Objectivity and framing in the reporting on the Ferguson shooting and its aftermath in US print media outlets

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Objectivity and framing in the reporting on the Ferguson shooting and

its aftermath in US print media outlets

An analysis of how the New York Times, Daily News and US Today report on the police killing of Michael Brown.

Marlies Kikkert S1886533 Thesis MA Journalism Supervisor: A. Heinrich Second reader: F. Harbers

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2 In this research, the Ferguson shooting of 2014 and its aftermath are taken as an example to study the framing of minorities and the framing of police in US print media outlets. Previous studies have argued that the police and minorities are framed according to stereotypes because the media merely reports from a white perspective and that therefore, objectivity is influenced. This study has taken on a mix of a quantitative and qualitative content analysis and relies on objectivity and framing in order to see how the New York Times, Daily News and US Today framed the Ferguson shooting and to what extent that influenced the objectivity of the news articles. Results of this study show that the three newspapers analyzed provide reporting that can be classified as objective for the most part, but when biased reporting is found, it is in favor of the black community instead of the white police. Therefore, it is very possible that an important shift is happening in the reporting of the shooting of black citizens by the police, but more recent cases need to be analyzed to be able to see whether or not this is the case.

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List of Figures

Table 1. Use of authoritative sources period 1 +2 p. 41 Table 2. The inverted pyramid structure of news stories period 1

+ period 2 p. 43

Table 3. Use of authoritative sources period 1 + period 2 p. 44 Table 4. The use of accurate, comprehensive and verified facts as

supporting scientific sources period 1 p. 45

Table 5. The use of accurate, comprehensive and verified facts as

supporting scientific sources period 2 p. 46 Table 6. The balancing of viewpoints and representing them fairly p. 48 period 1 + period 2

Table 7. Use of attribution and quotation period 1 + period 2 p. 51 Table 8. No use of emotions period 1 + period 2 p. 52 Table 9 . The detached tone of the third-person type of writing

period 1 + period 2 p. 56

Table 10. The use of neutral language period 1 + period 2 p. 58

Table 11. Main frames period 1 + period 2 p. 61

Table 12. Main frames period 2 p. 62

Table 13. Portrayal of people in responsibility frame period 1

+ period 2 p. 64

Table 14. Portrayal of people in responsibility frame period 2 p. 65 Table 15. Portrayal of people in human interest frame period 1

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1. Introduction

1.1 Police killings of unarmed black people

On August 9th_{2014, an 18 year old black boy named Michael Brown was shot in Ferguson by a}

white police officer named Darren Wilson. According to the United States Department of Justice, “police killings of unarmed individuals are not uncommon in the United States of America” (2015, 1). According to Gaines and Kappeler, white citizens are killed by the police when, for example, they are being arrested, but minorities are killed at a much greater rate (2015, 319) “The highest rate of police homicide of citizens is for young African-American males” (Ibid.). According to Gaines and Kappeler, many police killings of unarmed citizens are questionable, since it appears that “the police could have avoided the use of deadly force or may have used it too quickly” (2015, 319). White citizens have hardly ever protested against a fatal shooting of a white person by police (Barker, 1992, 181). Many killings of unarmed black citizens do also not lead to protests or riots. However, in recent decades, “almost every major urban uprising or race riot in the United States has begun with an interaction, often fatal, between a black man and the police” (United States Department of Justice, 2015, 1).

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8 majority of journalists come from an upper-middle to upper-class background, which most often offers a distinctly White, male perspective” (Gans, 1979, cited in Moody-Ramirez and Dates, 2014, 9). This white male perspective can influence the way in which the news stories are brought to the audience and this can be done by means of framing. I want to test if this is true for the reporting on the Ferguson shooting by the American newspapers.

1.2 Aim of the research

In this research, the Ferguson shooting of 2014 and its aftermath are taken as an example to study the framing of minorities and the framing of police in US print media outlets. On August 9th_{2014, an 18 year old black boy named Michael Brown was shot in Ferguson by a}

white police officer named Darren Wilson. This led to major uprisings and protests by Ferguson residents against the police. It is important to see how the media frames minorities and the police and whether or not they report objectively on the shooting of an unarmed citizen by the police, since the media is assigned a powerful role in shaping and influencing the public’s thoughts and interpretations of events, especially by means of framing. According to Faragó and Sullivan, frames are able to shape public discourse, so how “the members of the public understand and think and act about issues they provide” (2008, 165).

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9 the United States. The reason why I chose to analyze the objectivity of the reporting on the Ferguson shooting is because it is important to see how the media writes about race issues, but especially in the case of the Ferguson shooting. The shooting of Michael Brown has led to an extensive reconsideration of race and justice, which is explained later in detail, and therefore, it is very important to see what the role of the media was in this. For this study, I rely on Schudson’s definition of objectivity and Entman’s definition of framing in order to analyze the content. A code book and coding scheme was set up by means of combining objectivity and framing. Because of this, I am able to answer the following research question: How were the Ferguson shooting and its aftermath framed in US print media outlets and to what extent does that influence the objectivity of the news articles? In order to analyze the case more thoroughly, three sub-questions are developed:

SQ1:How does the framing of the reporting on the shooting and its aftermath influence the objectivity of the reporting?

SQ2: What main frames are dominant to portray minorities in the reporting on the Ferguson shooting and its aftermath in US print media outlets?

SQ3:What main frames are dominant to portray the police in the reporting on the Ferguson shooting and its aftermath in US print media outlets?

1.3 Structure of the study

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sub-10 question and show how the Ferguson shooting and its aftermath were framed in US print media outlets and to what extent that influenced the objectivity of the news articles. In the conclusion recommendations for further research are given.

2. Background

White people have dominated the city Ferguson in the past, but over the last 15 years, African Americans took the lead (Glint, 2014, 2). “White residents, who had accounted for 44 percent of the population, now make up just under 30 percent” (Lowery, 2015, 8). Ferguson is part of the greater St. Louis metropolitan area. St. Louis is one of the most segregated areas in the nation (Ibid.) In Ferguson, a small city in St. Louis, the police have the responsibility to retain law and order. However, they do not always succeed. “Many times the police force has been accused, and rightly so, of professional misconduct, corruption in the line of duty, violation of human rights and total disregard of their own local and international code of ethics” (Glint, 2014, 1). In worst case scenario, policemen “decide to use live bullets against very defenseless people for reasons like racial discrimination or resolving personal differences” (Glint, 2014, 2). On August 9th_{, 2014,}

an 18 year old black boy named Michael Brown was shot by a white police officer. Right after the fatal incident, Ferguson residents started protesting peacefully against the police. Later, the protests became more violent and even unmanageable for the police. Especially after the grand jury decided not to charge the police officer who shot Brown, protests and tensions were inflated (Neuf, 2015, 23).

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11 American life. “The killing of Michael Brown fell into a deep and ancient American fault line. Race has always been America’s deepest dilemma, and it remains so today” (United States Department of Justice, 2015, 3).

Even though racial inequalities and discrimination seem to be in America’s past now that the country has had its first black president, race appears to be an important problem in the United States. “In the story of Ferguson lies the great contradiction of ‘The Age of Obama’” (United States Department of Justice, 2015, 5). Racism is still part of ‘post-racial’ America. “The glow that accompanied Barack Obama’s election in 2008 is long gone. With the election of the first African-American president it appeared that we had overcome America’s greatest demon. But that impression was only a partial reality” (Ibid.). America is caught between the past and the future. Incidents such as Ferguson show that racial bias is not over yet in America. According to Sullivan, they are a reminder of “how racially polarized this nation has become and summarize the unfortunate fact that African Americans continue to hold on to victimization by white people and particularly white police regardless of facts” (2015, 22). Systematic racism, discrimination and racial prejudice did not vanish with the election of President Obama and this became more than evident with the killing of Michael Brown.

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12 encouraged change in America. “Ferguson’s police department is now under Justice Department supervision to root out patterns of civil rights violations. The town just named its first black police chief, and the governor signed a court reform bill that caps what police and the courts can collect through ticketing and fines that disproportionately burden – and impoverish – black residents” (Ibid., 4). The incident in Ferguson has led to an extensive reconsideration of race and justice in the United States and has raised awareness that inequality based on race is everything but over.

Therefore, it is important to see how the Ferguson shooting and its aftermath were framed in US print media outlets. Did the media contribute to a nationwide examination of racism and possible use of unnecessary force in the shooting of Michael Brown and did they contribute to all the important changes made after the shooting and the protest or did they reinforce stereotypes by means of their news reports? It is thus not only a matter of objectivity but also a matter of societal value of the media. According to Dennis and Pease, “journalism is often the perspective of the white male American (1997, 123). Grunig, Childers and Toth argue that news still does not mirror the diversity of the population (2013, 173). I want to test if this is true for the Michael Brown case.

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13 evil and dangerous and white people as good. Larson, 2006; Lawrence, 2000 and Collins, 2004 have argued that in the reporting on police brutality against black minorities, the perspectives of government officials and the police are overrepresented. Also, according to Sanders, 2015 and Collins, 2004, are African Americans portrayed as violent and criminal and the white police officers are depicted as the good guys who try to maintain order and this somewhat justifies the violence. In contrast to this, Barak writes that after the harassment of the black taxi driver Rodney King in 1991, the media did not justify police brutality, but framed it as a “national problem” (2008, 225).

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14 objectivity and at specific frames and can therefore offer a more detailed and in-depth analysis of the reporting on Ferguson.

3. Theoretical Framework

In this theoretical framework, an outline of the theories and of the existing literature on objectivity and framing is given. Objectivity is chosen in order to test one of the most important journalistic media ethics and values. Media ethics and values guide journalists in what is the best conduct (Ward, 2009). In addition, objectivity and framing are linked to the notions of ideology and hegemony. It is important for this study to explain ideology in relation to framing and the news, since ideologies manifest themselves in news reports and this, in turn, influences objectivity. Therefore, it is important to know how ideology and the media interact. I also look at previous research on the framing of race and the framing of police in news reports on crime. This theoretical framework helps me to research the framing of race and the framing of police in the Ferguson shooting and the possible influence on objectivity.

3.1 Objectivity and Framing

3.1.1 Objectivity

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15 This brings us to one of the most important ethical norms, namely the ideal of objectivity. Objectivity has been labeled “one of the great glories of American Journalism” and is often understood as the most important development in journalism since the Anglo-Saxon press was freed from authority (Maras, 2013, 1). Objectivity knows many definitions from numerous scholars. For this study, I rely on Schudson’s definition of objectivity, since he is one of the key thinkers of objectivity. According to Schudson, “objectivity is at once a moral idea, a set of reporting and editing practices, and an observable pattern of news writing” (2001, 149). This means that the ideal of objectivity sets standards for journalists on how to write and report. Schudson adds that the objectivity norm helps journalists to “separate facts from values and to report only the facts” (Ibid. 150). Objective reporting is supposed to, for example, “represent fairy each leading side in a political controversy” (Ibid.). The news value objectivity tries to make sure that news is brought as it happened and that the story is not shaped in favor of anybody. Schudson and Anderson argue that “objectivity serves as a normative endpoint. It is seen not as a tool, or a claim, but as a goal, a best practice made possible by historical progress” (2009, 92). Journalists ought to use objectivity as an end goal for their work. Reporters try to achieve objective reporting in order for their work to be a good practice. Objectivity, as part of media ethics, tries to make sure that news is brought in such a way that the audience gets a fair and balanced view of reality and in this way, can understand what is going on around them.

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16 words, to be objective (Mindich, 1998, 4). “In his first issue of the New York Herald, in 1835, James Gordon Bennett announced his intention to record fact on every public and proper subject, stripped of verbiage and coloring” (Ibid). For a long time, journalist themselves have seen it as an important job to report objectively.

3.1.2 Objectivity as practice

However, what is very important is the fact that objectivity is “more than an ideal set of standards” (Ward, 2009, 20). According to Ward, “it is a practical and comprehensive set of practices and rules that implement standards in the newsroom” (2009, 20). He adds that these rules “determine what information to gather and how to construct stories” (Ibid.). According to Donsbach (2015), news standards do not only connote normative qualities, the term objectivity “specifically means the way information is gathered, made into news reports, and presented” (595). This means that objectivity is not only an abstract ideal (Fortner and Fackler, 2011, 200). “It was, from the start, a practical system of norms that restrained and governed practice” (Ibid). So, the objectivity standards are actually operationalized by journalists in the newsroom. This shows that objectivity is more than a set of ideals, but consists of actual practices.

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17 and representing each viewpoint fairly” (2009, 19). Non-biased is achieved by journalists as follows: “prejudices, emotions, personal interest, or other subjective factors are not allowed to distort the content of reports” (Ibid). In addition, because of rules of attribution and quotation, journalists must use direct quotations and paraphrase carefully and in this way, journalists attribute all opinion to the source to avoid bias (Ward, 2005, 20). Independence in reporting comes from journalists who “are free to report without fear or favor” (Ward, 2009, 19). To achieve non-interpretation in reporting, journalists do not “put their interpretations or opinions into their reports” (Ibid). Neutrality is realized by journalists not taking a side. Reporters will not “act as advocates for groups or causes” (Ibid). In order to enhance neutrality “reports are written from the detached tone of the third-person” (Wilkins and Christians, 2008, 74). Also, in order to achieve neutrality, the language of journalists “contain no personal observations, with, or sarcasm, thereby minimizing their voice in the story. They eliminate any adjectives, adverbs, verbs, or phrases that might indicate a bias or an unjustified inference, or they translate them into neutral language” (Ward, 21, 2005). In addition, the news report is supposed to be “cool, rather than emotional in tone” (Schudson, 2001, 149). “Colourful literary devices are rejected by editors and the aim is factual news instead of riveting narrative news” (Ward, 2005, 21). For example, “the neutral ‘said’ replaces verbs such as ‘admitted’ or ‘tried to claim’ to describe someone’s assertions” (Ibid). It is therefore very important to take into consideration that objectivity is not merely an ideal set of standards but actual practices that can be learned.

3.1.3 Is true objectivity possible?

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18 news or constructing reality (Ibid). Whereas journalism is often seen as a window on the world, it is not always a true reflection of reality. According to Mindich, “journalism may indeed be like a mirror, however, sometimes journalists may hold the glass up to themselves, reflecting their own perceptions and biases. Mirrors can distort too, as a trip to any fun house will reveal” (1998, 6). There is another problem with seeing journalism as a window on the world. According to Mindich, “window panes can be of various thickness, colors, and sizes. And in which direction is the window pointing? Window frames, just as story frames, can vary widely” (1998, 5). Even though journalism does report reality as it is, this does not mean that objectivity is a given and that the reality is undistorted. In line with this, many critics argue that the normative ideals of journalism, such as truthfulness, fairness and detachment, are impossible because of “human fallibility” (Calcutt and Hammond, 2011, 3). According to Calcutt and Hammond, “the claim that objectivity is meaningless rests on the simple observation that journalists are human beings. That means they have gender, an ethnicity, a family, a social background, a personal history, a set of prejudices that afflict us all” (Ibid). Therefore, the social background of a journalist influences his or her reporting and this is how the journalist shapes and constructs a news story. According to Mindich, “to say that journalists make the news does not mean that they fake the news. It means that journalists do and must construct stories. Objectivity is an active enterprise” (1998, 8). As objectivity reporting, and even reporting as such, consists of actual practices carried out by human beings, namely reporters, the news is constructed. These practices can easily be influenced by the reporters’ social background and personal history. Ward similarly argues that news stories need to be constructed and shaped, since they need explaining and interpreting in a complex world (2004, 11). Journalists therefore do not make up stories, but they do shape and construct stories because of their social background and to give meaning to a story.

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19 criticism and “often seem unwilling or unable to offer a robust defence of what was once a defining ethic of the profession” (Calcutt and Hammond, 2011, 3). According to Mindich, “objectivity is for journalists often a question, not an answer – a point of debate, not a dogma” (1998, 5). While objectivity used to be the central principle of the Society of Professional Journalists’ Code of Ethics, in 1996 objectivity was dropped from the list (Minditch, 1998, 5). Journalists realize that their social background has an influence on their reporting. They often expose a skepticism that there is an “objective, unfiltered by their personal lenses” (Ibid). Thus, objectivity is not fully achievable since the social background of journalists influence the way they shape news stories. News stories are constructed and not an undistorted mirror on the world.

3.1.4 Framing

Another important aspect of journalism that causes for news stories to be constructed and therefore not a true reflection of reality is the notion of framing. Critics have shown that journalists do not “just report facts: they also select their facts, their sources, and their angle on a story” (Ward, 2005, 13). News should not be seen as a mirror on reality, but as the outcome of several more or less conscious choices, “restricted by factors such as journalistic norms, values and newsgathering routines” (Schudson cited in Strömbäck, Shehata and Dimitrova, 2008, 117). One of these aspects that influence the news making process is framing. Even though there is no agreement on one single definition of news frame or framing, all definitions that have been employed contain similar characteristics (Semetko and Valkenburg, 2000, 94). Central to most framing studies is the proposition that news does not reflect reality as such (Ibid., 118). This means that reality is distorted by the way in which a story is framed (Kikkert, 2015, 7).1_One important definition of framing and the one I rely on for this study is by Entman. According to Entman, “to frame is to select some aspects of a perceived reality and make them more salient in

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20 a communicating text, in such a way as to promote a particular problem definition, causal interpretation, moral evaluation, and/or treatment recommendation for the item described” (1993, 52). Frames highlight certain aspects of information about an item and this makes them seem more important (Ibid., 53). This means that pieces of information become more “noticeable, meaningful or memorable” (Ibid). Certain aspects of the text seem more important than others and this influences the meaning of a text. This happens by means of the way in which the information is placed, by means of repetition or by associating them with “culturally familiar symbols” (Ibid.). In this way, frames promote a particular way of interpretation of the story for the audience (Kikkert, 2015, 7).2

Framing practices in journalism are necessary because of several reasons, for example for sizing purposes. Parenti (1997) argues that “if time and space were limitless for news media, journalists could make a wider range of stories and information available to the public” (cited in Moody, 2008, 24). However, time and space are very limited for news stories in newspapers and on the radio and television. Therefore, “one must accept framing as an essential function of news coverage because media organizations simply do not have the time, space, or tools to display all possible angles of every story that comes in” (Ibid). Journalists must frame stories in such a way that is accessible for the public and can be understood by them (Moody, 2008, 24). News stories are framed in such a way that they draw upon the existing knowledge of its audience. According to Haslett, “frames incorporate pre-existing, shared knowledge about events, objects and activities that people use to make sense of their experience” (2013, 3). Frames are not used in journalism only because of space and time limitations, but also for people to understand what is going on in the world around them. Frames draw upon the knowledge already in the audience’s head, which makes it easier for them to comprehend the story.

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21 However, framing of news events influences objectivity. Many critics often “pan journalistic framing for its bias and lack of objectivity” (Moody, 2008, 24). According to Baran and Davis, “framing theory challenges a long accepted and valued principle of journalism, namely the idea that news stories should be objective” (2009, 336). Instead, they argue that framing implies that “journalism’s role should be to provide a forum in which ideas about the social world are routinely presented and debated” (Ibid). Carragee (1997) similarly argues that “because journalistic frames do no develop in a vacuum but are sponsored by multiple social actors, news stories then become a forum for framing contests in which political actors compete in sponsoring their definitions of political issues” (cited in Moody, 2008, 24). News stories therefore do not mirror society without providing a certain angle or shaping the story. Despite the fact that many researches have shown that framing is an “essential, universal aspect of news communication, numerous scholars equate framing with insincerity and manipulation” (Ibid). In other words, news is not an objective report of what is going on in the world around us. “In order to present the news, news people select and accentuate. They cannot do otherwise” (Fourie, 2008, 240). Journalists thus construct, select, shape and create the news. According to Moody, “the news media regularly fail to provide a range of information and commentary that might help citizens in a democracy develop their own critical perceptions” (2008, 24). The media provides the reader with a framed version of reality, in which not all angles are visible and in which a reality is constructed and created. According to Fourie, news should be defined as follows: “news is what journalists and news people make it” (Ibid). Framing of news stories influences objectivity and therefore, journalism cannot be seen as an objective report on reality. Because of framing, journalists do not just report the facts, they select their facts, sources and their angle on a story and certain aspects are portrayed as more important. All of these framing practices influence the meaning of a text and thus the objectivity of a text.

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22 idea” of a frame, which might structure our thinking about events and issues (cited in Strömbäck, Shehata and Dimitrova, 2008, 118). Entman links the concept of framing to the power of a communicating text (1993, 51). This also means that a text is able to influence the receiver’s perception and understanding of a text. By means of the placement of information, the associations with culturally familiar symbols and thus highlighting certain aspects of the story, frames exert “influence over a human consciousness” (Entman, 1993, 51). Framing, therefore, makes the media and the content of the media very powerful. Through using certain frames, they are able to shape public discourse, so how “the members of the public understand and think and act about issues they provide” (Faragó and Sullivan, 2008, 165). News stories are thus not fully objective and can be seen as a constructed version of reality. That is also the case for news stories on white police officers shooting black citizens. Frames in these stories can enforce stereotypical thoughts about blacks in society.

3.1.5. Framing and Ideology

The fact that news stories are framed in a particular way has to do with ideology. Ideologies manifest themselves in news reports. The term ‘ideology’ knows many definitions. It is important for this study to explain ideology in relation to framing and the news. According to Ball and Dagger (2004) ideology is “a fairly coherent and comprehensive set of ideas that explains and evaluates social conditions, helps people comprehend their place in society, and provides a program for social and political action” (cited in Worsham, 2007, 104). Worsham adds that “news is a cultural product that reflects the ideological beliefs and practices of those who operate news-making systems and enterprises” (2007, 104). It is important to understand how ideology and the media work and interact. The media publishes “political viewpoints and ideological positions, attitudes, notions and ideas in the newspapers” (Berger, 2007, 209). The media can be seen as a product of the prevailing system and they “generally reflect the

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23 turn, construct different ideas about the world around them and the media support this (Ibid). This mostly happens unconsciously, as “the dominant ideology frequently assumes a disarming naturalness within a text, which makes it particularly effective in promoting and reinforcing the prevailing ideology. A news report is open to multiple interpretations, however, the text dictates a so-called preferred reading, which reflects the social position or orientation of the media communicator” (Ibid). The underlying ideologies are presented as natural, as unquestioned assumptions. This is how the audience is unconsciously influenced and takes on the dominant ideology presented in the media texts. Especially through repetitive exposure, “media can have an influence on personal values, identity and beliefs” (Kenix, 2011, 139). Media thus not only introduce ideologies, but also reinforce them in society.

Thus, media texts are constructed and framed in such a way that the predominant ideology within a culture is reflected in a news text. Therefore, media texts are “more the result of cultural influences than any objective embodiment of reality, and the cultural influences coalesce to create an ideological perspective over time” (Kenix, 2011, 141). News texts are not a true reflection of reality, but also influenced by culture and the ideologies of the people who make the texts and by the culture and ideologies of the newsroom. This has consequences for reporting on racism and thus on the reporting on the Ferguson shooting. Ideological influences of racism on newsmaking are existent, for example, in the hiring of journalists. According to van Dijk, news texts know many forms of ethnic bias because “in all white-dominated societies, ethnic journalists are discriminated against in hiring, so that most newsrooms are

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24 from 'our’ white perspective, for instance in terms of Them not being able or wanting to adapt to Us, instead of vice versa” (Ibid). Consequently, while reporting on issues of race, media reinforce white, male, upper class perspectives and ideologies.

3.1.6 Framing and Hegemony

A term that is closely related to ideology is hegemony. Marxist Antonio Gramsci added “much to our understanding of ideology trough his development of the concept of hegemony” (Devereux, 2007, 165). Hegemony is the “process by which ruling classes and groups shape popular consent through the production and diffusion of meanings and values by the major ideological

institutions in society” (Worsham, 2007, 105). According to Gramsci, hegemony or domination can be achieved in two ways. By means of threat or force or, more typically, by means of the creation of consensus (in Devereux, 2007, 165). The latter comes about because the powerful is able to create a consensus between those with power and those with little or no power

(Devereux, 2007, 165). The media plays an important role in this. According to Gramsci, “the media create a common-sense view of the world. In accepting this viewpoint the powerless allow themselves to be dominated by the ruling class through consent” (in Devereux, 2007, 165). Therefore, the ideology of the upper ruling classes and groups are portrayed as normal and as a common-sense view on the world. The dominant ideology is reinforced by the media and in this way, media outlets and media texts uphold hegemony.

This is especially done by means of framing. Tankard (2003) writes that “media

hegemony can be viewed as a situation in which one frame is so dominant that people accept it without notice or question” (cited in Worsham, 2007, 105). This frame construction by the media is very powerful because of “the frame’s ability to define the terms of a debate without the audience realizing it is taking place.” (Ibid). Frames that dominate the news are taken as

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25 production of hegemonic meanings. Therefore frame construction can be viewed as part of the reinforcement of the hegemonic power structure” (cited in Worsham, 2007, 105). News stories and their dominant frames provide their audience with views on the world and social and political realities. These views and realities are the views and realities from those in power. Therefore, the media can be seen as one of the “political elite which help maintain the hegemonic equilibrium” (Ibid). The media play an important role in upholding the dominant political

ideology: “they propagate it, celebrate it, and interpret the world in its terms” (Ibid). News stories are framed in such a way, that the dominant political ideologies are maintained and therefore, media outlets and texts maintain the hegemonic equilibrium.

Media texts are thus constructed and framed in such a way that the predominant ideology within a culture is reflected in a news text. This leads to news reports with stereotypes of race. Therefore, news texts are not a true reflection of reality, but are influenced by culture and the ideologies of the people who make the texts and by the culture and ideologies of the newsroom. Especially in the reporting on issues of race, news texts reinforce white, male, upper class perspectives and ideologies and therefore, stereotypes of black people can be found in news texts. Hegemonic, white perspectives in the news can result in stereotypes of race in news reports and therefore, objectivity can be influenced.

3.2 Framing Race and Police

3.2.1 Framing Race

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26 Messer, 2008, 87). Coleman similarly shows that “the role and the effect of media portrayals of minorities indirectly favor the development of stereotypical, prejudiced, or racist interpretive frameworks among the public at large” (2013, 102). Even though journalists reinforce dominant ideas and stereotypes on race in their reporting, they do not do this consciously. In their reporting, journalists follow cultural patterns and norms of which they are only partially aware. Journalists and news organizations do not challenge these norms (Entman and Rojecki in Coleman, 2013, 102). Thus, “the news does not usually reflect any conscious effort by journalists to cultivate their audiences’ accurate understanding of racial matters” (Ibid). These scholars thus show that reporters merely follow norms by which the news is made and shaped in a particular way. Therefore, “the imperfect awareness of journalists about cultural patterns contributes to the media’s role of locking a construction of black identity into standard news coverage” (Coleman, 2013, 102). In this manner, the media is responsible for “assimilating the mindset of society with reconstituted imagery of racial stereotypes and hegemonic values” (Hall cited in Gutierrez, 2008, 20). The media are powerful as they construct and spread the definition of race, project the problem of race and distribute the oversimplification of race and therefore, journalists and news organizations organize the world by means of categorizing race (Ibid). This is problematic, because in this way, the media does not only distort contemporary reality, but “also constructs a future reality based on past ideological precepts” (Gutierrez, 2008, 20). This, in turn, influences how the audience comes to see black people.

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27 media “paint a picture of blacks as violent and threatening to whites, self-interested and demanding toward to body of politics, and continually causing problems for the law-abiding, taxpaying majority” (1994, 29). Coleman similarly argues that black men that we see in the news are often criminals and black women in the news are often experiencing economic deprivation (2013, 102). Coleman names this reporting on race “a social construction around division” (Ibid., 101). This means that the media constructs race differences. Blacks are depicted as bad by means of stereotypes and by means of opposing them to whites.

Especially in the coverage of crime, news presents crime and violence as a black-and-white issue (Coleman, 2013, 103). According to Entman and Rojecki, “crime reporting fashions a hierarchical racial divide that stereotypes blacks and associates them with the wrong, dangerous side of the cultural continuum” (2010, 78). By definition, criminals are African American and crime is certainly not white-collar (Coleman, 2013, 103). In addition, crime news “tends to overrepresent black perpetrators, underrepresent black victims and overrepresent white victims” (Ibid). Coverage of criminal events is slanted as it shows black people as “criminals, infidels, subhuman mindless monsters” (Ibid). Thus, whereas white people are often portrayed as victims and non-violent people, African Americans are depicted as criminals and even as monsters. “Newsroom policies and practices thus encourage a negative stereotype about blacks that is all the more powerful coming from a genre that promises to represent the real of our social world” (Entman cited in Coleman, 2013, 104). The images of blacks provided by the news are taken on by the audience as real, since news promises to provide a picture of the real world. This means that the media reinforce stereotypical way of thinking of audiences.

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28 Simpson defense team, news magazine stories presented the criminal justice system as the good force in this story’s narrative framing of the struggle between good and evil” (Ibid). Grabe explains that “the victims were presented as good and helpless, the police as the good force, and O.J. Simpson as the evil force.” (2000, 35). According to Grabe, the journalistic ideal of objectivity is here an unfulfilled one, since the media does not provide the reader with fair and balanced information, but with stereotypes (2000, 45). Previous research on the reporting on the Ferguson shooting has pointed out that “the Los Angeles Times published a story about Brown’s rap music – even though for traditional media audiences which are now predominantly white, over 40 and male, hip hop and rap are considered synonymous with criminal activity” (Sanders, 2015, 89). In addition, “the New York Times framed a story around the fact that Michael Brown was ‘no angel,’ angering African Americans around the country” (Ibid). Also, “the first fact most audiences learned about Brown’s case suggested police misconduct; Brown’s body was left in the street for hours before his body was taken from the scene. Still, in most traditional media coverage, Brown was covered as an unworthy victim” (Ibid). Previous research suggests that American media did frame crime cases such as the O.J. Simpson case and the Ferguson case according to racial stereotypes and that therefore, the objectivity of the news reports is

influenced. Blacks are not just portrayed as criminal and inferior, but people in society come to see them as such. Consequently, the dominant political ideologies of the white newsrooms and the reinforcement of the hegemonic power structure influence how reporting on issues such as race are framed and portrayed.

3.2.2. Framing police

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29 provided by police spokesmen and politicians. Crucially, these same sources usually individualize police use of force, focusing public attention on deviant, violent criminal suspects who threaten officers and the public and, occasionally, on rogue cops who lose control and cross the line between acceptable and unacceptable force” (2000, 34). In addition, according to Larson, “the injuries of white people get more newspaper attention than the injured black people. At times, police brutality went unreported” (2006, 174). Reporting on police violence against blacks thus normalizes the brutality and puts aside the underlying roots of police violence against minorities (Lawrence, 2000, 34). The focus thus lies on what minorities did wrong before they are brutalized or shot by the police and not on the brutality itself and what causes this.

According to Sanders, race has a very central role in traditional media coverage on police brutality against African Americans (2015, 87). Whereas African Americans are portrayed as violent and criminal, the white police officers are depicted as the good guys who try to maintain order. Collins argues that “the US media reconstructs Black Africa as tribal, threatening, savage and incapable of self-government and democracy and also Black urban neighborhoods in America as sites equally incapable of controlling their children and being self-governing” (2004, 165). White police officials, on the contrary, are portrayed as reestablishing the social order (Ibid., 166). The focus in the news reports on police violence and African Americans lies on “black people crossing social boundaries, the consequences of those transgressions, and the reestablishment of social order by white police officers” (Collins, 2004, 166). Thus, in these news reports, racial factors play an important role. Whites are set into relation with ‘criminal’ and ‘dangerous’ African Americans. White police officers are portrayed as the good guys, even though they shot a black person.

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30 members of the Congressional Black Caucus urging a wider inquiry on police brutality and harassment of minorities (Ibid). And eventually a national inquiry on police brutality was ordered (Ibid.). Therefore, the harassment of Rodney King by a white police officer was not justified by the media but framed as a nation problem. However, this is rather an exception to the rule. What all of this means for my case on a white police officer shooting a black citizen, is that typically in reporting on events like these, the white police officers are portrayed as good guys and the black citizens as dangerous and criminal. News reports are framed in a particular way and this, in turn, influences objectivity. The news reports on white police officers shooting a black citizen are not a true, unbiased reflection on what happened, but are colored and partial due to journalists’ perspectives and ideologies. This is why I expect to find that the objectivity practices in the reporting on the Ferguson shooting by the American newspapers are influenced and that Michael Brown is portrayed as the bad guy and the police as trying to maintain order and this brings me to the hypotheses of this study.

3.3 Hypotheses

Based on the knowledge generated in the theoretical framework, I came up with three hypotheses, which relate to the main research question and the sub-questions of this study. The main research question of this research is: How were the Ferguson shooting and its aftermath framed in US print media outlets and to what extent does that influence the objectivity of the news articles? In order to answer this question, three sub-questions were developed.

SRQ1: How does the framing of the reporting on the shooting and its aftermath influence the

objectivity of the reporting?

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31 to the fact that news is constructed. As Silverblatt explains, ideologies manifest themselves in news reports and media can be seen as a product of the prevailing system and they “generally reflect the predominant ideology within a culture” (2015 4). Thus, media texts are constructed and framed in such a way that the predominant ideology within a culture is reflected in a news text. This could lead to news reports with stereotypes of race. While reporting on issues of race, media carry the potential to reinforce white, male, upper class perspectives and ideologies. Thus, objectivity practices such as factuality, fairness, non-bias, independence, non-interpretation and neutrality are influenced by ideology and hegemony. Instead of factual, fair, biased, non-interpreted and neutral reporting, stereotypes can be found in the reporting on race. Therefore, I do expect to find that viewpoints are not always balanced and represented fairly, that some facts are interpreted by journalists, that several colorful literary devices and that adjectives, adverbs, verbs or phrases that might indicate bias can be found in the text. Based on this knowledge, I came up with the following hypothesis:

H1: Because of ideology and hegemony, news reports on the Ferguson shooting are influenced

and racial stereotypes can be found. Therefore, objectivity practices such as factuality, fairness, non-bias, independence, non-interpretation and neutrality are influenced by ideology and hegemony. In this way, the objectivity in the news reports in the New York Times, Daily News and US Today on the Ferguson shooting is influenced because of racial stereotypes.

The second sub-question for this research is:

SRQ2: What main frames are dominant to portray minorities in the reporting on the Ferguson

shooting and its aftermath in US print media outlets?

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32 Sanders (2015) analyzed the reporting on the shooting of Michael Brown and has already shown that in the New York Times and the Los Angeles Times dominant stereotypes were reinforced in the reporting on Brown. Whereas Sanders talks about how “traditional media” portray black people such as Brown, only the New York Times and the Los Angeles Times are looked at in his study. My study looks at three newspapers, namely the New York Times, US Today and Daily News. Therefore, I test whether or not I have the same outcome for the NYT and I also test if the outcomes of Sanders’ study for the NYT and the Los Angeles Times also hold true for other traditional newspapers in the United States. This provides a more complete overview of how black people are portrayed in traditional newspapers in the United States. In line with the results of Sander’s study, I do expect to find the same things for all three newspapers under research. Therefore, the following hypothesis needs testing:

H2: In the reporting on the Ferguson shooting and its aftermath by the New York Times, US Today and Daily News, minorities are framed as criminal and dangerous and inferior to whites, and therefore I expect to find the responsibility frame attributed to the black criminal and the racial frame.

The third sub-question of this study is:

SRQ3: What main frames are dominant to portray the police in the reporting on the Ferguson

shooting and its aftermath in US print media outlets?

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33 normalize the police violence and brutality against black individuals (Lawrence, 2000, 34). Because the viewpoints of the government officials and leaders are considered most important in the news reports (Calcutt and Hammond, 2011; van Dijk, 2009; Cottle, 2000; Devereux, 2007; Worsham, 2007; Lawrence, 2000), I expect to find background stories and details about them and their view. Therefore, I expect to find the human interest frame attributed to the police officer in the news reports. I do not expect to find news reports in which the police are held responsible for the shooting. This is why I expect to find the responsibility frame not attributed to the police officers or the police system. Therefore, I came up with the following hypothesis:

H3: In the reporting on the Ferguson shooting and its aftermath by the NYT, US Today and Daily News, I expect to find the following frames in relation to white police officers: the human interest frame attributed to the police officer and the responsibility frame which is not attributed to the police officers or the police system.

4. Methodology

In order to answer the research questions and to test the hypotheses of the previous chapter, this research paper applies a mix of a quantitative and qualitative content analysis. This research method is explained and I explain the sample size of this study. I also explain how I measure objectivity and frames and how I created a code book and the categories and variables that are part of the code book. Furthermore, the limitations of the methodology are pointed out.

4.1 Method

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34 are typical patterns or characteristics, or to identify important relationships among the variables measured” (2005, 2). This means that by means of a quantitative content analysis, content is systematically assigned to categories according to a code book with specific rules. In this research, a quantitative content analysis is used in order to categorize and analyze articles on the Ferguson shooting and in this way, to test the hypotheses provided in the theoretical framework. In other words, to see how the stories on the Ferguson shooting are framed and whether or not this influences objectivity in the reporting.

A quantitative content analysis is chosen for this study because it allows me to study many articles in a relatively short period of time. In addition, by means of a coding scheme, the articles are studied systematically. Because of this, the study is both representative and reliable (Kikkert, 2015, 9).3_{I mixed the quantitative content analysis with a qualitative approach.} According to Bryman (2012) is qualitative research “a research strategy that usually emphasizes words rather than quantification in the collection and analysis of data”(380). He adds that qualitative research is “broadly inductivist, constructionist and interpretivist”(Ibid). According to Mayring (2000), “Qualitative content analysis defines itself as an approach of empirical, methodological controlled analysis of texts within their context of communication, following content analytical rules and step by step models, without rash quantification” (2000, 2). Also, “qualitative content analysis wants to preserve the advantages of quantitative content analysis for a more qualitative text interpretation”(Ibid., 3). I mixed the quantitative content analysis with a qualitative approach, since textual bias has room for interpretation in the coding. If I only looked at, for example, sources I could only use a quantitative content analysis. However, bias, and thus categories such as balance, accuracy and no emotions, is not that straightforward and therefore the design of the code book is open to interpretation.

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35 A deductive approach is chosen, which means that “all decisions on variables, their measurement, and coding rules are made before the observations begin” (Neuendorf cited in Macnamara, 2003, 9). I chose this approach due to objectivity considerations. According to Neuendorf leads an inductive approach “to major biases and invalidity in a study” (Ibid.). An inductive approach permits for example categories to be added to the list during the study and may “not be observed from the outset and this can lead to inaccuracies in the data” (Ibid.). This study does not need an inductive approach, because I know all the characteristics of objectivity and all of them are included in the code book. I also did extensive research on frames in relation to race and police and all frames I expect to find are included in the code book. Therefore, I decided to work with a deductive approach in order to minimize possible inaccuracies.

LexisNexis Academic was accessed in order to find newspaper articles from the New York Times, The US Today and Daily News on the object studied. I chose these three newspapers because they are the newspapers with the largest circulation in the United States. The newspaper with the largest circulation is The Wall Street Journal. However, this is a newspaper that merely focuses on business and economic news. Therefore, I did not analyze this newspaper. In addition, one of the largest newspapers in the US, The Los Angeles Times, did not show any results in LexisNexis when I searched on Ferguson, therefore I chose Daily News instead.

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36 newspapers are leading newspapers in the US, who claim to be and are seen as objective. I am going to test if these quality newspapers include or avoid bias and stereotypes.

4.2 Sample Size

I analyzed the periods from 10.08.2014 until 23.08.2014 and from 04.03.2015 until 18.03.2015. I chose these periods because the shooting happened on 09.08.2014 and I analyzed two weeks after. On March 4th_{2015, the jury of Missouri decided that Wilson, the officer who shot Brown,}

would not be charged. Hence the sample consists of the reporting on the shooting, the protests up to two weeks after the shooting, on the decision and the protests after the decision and how race and police were framed in these news reports. I accessed LexisNexis and I found for the first period 80 articles in The New York Times, 33 in USA Today and 63 in Daily News. For the second period I found 26 articles in The New York Times, 16 in USA Today and 19 in Daily News. I used the key words ‘Ferguson’ and ‘shooting’ to search LexisNexis. However, in total I analyzed 70 articles of The New York Times, 40 of US Today and 42 of Daily News. This is because I left out articles from the websites of the newspapers, letters that readers had send to the newspaper and were made into articles and articles that were not specifically on the Ferguson shooting.

The unit of analysis is the individual article. The entire article was read and coded. I looked at the headline, the byline and the first paragraph of the article to code the main frames, but when I code for objectivity and the portrayal of people within certain frames, I looked at the entire article. I coded manually and the complete set of coding schemes per article can be accessed upon request.

4.3 Measuring objectivity

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37 coding scheme I coded for the characteristics of objectivity. These variables are: factuality, fairness, non-bias, independence, non-interpretation and neutrality (Ward, 2009, 19). The categories I looked for are: the use of authoritative sources, the inverted pyramid, the use of accurate, comprehensive and verified facts, the balancing of viewpoints and representing them fairly, the use of attribution and quotation, no use of emotions, no use of interpretations or opinions, the detached tone of the third-person type of writing and the use of neutral language. I left out one characteristic of objective reporting, namely independence. The characteristic independence means that “journalists are free to report without fear or favour” (Ward, 2009, 19). This cannot be coded for when reading an article on the Ferguson shooting and therefore, I decided to leave this out of my code book. These variables and categories allow me to see whether or not the framing of minorities and police influences the objectivity of the reporting on the Ferguson shooting by means of stereotypes.

4.4 Measuring Frames

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38 combined this with the race frame by Andrus (2012), which he used in a study on the shooting of Trayvon Martin, namely “A Textual Analysis of Media Frames: The Coverage of the Shooting of Trayvon Martin”. These two frames combined are named the racial/morality frame in my study. I put these two frames together because they are very similar in their meaning. Whereas the morality frame focuses mostly on religious tenets, the racial frame focuses on race and skin color. Only a frame with religious tenets was in my opinion not enough because the focus often lies on skin color and race. Therefore, I combined the two frames. I added one more frame used by Andrus, namely the legal frame.

Finally, the code book has a third theme, named portrayal of people. When the responsibility frame is coded for, a category needs to be coded for. These categories are: black victim, white police officer, the police system and the black community. Also, when the human interest frame is coded for, a category needs to be coded for as well. This frame has the same categories: black victim, white police officer, the police system and the black community. All in all, after coding for the frames used in the articles and after coding how people are portrayed in the articles, I am able to answer the research questions and see how race is framed and how the police is framed in the reporting on the Ferguson shooting in US print media.

4.5 Limitations of the method

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39 agreement or stability over time, of coders in applying rules” (2005, 2). Multiple coders make a research more reliable as subjective judgments by one person are eliminated. Unfortunately, this is not the case in this study. There is only one coder and therefore, the coding is only based on one person’s observations. Therefore, this research might be slightly more subjective than when there are multiple coders.

A big limitation of content analysis is that only the content is looked at, not the context. If for example, a critical discourse analysis was carried out, I could also have taken into consideration the context. In addition, when performing a content analysis, only the articles are studied and no insight into the newsroom is given and no journalists are interviewed. The culture of the newsroom and the actual thoughts and motivations of the journalists cannot be taken into consideration when I try to answer the research question of this study. I cannot take into consideration their beliefs, their background and their race. Therefore, the production angle is not taken into consideration and this is a limitation of this study. In addition, a deductive approach is chosen for this study. This means that the code book is set and no more changes can be made. If, for example, I come across another frame in the news reports, I cannot add this frame to the code book. This is another limitation to the research. The code book would be more complete if I came across another frame and made use of an inductive approach.

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40 There are also some limitations when it comes to the code book. For example, I came up with the rule “multiple options can be coded for when a) (all main rival viewpoints are represented fairly) is not coded for when coding for the balancing of viewpoints and representing them fairly. This means that multiple viewpoints can be overrepresented, so for example, the viewpoints of the police officer but also of the black community. However, if I had to redo this study I would make a different decision. I now believe that it is not possible for two things to be overrepresented, because overrepresented means ‘more than the others’ and can only be one: or the viewpoints of the police officer or the police system or the viewpoints of the black community or the black victim.

5. Findings and discussion

5.1 Results of the content analysis

In this chapter, the results of the content analysis are demonstrated and discussed. I start by discussing if and how objectivity practices such as factuality, fairness, non-bias, independence, non-interpretation and neutrality are influenced in the articles on the Ferguson shooting by American newspapers. I demonstrate which frames are used in the articles and what this means for my research question and hypotheses and for further research.

5.2 Government officials do dominate the news coverage

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41

Table 1. Use of authoritative sources period 1 +2

Total is more than 100 percent because multiple options can be coded for

The New York Times (total amount of articles 70)

US Today (total amount of articles 40)

Daily News (total amount of articles 42) Article amount Percentage Article amount Percentage Article amount Percentage a. The police 40 57 25 63 28 67 b. An attorney 11 16 13 33 8 19 c. A witness 11 16 6 15 14 33 d. A victim by the police 7 10 3 8 2 5 e. A leader of the Black Rights Movement 11 16 5 13 2 5 f. Someone specialized in shootings by the police, for example a professor 12 17 7 18 0 0 g. A non-authoritative source but only when the person is quoted or paraphrased 64 91 27 68 35 83 h. No source 2 3 2 5 0 0

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42 News), the police is used the most as source. This is in line with previous research on the Ferguson shooting, that pointed out that government officials, such as leaders, police officials and the army, dominate the news coverage (Larson, 2006, 174) and that the media often reports from the white male perspective (Grunig, Childers and Toth, 2013, 173) Lawrence argued that news on police brutality against minorities typically represents “perspectives of officials and other elites” (2000, 33). According to Lawrence, “the typical news story on police violence against black minorities is structured around claims provided by police spokesmen and politicians” (2000, 33). This is true for my study: when we look at period 1 and 2 together, the newspaper Daily News uses the police as source the most: 67 percent. The newspaper US Today comes second with 63 percent and the New York Times 57 percent.

Contradictory, a victim by the police and leaders of Black Rights Movements, so the people who are opposed to the police in this conflict the most, are not used as a source that often and this also echoes previous research that argues that the news story is structured around claims of the police. A victim by the police is used as source in only 5 percent in the newspaper Daily News, 8 percent in US Today and 10 percent in the New York Times. Leaders of Black Rights Movements are used as source in only 5 percent in the newspaper Daily News, 13 percent in US Today and 16 percent in the New York Times. It becomes visible that police officials dominate the news coverage and that therefore, the reporting indeed represents a white perspective on the matter. This imbalance of sourcing shows that American newspapers could certainly have been more objective. This is the case for all newspapers, but especially for the newspaper Daily News, since their percentage of the use of police sources is the highest and the use of black victims and leaders of Black Rights Movements the lowest.

5.3 Most important facts first

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43 that news reports in American newspapers on the Ferguson shooting report biased and in favor of the white police. For example, after analyzing whether or not the newspapers use the ‘inverted pyramid’ structure for their news stories, it became clear that all three newspapers do use this structure almost 100 percent of the time (see table 2 below).

Table 2. The inverted pyramid structure of news stories period 1 + period 2

The New York Times (total amount of articles 70)

US Today (total amount of articles 40)

Daily News (total amount of articles 42) Article amount Percentage Article amount Percentage Article amount Percentage Yes 67 96 39 98 42 100 No 3 4 1 2 0 0

The ‘inverted pyramid’ structure of news means that in the article, “journalists put the most important facts in the summary lead paragraph and leave out opinions” (Allen, 2010, 38). I did not expect to find such high percentages of the use of the ‘inverted pyramid’ structure, because previous research pointed out that media often reports from the white male perspective 1(Grunig, Childers and Toth, 2013, 173) and that “the media distribute the oversimplification of race” (Hall cited in Gutierrez, 2008, 20). This is why expected to find articles that set off by putting the problem in a racial context in which the black victim is responsible for the shooting. However, almost all articles start off with actual facts of the shooting and opinions are mostly left out.

Objectivity and framing in the reporting on the Ferguson shooting and its aftermath in US print media outlets