Tenure Security for Indonesia’s Urban Poor : a socio- legal study on land, decentralisation, and the rule of law in Bandung

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Tenure Security for Indonesia’s Urban Poor : a socio- legal study on land, decentralisation, and the rule of law in Bandung

Reerink, G.O.

Citation

Reerink, G. O. (2011, December 13). Tenure Security for Indonesia’s Urban Poor : a socio-legal study on land, decentralisation, and the rule of law in Bandung. Meijers-reeks. Leiden University Press (LUP), Leiden. Retrieved from https://hdl.handle.net/1887/18325

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Tenure security for Indonesia’s urban poor A socio-legal study on land, decentralisation,

and the rule of law in Bandung

Leiden University Press

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The research this book is based on and its publication have been made pos- sible by grants from the Netherlands Royal Academy of Sciences (KNAW), the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO), the Society for the Advancement of Research in the Tropics (Treub-Maatschappij), the Royal Netherlands Institute of Southeast Asian and Caribbean Studies / Adat Law Foundation (KITLV / Adatrechtstichting), the Leiden University Fund (LUF), and the Faculty of Law, Leiden University.

Lay-out: AlphaZet prepress, Waddinxveen ISBN 978 90 8728 152 6

eISBN 978 94 0060 071 3

All rights reserved. Without limiting the rights under copyright reserved above, no part of this book may be reproduced, stored in or introducted into a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise) without the written permission of both the copyright owner and the author of the book.

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Tenure Security for Indonesia’s Urban Poor

A socio-legal study on land, decentralisation, and the rule of law in Bandung

PROEFSCHRIFT

ter verkrijging van

de graad van Doctor aan de Universiteit Leiden,

op gezag van Rector Magnificus prof. mr. P.F. van der Heijden, volgens besluit van het College voor Promoties

te verdedigen op dinsdag 13 december 2011 klokke 15:00 uur

door

Gustaaf Olivier Reerink

geboren te Dwingeloo in 1978

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Promotiecommissie:

Promotor: Prof. dr. J.M. Otto Co-promotor: Dr. A.W. Bedner

Overige leden: Prof. mr. A.G. Castermans

Dr. F. Colombijn (Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam)

Prof. dr. D. Fitzpatrick BA LLB LLM (Australia National University, Canberra, Australia)

Prof. dr. T. Rahmadi SH LLM (Universitas Andalas, Padang, Indonesia)

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Contents

List of maps, tables, and appendices IX

Acknowledgements XI

Abbreviations and Acronyms XIII

1 Introduction 1

1.1 Urban poverty and informality 1

1.2 Tenure security, land registration, and alternative approaches 3 1.3 The need for a rule of law environment 8 1.4 Urban poverty, tenure security, and the rule of law in

Indonesia 10

1.5 Research questions 15

1.6 Framework of analysis 15

1.7 Methodologies 17

1.8 Limitations of research 21

1.9 Outline 22

2 Migrants flows, regulatory failure | A short history of the

kampongs of Bandung 25

2.1 Introduction 25

2.2 Autonomous villages in an expanding colonial town 26 2.3 Refuge settlements in an occupied city 32 2.4 Migrant settlements in a decolonising city 34 2.5 Migrant settlements in a metropolitan city 40 2.6 Bandung’s kampongs today: a ‘challenge of slums’? 48

2.7 Conclusion 53

3 State rights and individual obligations | A general overview

of Indonesian land law 57

3.1 Introduction 57

3.2 Guided Democracy: land law in a state of revolution 58 3.3 The New Order: land law in a ‘developmentalist‘ state 63 3.4 Post-New Order: land law in a decentralised ‘Rechtsstaat’? 68

3.4.1 General reforms 68

3.4.2 Regional autonomy 74

3.4.3 Land law reform 82

3.4.4 Access to justice and legal empowerment 85

3.5 Conclusion 87

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VI Contents

4 An ‘ideal’ beyond reach | Law and practice of land registration 89

4.1 Introduction 89

4.2 The system of land registration in Indonesia 90 4.3 Sporadic registration and its limits 95 4.4 Systematic registration: set-up of land registration

programmes 99

4.5 Reach of land registration programmes 102 4.6 Land registration, tenure security, and the rule of law 104 4.7 Recent reforms related to land registration 112

4.8 Conclusion 117

5 When money rules over voice | Law and practice of spatial

planning ¹²¹

5.1 Introduction 121

5.2 Spatial planning under the late New Order 122 5.3 Legal reforms related to spatial planning 128 5.4 Practice of spatial planning in Post-New Order Bandung 131 5.5 Spatial planning, tenure security, and the rule of law 145 5.6 More recent reforms related to spatial planning 153

5.7 Conclusion 156

6 Not just compensation | Law and practice of land clearance

by the state ¹⁵⁹

6.2 Land clearance by the state under the late New Order 159 6.3 Practice of land clearance by the state in Post-New Order

Bandung 167

6.4 Land clearance by the state, tenure security, and the

rule of law 177

6.5 Recent reforms related to land clearance by the state 181

6.6 Conclusion 185

7 Dealing with the urban poor | Law and practice of commercial

land clearance ¹⁸⁷

7.2 Commercial land clearance under the late New Order 188 7.3 Legal reforms related to commercial land clearance 193 7.4 Practice of commercial land clearance in Post-New Order

Bandung 196

7.4.1 The Paskal Hyper Square project 197 7.4.2 Land clearance in Kebonjeruk 199 7.4.3 Land clearance in Ciroyom, second zone 202 7.4.4 Land clearance in Ciroyom, third zone 205 7.5 Commercial land clearance, tenure security, and the

rule of law 206

7.6 Conclusion 210

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Contents VII

8 Investing in kampongs: risky business?| Perceived tenure

security and housing consolidation 213

8.2 Tenure status and perceived tenure security 214 8.2.1 Perceived legitimacy of tenure 215 8.2.2 Perceived possibility of involuntary removal 216 8.2.3 Perceived possibility to receive compensation

entitled to 217

8.3 Changed perceptions of tenure security since the end

of the New Order 218

8.4 Housing consolidation 219

8.5 Conclusion 221

9 Conclusion 223

9.2 Land tenure security of low-income kampong dwellers 223 9.3 Rule of law development at the local level 226 9.4 Indonesia’s current approaches to attaining land tenure

security 229

9.5 Policy suggestions 230

9.5.1 Toward a rights-based approach 230 9.5.2 Legal and institutional reforms 232

9.5.3 Legal empowerment 239

9.6 Contribution to policy theory 239

9.7 Suggestions for further research 241

Appendix I 243

Appendix II 244

Appendix III 245

References 247

Samenvatting | Dutch summary 257

Ringkasan | Indonesian Summary 269

Curriculum Vitae 281

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List of maps, tables, and appendices

Maps

Map 1 Bandung Municipality with survey locations indicated 24

Tables

Table 4.1 Semi-formal landholders: why do you not have a land

certificate? 98

Table 4.2 Output sporadic registration in Bandung Municipality 99 Table 4.3 Output LAP in Bandung Municipality 100 Table 4.4 Possession of building permit per land tenure category 108 Table 4.5 Why do you not have a building permit? 109 Table 4.6 Number of building permits issued by Bandung's

Municipal Building Service 109

Table 4.7 Estimation on derivative registration in case of future

land transfers 110

Table 5.1 Selected overview of revenues of Bandung’s municipal

government 147

Table 5.2 Overview of expenditure of Bandung’s Municipal

Council and Secretariat 148

Table 5.3 Overview of expenditure of Bandung’s municipal

government on civil society organisations 151 Table 8.1 Do the authorities agree that you reside on this land? 216 Table 8.2 Why do you believe the authorities agree with you

residing on this land? 216

Table 8.3 Is there a possibility of involuntary removal within the

next 5 years? 217

Table 8.4 In case of involuntary removal, would you receive the compensation entitled to according to law? 217 Table 8.5 How has the possibility of involuntary removal changed

since end of New Order? 218

Table 8.6 How has the possibility to receive proper compensation changed since end of the New Order? 218 Table 8.7 Household income and housing consolidation 219 Table 8.8 Regression of tenure category, perceived possibility of

involuntary removal, household income on housing

consolidation 220

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Appendices

Appendix I Autonomous Villages in Bandung Municipality

1906-1942 243

Appendix II Socio-Economic Characteristics of Kampongs in

Bandung Municipality 244

Appendix III Physical Characteristics of Kampongs in Bandung

Municipality 245

X List of maps, tables, and appendices

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Acknowledgements

This book could not have been written without the help of numerous people. Space constraints mean I am unable to name everyone I would wish to;

but to all I owe much gratitude. Some deserve particular mentioning and acknowledgment.

First of all, I would like to thank the residents of Gang Bongkaran, Ta- man Sari, and Pulo Undrus, Cibangkong, for welcoming me into their community and accepting me as one of them. I am particularly grateful to Yedi and Pak Cucu, who introduced me to Taman Sari and provided me with invaluable information. In Cibangkong, Pak Andar, Kang Maman, Kang Budi, Pak Agus, and the members of Radio Suara Cibangkong assisted me with my research and made my stay most pleasant. Hatur nuhun!

I also would like to thank my interviewees – activists, journalists, neighbourhood heads, officials, politicians, bureaucrats, and other stake- holders – as well as the 420 survey respondents who took the time to answer my questions.

Words of thanks also go to those who assisted me with the fieldwork:

Denny Riezki Pratama and Anindya Praharsacitta, who helped me with the oral history research in Taman Sari; Dede Tresna Wiyanti, Ade Sudrajat, Yadi Suryadi, Ivan Rahadian, Deni Kurniawan, and Helmi Suryanegara for conducting the survey research; and Ira (Cecep) and Kang Dayat, who joined me during the interviews and whose knowledge of Bandung and of Sundanese (political and bureaucratic) culture proved indispensible.

While in Bandung, I was a visiting researcher at the Faculty of Law at the Parahyangan Catholic University. I am indebted to former dean Ismadi Bekti and staff for their hospitality, as well as the excellent research environment they provided. During my stay in Indonesia, I also had inspir- ing discussions with and was assisted by fellow academics, including Prof. Boedi Harsono, Novina Indiraharti, Inn Untari, and Selly Riawanti.

Other people I would like to mention are Dianto Bachriadi, Hilma Safi- tri, Vinondini Indriati, Taufan Suranto and Bernadinus Steni. Terima kasih banyak.

In the Netherlands, I participated in periodic discussions with the Kota Group and the Klub van Leidse Urbanisten. I would like to thank the members of these groups and in particular Freek Colombijn, Prof. Peter Nas, Pauline van Roosmalen and Hans Versnel for providing valuable insights and comments.

Much gratitude I owe to Bec Donaldson for her excellent editing work and, perhaps more importantly, her patience. The project took much longer than planned, but Bec never complained.

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I am indebted to my ‘promotor’ and ‘co-promotor’, Prof. Jan Michiel Otto and Adriaan Bedner, for involving me in the INDIRA-project and for providing invaluable advice and guidance throughout all the years.

Words of thanks also to the other members of the INDIRA team: Prof.

Takdir Rahmadi, Jamie Davidson, Daniel Fitzpatrick, Karen Portier, Her- man Slaats, Marjanne Termorshuizen, Jacqueline Vel, Laurens Bakker and his wife Judith Zuidgeest, Saldi Isra, Sandra Moniaga and her husband Martua Sirait, Tristam Moeliono and his wife Widati Wulandari, Myrna Safitri, the late Djaka Soehendera, Sulastriono, Kurnia Warman, and sup- porting staff Carien Hietkamp and Theodora de Vries. And thanks to Prof.

Soetandyo Wignjosoebroto. You were all a great source of inspiration.

Thanks also to my colleagues and friends at the VVI, including Julia Arnscheidt, the late Willem Assies, Stijn van Huis, Hilde Bos-Ollerman, Ab Massier, Ineke van der Meene, Benjamin van Rooij, Ken Setiawan, Rikardo Simarmata, Surya Tjandra, Janine Ubink, Theo Veenkamp, and Herlam- bang Wiratraman for sharing their knowledge, experience, and intellect;

Jan van Olden for his remarkable organisational assistance; the late Albert Dekker and Sylvia Holverda, for providing indispensible literature; and Marianne Moria, Kari van Weeren, and Kora Bentvelsen for secretarial support. It was great working with you.

Special thanks to my friends Adrian Venema and Herlien Boediono, for their overwhelming generosity and care; Ibu Soedjatmo and family and equally the Moeliono family for their warm hospitality; my Gangus and Omerta friends, especially Gijs ter Braak, Jos Hectors, Coen Kievit, Jurjen Tuinman, and Ole Wittich, for showing a sincere interest in – and tolerance for! – my passion for Indonesia in general and in this research in particular;

Wout Cornelissen, Arlo Griffiths, and Roy Voragen, for providing intellec- tual spirit and comradeship; Jean-Louis van Gelder for the previous, and for assisting me with the analysis of my statistical data and for giving valuable input on drafts of various chapters of this book.

My greatest debt is to my family. First of all, I would like to thank my uncle Jim Lopulalan, who through his stories about Indonesia sparked my passion for the country at an early age. Thanks Nuki and family in Indone- sia, Susan and family in the Netherlands, Nils, Sabina, Koen, Annabel for your love and support. Mum, dad, in addition, thank you for your continu- ous faith in me. I couldn’t have done this without you. Finally, “my biggest research finding”, Nad: without this book we probably would not have been together. Equally, this book has separated us more than once. I know you are just as glad as I am that the job is finally done. Thanks for staying on my side throughout the course of this long project. I hope you are ready for our next.

XII Preface and acknowledgements

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Abbreviations and Acronyms

ADB Asia Development Bank

AMS Angkatan Muda Siliwangi, Siliwangi Youth Force AusAID Australian Agency for International Development BAPPENAS Badan Perencanaan Pembangunan Nasional, National

Development Planning Agency

BAL Basic Agrarian Law

BPK Badan Pemeriksa Keuangan, Supreme Audit Board BIGS Bandung Institute of Governance Studies

BPN Badan Pertanahan Nasional, National Land Agency CESCR UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights DPD Dewan Perwakilan Daerah, Representative Council of the

Regions

DPKLTS Dewan Pemerhati Kehutanan dan Lingkungan Tatar Sunda, Monitoring Body for the Upgrading of Sundanese Foresty and Environment

DPR Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat, People’s Representative Coun- cil (National Parliament)

DPRD Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Daerah, Provincial Assembly / District/Municipal Council

FKPKP Forum Komunikasi Peduli Korban Pasupati, Communica- tion Forum for those Concerned with the Victims of Pasupati

Fordamasta Forum Masyarakat Kelurahan Taman Sari, Public Forum of City Quarter Taman Sari

GASIBU Gabungan Anak Siliwangi Barisan Utama, Grouping of Sons of Siliwangi Elite Troops

GIBAS Gabungan Inisiatif Barisan Anak Siliwangi, Joint Initiative of the Sons of Siliwangi

Golkar Golongan karya, Party of functional groups GPI Gerakan Pemuda Islam, Islamic Youth Movement

GR Government Regulation

GTZ ‘Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammen- arbeit’, German Society for Technical Cooperation ICESCR International Covenant on Economic, Social and

Cultural Rights

IMF International Monetary Fund

Inpres Instruksi Presiden, Presidential Instruction

ITB Institut Teknologi Bandung, Bandung Institute of Technol- ogy

J4P World Bank-sponsored Justice for the Poor programme

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Keppres Keputusan presiden, presidential decision (until 2004) KIP Kampong Improvement Project

KKN Korupsi, kolusi dan nepotisme, generally applied acronym to refer to corruption, collusion, and nepotism

KMBB Koalisi Masyarakat Bandung Bermartabat, ‘Bandung Bermartabat’ People’s Coalition

KPA Konsortium Pembaruan Agraria, Consortium for Agrarian Renewal

KSU Amanah Kooperasi Serba Usaha Amanah, Business Cooperation Amanah

LAP Land Administration Project

LBH Lembaga Bantuan Hukum, Legal Aid Institute

LEAD UNDP-sponsored Legal Empowerment and Assistance for the Disadvantaged programme

LIS Land Information System

LMPDP Land Management and Policy Development Project M2PT Majelis Musyawarah Pembangunan Kelurahan Taman Sari,

Discussion Assembly for the Development of City Quarter Taman Sari

MA Mahkamah Agung, Supreme Court

MCLE Mediation and Community Legal Empowerment Pro- gram

MPR Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat, People’s Consultative Assembly, consisting of Representative Council of the Regions and People’s Representative Council

NGO Non-Governmental Organisation

NLA National Land Agency

PAN Partai Amanat Nasional, National Awakening Party Pasupati (Jalan layang) Pasteur Surapati, flyover in Bandung PD Partai Demokrat, Democratic Party

PDI-P Partai Demokrat Indonesia – Perjuangan, Indonesian Dem- ocratic Party of Struggle

Perda Peraturan daerah, regional regulation / bylaw Permen Peraturan menteri, ministerial regulation

Permendagri Peraturan menteri dalam negeri, regulation of the Minister of Home Affairs

Perpres Peraturan presiden, presidential regulation (from 2004) PKB Partai Kebangkitan Bangsa, National Awakening Party PKBB Partai Keadilan Bulan Bintang, Justice Moon and Star Par-

ty

PKI Partai Komunis Indonesia, Indonesian Communist Party PKS Partai Keadilan Sejahtera, Justice and Prosperity Party PNPM (Mandiri) Program Nasional Pemberdayaan Masyarakat, National

Community Empowerment Programme

POLRI Polisi Republik Indonesia, Indonesian National Police

XIV Abbreviations and Acronyms

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PP Peraturan Pemerintah, Government Regulation / Pemuda Pancasila, Pancasila Youngsters

PPAN Program Pembaruan Agraria Nasional, National Agrarian Renewal Programme

PPP Partai Persatuan Pembangunan, United Development Party; Public-Private Partnership

PRODA Proyek Operasi Daerah Agraria, Regional Land Registra- tion Project

PRONA Proyek Operasi Nasional Agraria, National Land Registra- tion Project

PT KAI PT Kereta Api Indonesia, Indonesian Railway Company RALs Regional Autonomy Laws (1999 and 2004)

REPELITA Rencana Pembangunan Lima Tahun, Five-Year Develop- ment Plan (designed during the New Order)

Sawarung Sarasehan Warga Bandung, a Bandung citizens’ forum SML Spatial Management Law (1992 and 2007)

SSN Social Safety Net

TAP MPR Ketetapan Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat, People’s Con- sultative Assembly Directive

TNI Tentara Nasional Indonesia, Indonesian National Armed Forces

UNDP United Nations Development Programme UN-HABITAT United Nations Human Settlements Programme UNISBA Universitas Islam Bandung, Islamic University of Bandung

UPC Urban Poor Consortium

UPP Urban Poverty Project

USAID United States Agency for International Development UUPA Undang-Undang Pokok-Pokok Agraria, Basic Agrarian

Law (BAL)

WALHI Wahana Lingkungan Hidup Indonesia, Indonesian Envi- ronmental Forum

Abbreviations and Acronyms XV

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