).

Feedback was measured by the questions 59f, 59g and 59h in 2004 and 71f, 71g and 71h in 2012. The respondent had to indicate on a five-point Likert scale with neutral midpoint, ranging from (1) strongly disagree to (5) strongly agree, to what extent he agrees on the questions. A specific question was for example: “My supervisor tells me if he or she is satisfied

with my work”. For both years the questions were computed into the new variable ‘feedback’.

To measure the internal consistency of the new variable ‘feedback’ Cronbach’s alpha was used. For both years the internal consistency was very high (α = .902 in 2004 and α = .907 in 2012).

Control variables

In previous research the results show that the level of job satisfaction differs based on several personal factors. The factors can influence the level of job satisfaction in a positive or negative way, therefor this study will use the following variables as control variables; age, gender, education level, job tenure, occupation and the industry in which a person is working. For the industry in which a respondent is working a dummy variable was used.

As employees get older their perception about their job can change. The basic assumption that job satisfaction differs when people their age changes is confirmed by Kalleberg and Loscocco (1983) who furthermore noted that the job satisfaction will rise when people get older. This finding got confirmed by more a more recent study from Bos, Donders, Bouwman-Brouwer and Van der Gulden (2009, p. 1253) who stated that “higher age was

associated with higher more job satisfaction”. Higher job satisfaction among older workers can

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and their aim gets smaller, leading to higher job satisfaction (White & Spector, 1987). The second explanation for the growth in job satisfaction as people get older is that they simply have better jobs due to mastering their own job or promotion to a higher job with better characteristics (Wright & Hamilton, 1978). Age is measured in years, as the respondents had to fill in their date of birth.

The difference in job satisfaction when looking at gender differences was one of the first connections studied in the field of job satisfaction and therefore most of the previous research dates back to the 1960s and 1970s. A study from Hulin and Smith (1964), conducted in four different plants of three different companies, shows that; “in three of the four plants the female

workers were significantly less satisfied than the male workers” (p. 90). This finding is again

confirmed by Weaver (1972), whose study shows that male employees have a higher level of job satisfaction than female employees. Since job opportunities for women and societal views about women who work have changed since these studies were conducted, it could be that the difference in job satisfaction for men and women has changed over the years. This line of thought is supported by a more recent study of Kaiser (2007), who found that women in fourteen European countries are more satisfied with their job than men. Gender is measured as a dichotomous question in which the respondent had to fill in his gender and is coded that (1) is male and (2) is female.

The education level of employees can be found as a control variable in numerous studies and is an antecedent of job satisfaction according to Markovits, Davis, Fay and van Dick (2010). According to Markovits et al. (2010) there are some significant differences in the level of job satisfaction between different educational levels of their respondents. Education level is measured by a categorical question that asked the respondent to indicate his highest completed education in one of the twenty-nine possible answer categories. This response was then labelled by the SCP into a SOI-scale, which labels the education into a certain education level. The labels of the SOI-scale range from (2) primary school to (6) university level. Within this research the SOI-scale is used to categorise the education level of the respondents (CBS, 2015[2]).

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becomes higher when the job tenure becomes higher. Job tenure is measured in years, as the respondents filled in a question which asked them to indicate since what month and year the respondent is doing this job for his current employer.

Differences in occupation and the sort of job an employee is doing can lead to differences in the level of satisfaction that a job provides. This view is confirmed by Kalleberg and Loscocco (1983) who mention that occupational differences can lead to different levels of job satisfaction. This is confirmed by Kaiser (2007, p. 83) who states the following;

“highly-ranked occupations such as managers and professionals tend to be more satisfied with their jobs in general”. Occupation is measured by two questions. The first question is an open ended

question in which the respondent has to indicate which occupation he held in 2010. The second question is a dichotomous question in which the respondent had to indicate (1) doing the same occupation as in 2010 or (2) different occupation, please specify. Therefore, when the occupation of the respondent changed he had to specify which occupation he was currently doing. Based on these questions the SCP labelled the type of job based on the SBC-2010 labour code and within this research the SBC-2010 code is used to categorise the different jobs. (CBS, 2015[1]). Of this SBC-2010 code the only the first digit is used, since this indicates the level of the job.

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certain categories (CBS, 2015[3]). Based on the SBI-code, the SCP split the different industries into ten classes, ranging from (1) agriculture till (10) education. Within this research the ten classes were recoded into nine different dummy variables with the industry branch as reference category.

Data Analysis

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RESULTS Descriptive statistics

The number of respondents, minimum and maximum score, mean and standard deviation of the variables in 2004 are presented in Table 1. This table provides an overview of the scores of all the variables used to describe the extrinsic job characteristics, intrinsic job characteristics and the control variables. The mean of the dependent variable and therefore most important variable; job satisfaction, is 3,2303, and the standard deviation is ,63621, which can be described as high since the maximum score on job satisfaction is 4,00.

Table 1: Descriptive statistics 2004

Descriptive Statistics 2004

N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation Job Satisfaction, rightly coded 2692 1,00 4,00 3,2303 ,63621 Salary Satisfaction, rightly coded 2692 1,00 4,00 2,3384 ,64534 WorkingHoursLog 2692 1,10 4,49 3,4258 ,39278 SickLeaveDummy 2692 0,00 1,00 ,1374 ,34438 TaskIdentity 2692 1,00 5,00 4,2028 ,81085 Autonomy 2692 1,00 5,00 3,6509 ,70956 Feedback 2692 1,00 5,00 3,6974 ,97157 SkillVarietyDummy 2692 0,00 1,00 ,2199 ,41426 AgeNumber 2692 16,00 64,00 40,8429 10,46039 Gender 2692 0,00 1,00 ,4636 ,49877 EducationLevel 2692 2,00 6,00 4,2392 ,99608 JobTenure 2692 0,00 42,67 6,2421 7,28772 Occupation 2692 1,00 5,00 3,1698 ,95756 AgricultureDummy 2692 0,00 1,00 ,0104 ,10147 ConstructionDummy 2692 0,00 1,00 ,0423 ,20142 TradeDummy 2692 0,00 1,00 ,1404 ,34748 TransportDummy 2692 0,00 1,00 ,0609 ,23923 BusinessServicesDummy 2692 0,00 1,00 ,1660 ,37219 HealthcareDummy 2692 0,00 1,00 ,2080 ,40597 OtherServicesDummy 2692 0,00 1,00 ,0449 ,20723 GovernmentDummy 2692 0,00 1,00 ,0958 ,29443 EducationDummy 2692 0,00 1,00 ,1159 ,32016 Valid N (listwise) 2692

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The number of respondents, minimum and maximum score, mean and standard deviation of the variables in 2012 are presented in Table 2. Again this table is presented to give an overview of the results of the different variables, but then in 2012. The mean of the dependent variable and therefore most important variable; job satisfaction, is 3.3020, and the standard deviation is .63200. When comparing both years it can be seen that job satisfaction actually rose over the years, which is contradictory with theory and hypothesis 1.

Table 2: Descriptive statistics 2012

Descriptive Statistics 2012

N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation Job Satisfaction, rightly coded 2685 1,00 4,00 3,3020 ,63200 Salary Satisfaction, rightly coded 2685 1,00 4,00 2,3333 ,65191 WorkingHoursLog 2685 0,00 4,44 3,4184 ,39849 SickLeaveDummy 2685 0,00 1,00 ,1158 ,32008 TaskIdentity 2685 1,00 5,00 4,2156 ,80102 Autonomy 2685 1,00 5,00 3,5930 ,77862 Feedback 2685 1,00 5,00 3,6579 ,98609 SkillVarietyDummy 2685 0,00 1,00 ,3296 ,47016 AgeNumber 2685 17,00 66,00 44,2845 11,44049 Gender 2685 0,00 1,00 ,4998 ,50009 EducationLevel 2685 2,00 6,00 4,3516 ,94445 JobTenure 2685 0,00 51,00 7,3741 7,90388 Occupation 2685 1,00 5,00 3,3266 ,95980 AgricultureDummy 2685 0,00 1,00 ,0060 ,07698 ConstructionDummy 2685 0,00 1,00 ,0484 ,21469 TradeDummy 2685 0,00 1,00 ,1065 ,30856 TransportDummy 2685 0,00 1,00 ,0596 ,23677 BusinessServicesDummy 2685 0,00 1,00 ,1858 ,38906 HealthcareDummy 2685 0,00 1,00 ,2223 ,41590 OtherServicesDummy 2685 0,00 1,00 ,0451 ,20749 GovernmentDummy 2685 0,00 1,00 ,1069 ,30903 EducationDummy 2685 0,00 1,00 ,1006 ,30080 Valid N (listwise) 2685

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Comparing 2004 and 2012

In order to test whether the difference between 2004 and 2012 is significant an independent samples t-test is conducted. The results of this independent samples t-test are in are presented in table 3. Within this study the most important variable is job satisfaction which is used as a dependent variable. Furthermore the variables salary satisfaction, sick leave and working hours are used to measure the extrinsic job characteristics and task identity, autonomy, feedback and skill variety are used to measure the intrinsic job characteristics. The independent samples t-test is used to measure if there is a significant difference between the measurement in 2004 and the measurement in 2012.

Table 3: Independent samples test

Independent Samples Test

Mean difference T - value Job Satisfaction, rightly coded

-,07174 -4,148** Salary Satisfaction, rightly coded

,00508 ,287 WorkingHoursLog ,00747 ,693 SickLeaveDummy ,02162 2,384* TaskIdentity -,01282 -,583 Autonomy ,05792 2,851** Feedback ,03952 1,480 SkillVarietyDummy -,10970 -9,078**

Note: SickLeaveDummy: 0= no 1= yes, SkillVarietyDummy: 0= varied 1= not varied, * p < .05, ** p < .01.

Job satisfaction

The first t-test conducted concerned the dependent variable job satisfaction. This t-test is conducted to measure if the difference in the mean score between 2004 and 2012 is significant. Table 1 showed that the mean score for job satisfaction in 2004 is 3.2303 (SD =

.63621) and table 2 showed that the mean score for job satisfaction in 2012 is 3.3020 (SD = .63200). The t-test in table 3 showed that the difference between 2004 and 2012 is indeed

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Salary satisfaction

The second t-test conducted concerned the variable salary satisfaction which is part of the extrinsic job characteristics. This t-test is conducted to measure whether the difference in the mean score between 2004 and 2012 is significant. Table 1 showed that the mean score for salary satisfaction in 2004 is 2.3384 (SD = .64534) and table 2 showed that the mean score for salary satisfaction in 2012 is 2.3333 (SD = .65191). Based on table 1 and table 2 it can be seen that the mean for salary satisfaction was lower in 2012 than in 2004. However, but this effect is not significant (t= .287, p>.05).

Working hours

The third t-test conducted concerned the variable working hours which is part of the extrinsic job characteristics. As mentioned in the methods part of this paper the variable working hours was transformed in a logarithmic variable. This t-test is conducted to measure whether the difference in the mean score between 2004 and 2012 is significant. Table 1 showed that the mean score for working hours in 2004 is 3.4258 (SD = .39278) and table 2 showed that the mean score for working hours in 2012 is 3.4184 (SD = .39849). Based on table 1 and table 2 it can be seen that the mean for working hours was lower in 2012 than in 2004. Yet, the t-test in table 4 showed that this difference between 2004 and 2012 is not significant (t= .693, p>.05).

Sick leave

The fourth t-test conducted concerned the variable sick leave which is part of the extrinsic job characteristics. This t-test is conducted to measure whether the difference in the mean score between 2004 and 2012 is significant. Table 1 showed that the mean score for task identity in 2004 is .1374 (SD = .34438) and table 2 showed that the mean score for task identity in 2012 is .1158 (SD = .32008). ). Based on table 1 and table 2 it can be seen that the mean for sick leave was lower in 2012 than in 2004. Furthermore, the t-test in table 3 showed that this difference between 2004 and 2012 is significant (t= 2.384, p<.05).

Task identity

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task identity was higher in 2012 than in 2004. Yet, the t-test in table 3 showed that this difference between 2004 and 2012 is not significant (t= -.583, p>.05).

Autonomy

The sixth t-test conducted concerned the variable autonomy which is part of the intrinsic job characteristics. This t-test is conducted to measure whether the difference in the mean score between 2004 and 2012 is significant. Table 1 showed that the mean score for autonomy in 2004 is 3.6509 (SD = .70956) and table 2 showed that the mean score for autonomy in 2012 is 3.5930 (SD = .77862). Based on table 1 and table 2 it can be seen that the mean for autonomy was lower in 2012 than in 2004. Furthermore, the t-test in table 3 showed that this negative difference between 2004 and 2012 is significant (t= 2.851, p<.01).

Feedback

The seventh t-test conducted concerned the variable feedback which is part of the intrinsic job characteristics. This t-test is conducted to measure whether the difference in the mean score between 2004 and 2012 is significant. Table 1 showed that the mean score for feedback in 2004 is 3.6974 (SD = .97157) and table 2 showed that the mean score for feedback in 2012 is 3.6579 (SD = .98609). Based on table 1 and table 2 it can be seen that the mean for feedback was lower in 2012 than in 2004. However, the t-test in table 3 showed that this negative difference between 2004 and 2012 is not significant (t= 1.480, p>.05).

Skill variety

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Regression analysis

In order to test whether the extrinsic and intrinsic job characteristics were influencing the level of job satisfaction, several regression analyses were conducted. Since this study used time as a moderator variable, regression analyses have been done for the 2004, 2012 and total set of respondents. In order to see which dependent variables showed some relationship with the independent variable ‘job satisfaction´ the correlations tables are presented in table 4 for 2004, table 6 for 2012 and table 8 for the total set. Additionally, to see how much every of the independent variables contributed to the independent variable ‘job satisfaction´ regression analyses results are presented in table 5 for 2004, table 7 for 2012 and table 9 for the total set.

Table 4: Correlations 2004 Correlations 2004 Job Satisfaction, rightly coded Salary Satisfaction, rightly coded Working HoursLog Sick Leave Dummy Task

Identity Autonomy Feedback

SkillVariety Dummy Pearson

Correlation Job Satisfaction, _{rightly coded} 1,000 Salary Satisfaction, rightly coded ,169** 1,000 WorkingHoursLog -,029 ,073** 1,000 SickLeaveDummy -,089** -,087** ,001 1,000 TaskIdentity ,515** ,117** ,048** -,075** 1,000 Autonomy ,314** ,152** ,055** -,049** ,359** 1,000 Feedback ,494** ,145** -,054** -,103** ,389** ,364** 1,000 SkillVarietyDummy -,120** -,113** -,137** ,064** -,272** -,133** -,102** 1,000 Note: N = 2692, * p < .05, ** p < .01

Extrinsic job characteristics

The extrinsic job characteristics in this study were measured by three variables; (1) salary satisfaction, (2) working hours and (3) sick leave. The theory above predicted that employees’ job satisfaction would decrease when they become less satisfied with their salary. Furthermore, it was predicted that with an increase in working hours the job satisfaction would decrease. Additionally, theory predicted that in times of economic crisis employees’ sick leave would decrease, adding to the increase of working hours. This led to hypothesis 2a which stated that ‘the extrinsic job characteristics worsened, contributing to a decrease in job satisfaction

of the working population of the Netherlands over the period between 2004 and 2012’. The

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p>.05). Furthermore the working hours decreased, contrary to what the theory predicted.

However, again this chance was not significant (t= 1.085, p>.05). Finally the level of sick leave decreased, as predicted in theory, and indeed this decrease was significant (t= 2.384, p<.05)

Table 5: Regression of job satisfaction 2004

Model 1 Model 2 Model 3

B SE B SE B SE 3,091 ,112 1,067 ,110 1,123 ,145 Extrinsic job characteristics SalarySatisfaction ,166** ,019 ,075** ,015 ,089** ,016 WorkingHoursLog -,041* ,031 -,034* ,025 -,005 ,031 SickLeaveDummy -,074** ,035 -,020 ,028 -,030 ,028 Intrinsic job characteristics TaskIdentity ,369** ,014 ,372** ,014 Autonomy ,059** ,015 ,065** ,015 Feedback ,317** ,011 ,312** ,011 SkillVarietyDummy ,025 ,025 ,011 ,025 Control variables AgeNumber -,006 ,001 Gender ,033 ,025 EducationLevel -,081** ,013 JobTenure ,033 ,002 Occupation -,007 ,013 AgricultureDummy ,013 ,099 ConstructionDummy -,018 ,055 TradeDummy -,058** ,039 TransportDummy -,033 ,049 BusinessDummy -,066** ,038 HealthcareDummy -,027 ,039 OtherServicesDummy ,013 ,054 GovernmentDummy -,024 ,043 EducationDummy -,015 ,044 Adjusted R² ,035 ,376 ,386 F 33,287 232,819 81,606 Note: N = 2692, * p < .05, ** p < .01

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satisfaction and job satisfaction. Furthermore the correlations of working hours on job satisfaction in table 4 (r= -.029, p>.05), table 6 (r= .026, p> 05) and table 8 (r= -.001, p>.05) show that there was no significant relationship between working hours and job satisfaction. Additionally the correlations of sick leave on job satisfaction in table 4 (r= -.089, p<.01), table 6 (r= -.040, p<.05) and table 8 (r= -.067, p<.01) show that there is a significant relationship between sick leave and job satisfaction. Finally the correlations of sick leave on working hours in table 4 (r= .001, p>.05), table 6 (r= -.065, p<.01) and table 8 (r= -.031, p<.05) show only a partly significant relationship between sick leave and working hours.

Table 6: Correlations 2012 Correlations 2012 Job Satisfaction, rightly coded Salary Satisfaction, rightly coded Working Hours Log SickLeave Dummy Task

Identity Autonomy Feedback

SkillVariety Dummy Pearson

Correlation Job Satisfaction, _{rightly coded} 1,000 Salary Satisfaction, rightly coded ,191** 1,000 WorkingHoursLog ,026 ,124** 1,000 SickLeaveDummy -,040* -,044* -,065** 1,000 TaskIdentity ,540** ,141** ,081** ,016 1,000 Autonomy ,355** ,206** ,079** -,071** ,356** 1,000 Feedback ,481** ,133** -,012 -,036* ,353** ,334** 1,000 SkillVarietyDummy -,163** -,175** -,133** ,011 -,247** -,139** -,088** 1,000 Note: N = 2685, * p < .05, ** p < .01

Finally the results of salary satisfaction in model 3 of the regression analysis in table 5

(b= .089, p<.01), table 7 (b= .087, p<.01) and table 9 (b= .086, p<.01) show that salary

satisfaction is indeed a significant predictor of job satisfaction. The results of the variable working hours in model 3 of the regression analysis in table 5 (b= -.005, p>.05), table 7 (b=

.000, p>.05) and table 9 (b= -.004, p>.05) show that the variable working hours is no significant

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Intrinsic job characteristics

The intrinsic job characteristics in this study were measured by four variables; (1) task identity, (2) autonomy, (3) feedback and (4) skill variety. It was predicted that job satisfaction will increase, when employees report an increase in the four intrinsic job characteristics. Hypothesis 2b stated that ‘the intrinsic factors of the job characteristics have improved, but still

the level of job satisfaction of the working population of the Netherlands decreased over the period between 2004 and 2012’.

Table 7: Regression of job satisfaction 2012

Model 1 Model 2 Model 3

B SE B SE B SE

2,875 ,108 ,990 ,103 1,077 ,142

Extrinsic job characteristics

SalarySatisfaction ,190** ,019 ,075** ,015 ,087** ,015 WorkingHoursLog ,001 ,030 -,023 ,024 ,000 ,029 SickLeaveDummy -,032 ,038 -,027 ,030 -,027 ,030

Intrinsic job characteristics

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The level of task identity increased, instead of decreased as predicted, yet this increase was not significant (t= -.583, p>.05). The second intrinsic characteristic; autonomy, showed a decrease in the level of autonomy and this decrease was significant (t= 2.851, p<.05). The third intrinsic variable; feedback, showed a decrease, yet this decrease in feedback was not significant (t= 1.480, p>.05). The fourth and final intrinsic variable; skill variety, showed an increase. Since the dummy variable ranged from (0) varied to (1) not varied, skill variety worsened, as predicted. Finally this increase in skill variety dummy was significant (t= -9.076,

p<.05).

To test hypothesis 2b, regression analyses were performed to examine whether the intrinsic job characteristics had a significant relation with job satisfaction, or not. The correlations of task identity on job satisfaction in table 4 (r= .515, p < .01), table 6 (r= .540, p

< .01) and table 8 (r =.527, p < .01) show that there was a significant relationship between task

identity and job satisfaction. Furthermore the correlations of autonomy on job satisfaction in table 4 (r= .314, p < .01), table 6 (r= .355, p < .01) and table 8 (r =.332, p < .01) show that there was a significant relationship between autonomy and job satisfaction. Thirdly the correlations of feedback on job satisfaction in table 4 (r= .494, p < .01), table 6 (r= .481, p <

.01) and table 8 (r =.485, p < .01) show that there was a significant relationship between

feedback and job satisfaction. Finally the correlations of skill variety on job satisfaction in table 4 (r= -.120, p < .01), table 6 (r= -.163, p < .01) and table 8 (r= -.135, p < .01) showed that there was a significant relationship between skill variety and job satisfaction.

Furthermore the results of task identity in the final model of the regression analysis in table 5 (b= .372, p<.01), table 7 (b= .387, p<.01) and table 9 (b= .371, p<.01) show that task identity is indeed a significant predictor of job satisfaction. The results of autonomy in the final model of the regression analysis in table 5 (b= .065, p<.01), table 7 (b= .117, p<.01) and table 9 (b= .071, p<.01) show that autonomy is indeed a significant predictor of job satisfaction. The results of feedback in the final model of the regression analysis in table 5 (b= .312, p<.01), table 7 (b= .289, p<.01) and table 9 (b= .314, p<.01) show that feedback is indeed a significant predictor of job satisfaction. Finally the results of skill variety in the final model of the regression analysis in table 5 (b= .011, p>.05), table 7 (b= -.040 p<.05) and table 9 (b= .013,

p>.05) show that skill variety is no significant predictor of job satisfaction, since skill variety

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Table 8: Correlations total set

Correlations total set

Job Satisfaction, rightly coded Salary Satisfaction, rightly coded Working HoursLog SickLeave Dummy Task

Identity Autonomy Feedback

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Table 9: Regression of job satisfaction total set

Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4

B SE B SE B SE B SE 2,986 ,078 1,016 ,076 1,080 ,101 1,120 ,111 Extrinsic job characteristics SalarySatisfaction ,178** ,013 ,077** ,011 ,087** ,011 ,086** ,011 WorkingHoursLog -,021 ,022 -,028** ,017 -,005 ,021 -,004 ,021 SickLeaveDummy -,056** ,026 -,025* ,020 -,029** ,020 -,029** ,020 Intrinsic job characteristics TaskIdentity ,380** ,010 ,376** ,010 ,371** ,014 Autonomy ,079** ,010 ,091** ,010 ,071** ,015 Feedback ,305** ,008 ,300** ,008 ,314** ,011 SkillVarietyDummy ,011 ,016 -,015 ,017 ,013 ,025 Control variables AgeNumber -,024* ,001 -,025* ,001 Gender ,021 ,017 ,021 ,017 EducationLevel -,070** ,010 -,068** ,010 JobTenure ,019 ,001 ,020 ,001 Occupation -,011 ,010 -,014 ,010 AgricultureDummy ,010 ,077 ,009 ,077 ConstructionDummy ,001 ,037 ,001 ,037 TradeDummy -,029 ,028 -,030* ,028 TransportDummy -,004 ,034 -,003 ,034 BusinessDummy -,028 ,026 -,028 ,026 HealthcareDummy ,015 ,027 ,015 ,027 OtherServicesDummy ,009 ,038 ,008 ,038 GovernmentDummy ,008 ,029 ,008 ,029 EducationDummy ,004 ,031 ,004 ,031 Time ,070** ,014 ,008 ,090 Interactions Time*TaskIdentity ,038 ,019 Time*Autonomy ,089 ,020 Time*Feedback -,049 ,015 Time*SkillVarietyDummy -,042** ,032 Adjusted R² ,035 ,388 ,397 ,398 F 66,609 487,485 162,065 137,675 Note: N = 5377, * p < .05, ** p < .01 Interactions

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DISCUSSION & CONCLUSION

This study examined the development of job satisfaction of working people in the Netherlands over the economic crisis in the late first decade and the beginning of the second decade of the twenty-first century. Using a dataset provided by the SCP three hypotheses were tested. Within this chapter findings will be explained and implications mentioned. In the penultimate part of this chapter several strengths, limitations and suggestions for future research will be provided. To conclude this study a brief conclusion is provided.

Findings & theoretical implications

Based on extensive literature and research hypothesis 1 was raised, which conceptualised that over the course of the economic crisis the job satisfaction of working people in the Netherlands would decrease. Contrary to theory, this hypothesis was rejected and job satisfaction did not decrease, yet actually increased significantly over the course of the crisis. So from this study it can be concluded that times of crisis do not directly lead to a decrease of job satisfaction, as predicted in earlier research. It could be that the economic crisis’s effect on the working population of the Netherlands was not strong enough and therefore the job satisfaction did not decrease. Moreover, it could be that people who were still employed during the economic crisis were happy that they still have a job and stable income and therefore reported an increase in job satisfaction. In line with these findings is a study of Seršic and Sverko (2000), who conducted a study about job satisfaction during an economic crisis in Croatia. Seršic and Sverko (2000) found that during this crisis the level of job satisfaction did not significantly increased or decreased but stayed more or less on the same level. It is likely that this study follows the direction of Seršic and Sverko (2000) and therefore contradicts the theories presented earlier. Additionally it could be that there is a selection effect since, unsatisfied quit working and therefore the level of job satisfaction rose over the period between 2004 and 2012. According to Branham (2005) employees will leave their job when they become unsatisfied and have the feeling that this dissatisfaction cannot be resolved. Furthermore, according to Branham (2005) there are many different events that can trigger employees to become unsatisfied, such as; being passed for promotion, new supervisor, incidents or the emergence of difference between the employees’ own values and the organisation’ values. It could therefore be that the unsatisfied employees quit their jobs and therefore the level of job satisfaction increased.

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decrease in job satisfaction. Since there was no decrease in job satisfaction this hypothesis was rejected. First it was found that salary satisfaction did indeed decrease of the course of the crisis but this decrease was not significant. Additionally, results showed that salary satisfaction is a significant predictor of job satisfaction. As noted earlier, data of the CBS (2014) showed that the increase in nominal salary between 2008 and 2012 was significantly lower than in the years before the economic crisis, which on its turn could be an explanation for the small decrease in salary satisfaction since people are used to higher increases in salary and are disappointed. Another possible explanation for the insignificant decrease in salary satisfaction lies in fact that people refer themselves to others when looking at their salary. It could therefore be that their salary indeed did not rise as much as they were used to, yet if they see that other people within their reference group’ salary rose the same, they will not become dissatisfied because they think that the small increase in salary is “normal”. Furthermore results showed that the working hours over the time of the crisis did not increase but showed a significant decrease. Contrary to salary satisfaction, it was found that working hours were no significant predictor for job satisfaction. Earlier research noted that in times of economic crisis the working hours would increase but data from the CBS shows a stabilization in working hours in the last years but even a decrease in working hours on the longer term (CBS, 2015[4]; CBS, 2011). This could be an explanation for the significant decrease in working hours as presented in this study, although it should be noted that working hours were no significant predictor. Occlusive sick leave was taken into account to check whether the sick leave amount would decrease, as predicted in theory, and on its turn would lead to an increase in working hours. Indeed the amount of sick leave decreased over the period of time, which is in line with predicted theory. However the amount of working hours did not increase, as was theorised.

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characteristics increase the job satisfaction should also increase. It could therefore well be that there are other characteristics that influence job satisfaction which were not taken into account in this study. O’Brien (1982) supports this and mentions that job satisfaction could be influenced by other variables. O’Brien (1982) furthermore mentions that to test the JCM, these underlying variables have to be taken into account. Finally when taking into account the interactions performed in model 4 of the regression analysis in table 9 it can be seen that the variable time does not explain the difference in job satisfaction anymore. Furthermore three of the four intrinsic characteristics were not significant in the interaction, which shows that other variables that were not taken into account are possible reasons for the increase in job satisfaction.

Practical implications

There are several findings that can be of practical use for the HR work field. The main finding of this study that job satisfaction does not necessarily decrease in times of economic crisis can be of great interest for the HR work field in the Netherlands. Results show that something over the course of the crisis triggered employees to report significant higher job satisfaction. Therefore, the HR work field in the Netherlands should consider to figure out what caused this increase instead of the theorised decrease. It could for example be that due to the selection effect the unsatisfied employees were not represented in this dataset. One reason that these employees were not taken into account could be that they quit their job, lost their job or failed to find a new job during the years of economic crisis and since they were not working were excluded from this dataset. Furthermore, it could be that other variables influenced the employees in such a way that they got more satisfied. According to Seršic and Sverko (2000) job security is an important characteristic for job satisfaction The simple fact that people who still have a job and stable income could explain why the employees that still have a job show higher job satisfaction in 2012 than in 2004. Other variables that can possibly explain the increase in job satisfaction are given by Spector (1997) who describes the following organisational and personal antecedents for job satisfaction which could explain the increase in job satisfaction. Spector (1997, p. 38 – 49) describes the following organisational antecedents for job satisfaction; “organisational constraints, role variables, work-family conflict, pay, job

stress, workload, control and work schedules”. Furthermore Spector (1997, p. 49 – 53.)

describes the following personal antecedents for job satisfaction: “personality traits and

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The second finding of this study concerned the variables that explained job satisfaction. As showed in the results above there are variables that can be seen as variables that explain job satisfaction, namely; salary satisfaction, task identity, autonomy and feedback. These variables show a relationship with job satisfaction and may therefore be of interest for employers in the Netherlands, since investment in these variables is most likely to contribute to an increase in job satisfaction of their employees. This finding in this study is in line with earlier research that states that these variables indeed have a strong influential relation with job satisfaction (Boselie 2010; Hoonakker, Marian & Carayon, 2004; Klassen & Chiu, 2010; Dahlgren, 1986; Karatepe, 2003).

Strengths, limitations & further research.

The first strength of this study is that it adds a different view to existent literature about the development of job satisfaction in times of crisis. Earlier research found that in times of crisis the level of job satisfaction would decrease, whereas this study found the opposite. Therefore this study gives foundation and opportunity to criticise the idea that an economic crisis would lead to lower job satisfaction. Furthermore it hopefully triggers researchers in the HR work field to investigate if the results of this study can be justified by studies among other groups of respondents. The second strength of this study lies in the methodological design of the study. The high number of respondents and the fact that the respondents are a reliable portrayal of the Dutch working population creates the opportunity to generalise the results to working population of the Netherlands. When looking at the characteristics of the sample used in this study it can be seen that they correspond with the characteristics of the Dutch working population in which all sorts of people are present. The third strength of this study is that it provides evidence for the influence of certain job

characteristics. Although none of the hypotheses are confirmed this study provides substantial proof that salary satisfaction, task identity, autonomy and feedback indeed are of influence on job satisfaction.

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work seekers and the unemployed. It could for example be that the people who retained or found a job during times of crisis are so happy with the fact that they have a job and stable income that they therefore report an increase of job satisfaction instead of a decrease.

Based on these findings, strengths and limitations this study finally has some suggestions for future research. The first suggestion for future research would be to see if there are other countries that experienced the same phenomenon over the time of the crisis and see if there is more foundation for the increase of job satisfaction during times of crisis. The second suggestion for future research concerning the working population of the

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