Transformational Leaders will Stimulate Women to reach Top
Positions!
‘Research into the relation between
gender and ambition for a managerial position and the role of
transformational leadership’
Author:
Petra G. Veurman
Under supervision of: Anne Nederveen Pieterse & Floor Rink
University of Groningen
Faculty of Economics and Business MSc Human Resource Management
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ABSTRACT
This research examines transformational leadership as a moderator of the relationship between gender and ambition for a managerial position. In this research the author used results from a sample of a government organization and found that transformational leadership had a positive effect on the ambition for a managerial position for women only. The interpretations and implications of these findings are discussed in this research.
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INTRODUCTION
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The thesis begins by examining the variables ambition for a managerial position, gender and transformational leadership and the expected relations are defined. Next the methodology and the results are presented. Finally, this thesis will conclude with a discussion about the research.
Ambition for a managerial position
There is not much literature published on ambition for a managerial position. Therefore, I used the literature about career motivation to explain this variable. Career motivation is closely related to the concept of management ambition and consists of three dimensions, which are career identity, career insight and career resilience (London, 1983). Career identity is determined by how central the career is to the individual‟s identity or the extent to which persons define themselves by their work. Career insights show how realistic the career expectations of the person are, for example the strengths and weaknesses and specific career goals. Career resilience is the individual‟s ability to adapt to changing circumstances and cope with negative work situations (London, 1983; London & Mone, 1987). According to research of London & Mone (1987) career motivation, or management ambition - can help a person reach the highest possibilities in their further career.The main reason for this is that a high level of motivation or ambition is positively related to one‟slevel of self-efficacy. Self-efficacy can be defined as a perception of one‟s own capabilities to realize the upmost efficiency under ideal circumstances (Murphy & Enscher 1999). This means that people with a high amount of self-efficacy, have a higher belief in their ability to perform managerial tasks and this is important for further career intentions, so that they can reach a higher management position (Hackett & Betz, 1981).
Gender and ambition for a managerial position
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competitiveness and dominance. Stereotypical feminine traits are nurturance, sensitivity and passive submissive qualities. Such sex role stereotyping of managerial work can result in the perception that a woman is less qualified than a men for managerial positions and negatively affect women‟s entry into such positions (Schein, 1978). Effectively, stereotyping can cause organizations to value masculine characteristics more than feminine characteristics and can possibly decrease ambition for a managerial position by women. For the reason that women know that organizations are looking for masculine characteristics to climb the corporate ladder and as women you mostly not have these masculine characteristics and this can result in discourage in the ambition of a woman.
Second, men and women generally hold different perceptions of work versus life issues (Biernat & Wortman, 1991). Nowadays, women are often still the primary caregivers in the family and feel greater social pressure in the family tasks. This means that women are more likely than men to have additional nonworking responsibilities (Sullivan & Mainiero, 2008). Research done by Ellemers (1993) shows that in a two income household, were both men and woman have a job, 77% of the household tasks are fulfilled by the woman. Furthermore, even when the woman is solely responsible for the household income, she still takes on 67% in the house tasks. Traditional role expectations play a big part in this. Furthermore, women perhaps more than men, understand career decisions are affecting other people as well. According to Sullivan & Maneiro (2008) women care about their environment, they evaluate choices and opportunities and try to make the best match for their many relationships and work constraints. This means that women are constantly taking their environment into account and place their own career opportunities to the background. This can be a result of women staying on the same level in their career.
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their hard work nor will they see it as proof that they can progress in their career (Atwater et al., 2004).
Finally, women have a stronger tendency to stay in the organization, to the extent that they have the opportunity to contribute to social relations aspects (Ellemers, Van Den Heuvel, De Gilder, Maas & Bonvini, 2004). This could mean that women are more likely to fulfill the same job longer because they take their environment into account and these social relations, for instance their colleagues seem important to them (Chusmir & Parker, 1992). The relative importance of social work aspect for women workers seems to suggest that they might primarily commit to the collaboration with their colleagues at work (Ellemers et al., 2004). That is why each action taken by a woman in her career is viewed as having profound and long lasting effect on others around her. Each career action, therefore, is evaluated in light of the impact such decisions may have on her relationships with others, rather than based on insulated actions as an independent actor on her own (Sullivan & Mainiero, 2008). This means that relationship with colleagues seems more important for women, than their own career opportunities. This might explain why women are less likely to advance at work (Ellemers et al., 2004).
In conclusion, this could be explanations why women have more barriers on route to a managerial position and I expect that the barriers described above could be influenced the management ambition level of women. For this reason the ambition level for women can decrease if these barriers can reduce and to take this away, they need more support. With support it aims to help women get corporate exposure and obtain promotions through challenging work assignments and coaching (Kram, 1983). This can be possibly realized by positive stimulation by leaders and they can help to realize this and can stimulating and helping women in their career development.
The role of transformational leadership
Leadership can have a great impact on the attitudes and behaviors of subordinates (Avolio et al., 2004; Conger, 2000). Nevertheless, not all leadership styles may have the same influence on subordinate attitudes, behavior and performance. Generally, styles which have an intensive contact between leader and subordinate can influence the psychological state on subordinates (Megliano et al., 1991). A leadership style which can be important to introduce is transformational leadership, because within the current business world there is growing demand for this type of leadership.
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subordinates (Bass, 1985 as cited in Maher, 1997). This leadership style is a higher order construct, which exists of four components. The first component is idealized influence, these leaders are admired, respected and trusted and serving as a role model. Followers identify with and want to emulate their leaders (Bass & Avolio, 2003). Inspirational motivation means that leaders stimulate and inspire their subordinates by communicating an inspiring vision of the future (Ayman et al., 2009; Bass & Avolio, 2003). The third component is intellectual stimulation and consists of stimulating subordinates by being innovative and creative and approaching old situations in new ways. The last component is individualized consideration and means that leaders are fulfilling a coaching and mentoring role to followers and pay attention to their individual development needs (Eagly et al., 2003). In conclusion, with all these components the leaders try to create a transformation of their followers (Bass & Avolio, 2003). With this form of leadership by utilizing coaching skills, provides accurate and clear performances feedback and encourages discussions related to development and career related issues individuals are more likely to have high level of career insights and can bring to a higher level of ambition (Noe et al., 1990).
Gender, ambition for a managerial position and transformational leadership
In this paragraph, I will revisit the barriers for women‟s management ambition mentioned before and argue how transformational leadership may diminish their impact and thereby heightening women‟s management ambition.
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increasingly higher levels of performance (Avolio & Bass, 1995). By the form of individualized consideration of transformational leadership, the leader helps the subordinate individual with specific problems, provides information about performance and gives suggestions for improvement to reach a higher level and to break through the typical male characteristics on the middle and higher management level. Individualized consideration can be in the form of negative as well as positive feedback, aimed directly at developing the follower who is expected to complete the task while also learning from successes as well as mistakes (Avolio & Bass, 1995). The relationship of individualized consideration to the performance of followers may be indirect in that it tries to maximize development, which in turn may or may not affect performance. So this is a perfect approach to maximize development by followers and specific by women, because research of Van Vianen & Keizer (1996) stated that women need the encouragement and they like the stimulation in their development. So this could possibly help women to climb the corporate ladder.
The work-family balance is a more difficult barrier to overcome by leadership, as the decision of a woman to spend more time with her family or take on a larger part of the care or the children is a private decision.
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more than originally expected and can be achieved by raising an awareness of the importance and value of designed outcomes (Hater & Bass, 1988). A transformational leader could act as a role model for subordinates by using idealized influence. When the subordinates trust and respect the leader they will follow his ideals and sooner they will imitate the leader to be able to follow in his footsteps (Bono and Timothy, 2004). This could result that subordinates want to fulfil the same function as their leader. Research of Adler (1983) showed that when a subordinate has positive feelings toward the leader and when they can identify with their leader, imitating the behaviour of the transformational leader by subordinates is likely to occur. Also there is intellectual stimulation that will challenge the followers to find new ways en develop creative ideas. Intellectual stimulation is a behaviour in which the leader encourages subordinates to question their assumptions and asks them to explore alternatives. With exploration of alternatives, subordinates can be inspired by new ideas and to fulfil new assignments. For instance, if these assignments lead to a success, this could bring a boost for their self-efficacy which can increase and with higher self-efficacy it is possibly that this can help for their ambition to progress in their career. Because people with a high amount of self-efficacy, have a higher belief in their ability to perform on a middle or high managerial level (Hackett & Betz, 1981). Moreover, if women feel supported by their leader to come up with new ideas, they can feel happy in their environment and this creates a great feeling about their competences and this can result also in a high level of self-efficacy (Van Vianen & Fischer, 2002). Moreover, it is stated that transformational leaders can enhances the development of followers, challenging them to think in ways in which they are not accustomed to thinking, inspiring to them to accomplish beyond what they felt was possible, and motivating them to do so by keeping in mind the values and high moral standards that guide their performance (Bass, 1985). This means that a transformational leader helps subordinates to accomplish more than they thought was possible. This leadership style makes the subordinates rise above their own expectations.
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leaders use to inspire followers to perform exceptionally well (Bass et al., 2003; Kirkpatrick, 1996). Research of Comer (1995) proclaims that women preferred charismatic leaders whom are capable of intellectually stimulating methods.
This means that transformational leaders can maybe inspire women with their strong vision about career opportunities and show what could bring them to a new level in the organization and move the relationship with colleagues to the background. The leader can help the subordinates to develop this vision and try to create an environment where career opportunities are very important to take into account. Moreover, the level of ambition of the subordinate could intensify, simply because they want to reach the same as their leader.
In this research I expect that men do not need a transformational leader to help with their ambition, because they have ambition of their own and they do not need to overcome the above barriers.
To summarize, I hypothesize that when transformational leadership is high, the ambition of a managerial position by women will also be high and this means that they will have the motivation to grow to a higher position. Also, when transformational leadership is low, the ambition of a managerial position by women will also be low. Transformational leadership will not affect the ambition of men.
Hypothesis 1: The relationship between gender and ambition for a managerial position is moderated by transformational leadership, such that with low transformational leadership women will be less ambitious than men and with high transformational leadership woman will be more ambitious than men.
Figure 1
Independent Gender
Dependent Ambition for a managerial
position
Moderator Transformational
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METHODS
Sample and procedure
This study is a part of a research about a government organization in the west of the Netherlands. In this study, which consist of 138 participants and 26 teams. The data is collected by using questionnaires and the participants have been invited to take part in this research by an online questionnaire. Begin September 2009 the participants were invited by an e-mail with a hyperlink. A respondent had a unique survey code sent through the invitation letter, which was linked a priori to existing organizational administrative records. Several times the participants received a reminder, so the questionnaires were collected the end of October. From the 138 respondents 107 completed the questionnaire, which resulted in a response rate of 77,5%.
The questionnaire consists of self-rating and manager-rating questions and I used the questions on self-rating level. The questionnaire consists of questions including gender, transformational leadership and ambition for a managerial position. Confidentiality was guaranteed and it was made clear that the answers of individual members could not be retrieved.
The participants in this study were males and females working at a department of a government organization. In this study participated 80 males and 29 females and their ages ranged from 34 to 62 years (mean age of 49 and SD = 8.14).
Measures
Gender. Participants were asked to report their gender and was coded as follows: 1= male and 2
= female.
Transformational leadership. This variable was measured by using Podsakoff, MacKenzie,,
Moorman & Fetter (1990), which has six items for each sub dimension of transformational leadership. The items were scored on a seven-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree. They included questions such as „ my leader inspires others with his/her plans for the future‟ ; „my leader shows respect for my personal feelings‟ ; my leader has stimulated me to rethink the way I do things‟. The scale showed a high reability (Cronbach‟s alpha = .90).
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statement on a 7-point Likert-type scale, ranging from 1= not at all to 7 = very much. The Vianen scale consist of five items such as „If a management position will be offered to me in the near future, I will accept such a position‟; „Management is a special challenge to me‟; „ I told my relatives that I was hoping for promotion to a management position‟. The Cronbach‟s alpha for this scale was .89.
Control variable
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RESULTS Data Analysis
To test the interaction effects of transformational leadership on the relationship gender and ambition to a managerial position I used a hierarchical multiple regression analysis (Cohen & Cohen, 1983). This hierarchical regression consists of three steps. In the first step I used the control variable „age‟, and in the second step I used the independent variable „gender‟ and the moderator „transformational leadership‟. In the third step I added the interaction terms of gender and transformational leadership. The variables are standardized with z-transformations to occur multicollinearity problems between variables and their product.
Table 1 presents the means, standard deviations and Pearson correlations of the variables of the conceptual model.
Table 1
Descriptive Statistics and Correlations for Variables of Model 1
N Mean SD 1 2 3
1 Age 109 48.99 8.14
2 Gender 109 1.27 .44 .38**
3 Transformational leadership 111 4.93 1.25 .10 .02
4 Ambition for a managerial position 112 4.43 1.47 .36** .15 -.05
* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed) p < .05
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed) p < .01
Test of hypothesis
14 Table 2
Results of regression analyses for the effects gender, transactional leadership and ambition of a managerial position.
Ambition for a managerial position
Variables Step 1 Step 2 Step 3
1 Age -.52 ** -.51 ** -.54 **
2 Gender .04 .01
Transformational leadership -.02 .08
3 Gender * Transformational leadership .39 *
R 2 .13 .13 .18 ΔR 2 .13 ** .00 .05 * * p < .05 ** p < .01
Table 2 shows that the interaction term (gender * transformational leadership) was significant (b = .39; p <0.05) for ambition to a managerial position. To determine the nature of this interaction, I performed a simple slope analysis such as you can see in figure 2 (Aiken & West, 1991). The result for women and transformational leadership was high is significant (b = .47, s.e. = 0.05; p <0.05), while the results for men and transformational leadership is high was not significant (b = -.31, s.e. = 0.08; p < 0.05). This means that there is a positive relationship for women between transformational leadership and ambition to a managerial position. For men there is no relationship between transformational leadership with ambition for a managerial position.
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DISCUSSION
Research findings
Women are still underrepresented in middle and higher management positions in organizations. A possible reason for this could be the amount of ambition by women for managerial positions. The goal of the present study was to shed more light on the relation between gender and management ambition, because research for the amount of ambition was insufficient and inconsistent. Women generally face more barriers in trying to climb the corporate ladder (Ryan & Haslam, 2005). These barriers could also influence their ambition for a
managerial position. Therefore it is important to increase women‟s amount of ambition for management positions. This could be realized by more encouragement and a helping hand with the right form of leadership. This study shows that transformational leadership could inspire women to increase their ambition for a managerial position. There was no effect found for men.
Theoretical implications
The findings of this present study emphasize that women need help to increase their managerial ambition. My findings are in line with Van Vianen & Van der Velde (1993), who stated that women need more encouragement from others than men to progress in their career. Next to that, also in line with my findings is that the manner of leadership style could be
important for the ambition level of subordinates (Conger et al., 2000). According to Dale & Fox (2008) leaders should for instance inspire workers by sharing a vision of the future desired state for the organization. A vision helps employees to set their personal goals and ambitions. A vision can also cause people to be challenged in reaching these goals and ambitions (Dale & Fox, 2008). The attribution of leaders in helping subordinates reach their goals is very important.
Transformational leadership, which has been recognized as an effective leadership style, is the style of leadership which specifically connects very well with creating a vision. As
transformational leaders encourage the development of subordinates, they could bring subordinates to a higher level with their specific manner of leadership style. In line with my results of this study, transformational leadership is a leadership style that could be implemented to stimulate the ambition of women in getting a managerial position.
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moderating effect of transformational leadership on the relationship gender and ambition for a managerial position.
Practical implications
As society and the economy changes, many organizations have to reexamine their workforce composition in the higher management level. One change that is significant is that more organizations are interested in recruiting and promoting women into top positions
(Erbschloe, 2009). The results of this present study imply that transformational leadership can be seen as a tool to increase women‟s ambition for managerial positions. An increase in the amount of ambition that women have for managerial positions could result in an increase in the number of women in top management positions. The reason to stimulate more women in top positions in business is that it could have great advantages for a company (Van Steenbergen et al., 2007). Women can give new insights on higher management levels and could also help to ensure that both existing as well as new business opportunities are not overlooked (Erbschloe, 2009). Research of Comer et al. (1995) shows, that there is a positive correlation between the amount of women in management positions and company performance. It also is stated that gender diverse boards can be more profitable than all-male boards (Comer et al., 1995). Next to that, it also sends a positive message out to current and potential employees: that the organization is changing with the times and is embracing gender diversity positive (Erbschloe, 2009).
Limitations
Some limitations of the present study must be considered. Firstly, the data collection was done in one department of an organization in one country, the Netherlands. Countries and departments of organizations could possibly be different on several points, for example the gender difference in ambition. Collecting data at different departments of organizations in
different countries is maybe more representative than data at one department of an organization in one country. For future research it is recommended to gather and use data obtained from multiple departments and multiple organizations in several countries. Even though for this research, the response rate of this department (77,5%) is relatively high.
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Directions for future research
There are a couple of cases that deserve future research. Firstly, further research of the variable self-efficacy, because earlier research has provided evidence that stated that self-efficacy and career motivation have a strong relationship (Hacket & Betz, 1981). For this reason self-efficacy could be a very important variable to focus on in future research. Also because it is interesting to know what kind of influence self-efficacy has on gender and what kind of influence this has on the amount ambition for managerial positions. The reason that self-efficacy is an important variable to do further research on, is because self-efficacy stands for the belief that a person has in one‟s own capabilities and behavior to fulfill a managerial position (Van Vianen & Van der Velde, 1993). The findings in this research suggest that people‟s beliefs in their ability to perform at a managerial level are very important for future career intentions and will deserve future research.
Secondly, research of Eagly et al. (2003) shows that transformational leadership is a more feminine style and gender demonstrates that women are considered slightly more
transformational than men. Therefore, it is not surprising that there is a positive relation found in this study between transformational leadership and the amount of management ambition of women. Women prefer charismatic leaders that are capable of intellectually stimulating subordinates, which correspondents with transformational leadership (Comer, 1995). Further research would be necessary to determine whether this is indeed correct.
Conclusion
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I greatly thank my supervisors A. Nederveen Pieterse and F. Rink for their supervision during this period. Also, many thanks go out to L. Breuking, I. Siepel, C. Karstens and my other friends. Special thanks go out for my boyfriend and my family for their support and patience during this thesis period.
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