‘The influence of exogenous and
endogenous factors on humanitarian
logistics performance in the refugee crisis’
Master Thesis Supply Chain Management
Faculty of Economics and Business / Operations Management
University of Groningen
Matthijs Soldaat
S2173026
Email: matthijssoldaat@gmail.com
Phone: +316 22 692 384
26-06-2017
Supervisor: Phd Candidate N. Dube (n.dube@rug.nl)
Co-supervisor: Phd Candidate A.P. Seepma (a.p.seepma@rug.nl)
Acknowledgements: First of all I want to say thanks to N. Dube for guiding me during writing my
master thesis. I would also say thanks to A. Seepma for being my second accessor and giving me feedback during the plenary presentation. Finally, I would say thanks to my dear wife for mental
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Abstract
Aim: Validating which exogenous factors (factors in the context which are not directly manageable by
HOs) are relevant in the context of the ERC and how HOs employ endogenous factors (controllable factors by HOs) to react to these exogenous factors and what implications it has for HL performance in terms of effectiveness and efficiency.
Methodology: This research conducted a multiple case study since it allows to compare how different
types of HOs are influenced by exogenous factors in the ERC and how they are able to react to it. Added to this, a case study allows to study factors in a different context (ERC).
Findings: The governmental factor is the greatest exogenous factor, governments want to control the
situation. Socio-economic and infrastructural factors are well-established in Europe. The endogenous factor personnel is employed in reaction to security. Coordination and information technology are employed in reaction to infrastructure and security.
Relevance/contribution: This research contributes to theory by presenting the exogenous factors in
direct relation to HL performance and in another context (slow-onset man-made disaster). Additionally, employments of endogenous factors in reaction to certain exogenous factors are presented and their implications for HL performance which has never done before in theory.
Keywords: context, refugee crisis, man-made disaster, effectiveness, efficiency, humanitarian
logistics performance
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Content
1. INTRODUCTION ... 5
2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND ... 6
2.1 The European Refugee Crisis (ERC) ... 6
2.2 Humanitarian Logistics Performance ... 7
2.3 Exogenous factors ... 8
2.4 Endogenous factors ... 9
2.5 Conceptual Model ... 11
3. METHODOLOGY ... 12
3.1 Case research and context ... 12
3.2 Case selection ... 12
3.3 Data collection ... 13
3.4 Operationalization of the variables ... 14
3.5 Data analysis... 15
4. RESULTS ... 15
4.1 In case analysis ... 15
4.1.1 Case 1 – international NGOs ... 15
4.1.2. Case 2: National NGOs ... 20
4.1.3. Case 3 GBO (Governmental Based Organizations) between governments ... 23
4.1.4 Case 4: GBO within the Government ... 26
4.2 Cross-case analysis ... 29
4.2.1. Similarities within the exogenous factors ... 29
4.2.2 Similarities within employment of endogenous factors ... 30
4.2.3 Differences within the exogenous factors ... 31
4.2.4 Differences within the endogenous factors ... 31
4.2.5 Emergent variables ... 31
5. DISCUSSION ... 34
5.1. Key research insights ... 34
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1. INTRODUCTION
The refugee crisis in Europe is a recent example of a slow-onset man-made disaster, causing the arrival of 1.2 million refugees at the European borders, which is a serious problem but still a poorly managed issue (Martin, 2016; Pettit & Beresford, 2005; Van Wassenhove, 2006; Zavallis, 2016). To be able to manage a disaster it is important to understand the context that could impact humanitarian operations, understanding the context assist in keeping the efficiency and effectiveness of humanitarian logistics (HL) high (Tatham, L’Hermitte, Spens, & Kovacs, 2013). HL is defined as the process of planning, implementing and controlling the efficient, cost-effective flow and storage of goods and materials, as well as related information, from point of origin to point of consumption for the purpose of meeting the end beneficiary’s requirements (Kovács & Spens, 2009, p. 506).
L’Hermitte, Tatham, & Bowles (2014) defined two disaster characteristics; (1) time to action and (2) geographical scope. They argue that these characteristics do not reflect the dynamics of humanitarian logistics, that is why they call it a ‘static view’ of the disaster. To show the dynamics within a disaster they include in their model five exogenous factors (factors that are beyond the influence of humanitarian organizations (HOs)) as reflection of the dynamic factors that create uncertainty and a rapidly changing environment. These factors are governmental, socio-economic, security, infrastructural and physical environmental factors. These factors influence HL and cannot be modified by the HOs, however their impact can be reduced by the ability of the HOs to handle them (Kunz & Reiner, 2012). Van der Laan, van Dalen, Rohrmoser, & Simpson (2016) mentioned that next to the exogenous factors there are several endogenous factors (factors that can be managed/controlled by the HOs). These factors can be used to manage humanitarian operations. Examples are factors related to personnel, coordination and information technology (IT).
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How do organizations adapt to relevant exogenous factors in the European refugee crisis (ERC) and what implications has it for humanitarian logistics performance in terms efficiency and effectiveness?
This article contributes to literature in the first place by studying the relevant exogenous factors in the refugee crisis, where L’Hermitte et al. (2014) investigates the exogenous factors in a natural disaster will this research provide insight in a man-made disaster. Secondly, this research will describe how various organizations, with endogenous factors, are able to adapt to these exogenous factors. Whereas the ultimate contribution is that this research investigates the influence of the adaption of organizations with various endogenous factors to the exogenous factors on the HL performance in terms of efficiency and effectiveness. This is important since HL is of strategic influence in providing humanitarian aid (Tatham & Houghton, 2011). In the long term relief organizations will benefit from these insights since identifying the exogenous factors and endogenous factors will lead to optimization in decision making by better controlling the known variables and better adapting to unknown variables. (L’Hermitte et al., 2014). Finally, since studies into slow-onset man-made disasters, like the ERC, are rarely presented there is a need to understand such contexts and how relief organizations can adapt to such contexts (Leiras et al., 2014).This research will fulfill this need.
This study conducts a validation study to validate the exogenous factors in a different context; a slow-onset man-made disaster, and explore the employment of endogenous factors in reaction to exogenous factors. A multiple case study is conducted to answer the research question since it provides the ability to compare findings of multiple cases in one context (Voss, Tsikriktsis, & Frohlich, 2002). Four different types of HOs represent the four cases used in this research to show how different types of HOs adapt to the exogenous factors in the same context.
This article is structured as follows. Firstly, the theoretical background is described. This theoretical section is followed by the methodology. After the methodology the results are presented and discussed. The article concludes with a short conclusion and suggestions for further research.
2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
2.1 The European Refugee Crisis (ERC)7 After the 12 months the focus is on recovery, which means education and relief for (returning) refugees. In the restore phase the focus is on effectiveness and speed and in the recovery phase the focus is on costs reduction (Cozzolino et al., 2012). The focus of this research is on restore and recovery since the provision of humanitarian aid is regulated now and Europe is relocating people among member states, or guiding them to return.
One of the most important factors that influence HL are the characteristics of the disaster itself (Holguín-Veras, Jaller, Van Wassenhove, Pérez, & Wachtendorf, 2012). However, characterizing the disaster by slow versus sudden onset and man-made versus natural does not enough reflect the complexity of logistics according to L’Hermitte et al. (2014). L’Hermitte et al. (2014) make in their own typology a distinction between time to action and geographical scope. In terms of the latter, the ERC is approached as a geographical diffused disaster since refugees are coming ashore in multiple countries whereafter the stream of refugees is going through multiple countries. L’Hermitte et al. (2014) call the typology based on time to action and geographical scope a static and predictable view of the disaster. It is not dynamic in the sense how HL is influenced by the context directly.
To show the dynamic environment of the disaster the exogenous factors will be described in section 2.3. First the HL performance will be declared.
2.2 Humanitarian Logistics Performance
8 transportation costs (TC) and costs of goods (CG), are known from literature. Focusing on efficiency, and thereby costs, is important to create greater accountability towards the donors who provide the money for the operations, in particular when the situation persists (Haavisto & Goentzel, 2015).
2.3 Exogenous factors
Exogenous factors are external elements in a disaster that are not directly controllable by HOs (Kunz & Reiner, 2012; Thompson, 1967). These exogenous factors are governmental, socio-economic, infrastructural, physic environmental and security factors (Kunz & Reiner, 2012; L’Hermitte et al., 2014). The factors do not necessarily influence HL performance negatively, appropriate infrastructure can enhance HL performance (Kunz & Reiner, 2012). It is assumed that these factors do not stand alone but are influenced by each other, but in what way is not well understood yet (L’Hermitte et al., 2014).
Governments can enhance the performance of HL in declaring a state of emergency, relaxation of regulation and (financial) support (Dube et al., 2016; McLachlin et al., 2009). A cooperative government will welcome international relief organizations in their countries (Kunz & Reiner, 2012). However, HOs are subjected to the laws of the government and are bounded to their restrictions (Balcik, Beamon, Krejci, Muramatsu, & Ramirez, 2010). In case of the ERC, the EU established the so-called ‘EU-Dublin system’ which means that the EU member state of first entry is responsible for the asylum procedure and application (Carrera, Blockmans, Gros, & Guild, 2015). In Europe this is a problem since the first entry countries (Greece and Italy) are the poorest countries of Europe and do not have enough capacity to resettle refugees (Holmes & Castaneda, 2016). This situation has changed into a relocation system where refugees are resettled among member states based on Gross Domestic Product (GDP), unemployment rate and amount of refugees per million habitants (Carrera et al., 2015). Since haphazard decisions are made about closing borders by national governments, irregular amounts of people make use of services which makes that HL is sometimes inefficient. (Morgan, 2015). There are several studies about the influence of governments on HL. For example Dube et al. (2016) show how governments could stand towards HLs; uncompromising, opportunistic, selectively accommodating and non- restrictive. She shows that governments could control the situation, build up regulations towards HL or let HOs free in conducting projects. How the government is influencing HL within a refugee crisis as in Europe is not presented.
9 being familiar with their habits and what kinds of supplies to offer to refugees. (Skoglund & Hertz, 2012).
HL performance, in the sense of timeliness and cost in transport, is facilitated by well-established infrastructure (Kovács & Spens, 2012; Kunz & Reiner, 2012). Infrastructure entails telecommunications, availability of roads, airports and vehicles which are all present in Europe (Kovács & Spens, 2007). Organizations can share corporate infrastructure by having compatible communication technology (Maon, Lindgreen, & Vanhamme, 2009). In light of the refugee crisis, logistics have also a critical role in safe routes from danger zones to safe places such as transit centers and refugee camps (Gustavsson, 2003), the infrastructure plays hereby an important role to get people safe in Europe and relocate refugees among member states (Carrera et al., 2015). A lack of such infrastructure is observable since in the first six months of 2017 more than 75.000 people risked their lives at sea in small boats to reach the borders of Europe (UNHCR, 2017). However, it is not Europe who provided the small boats but there are no legal pathways to Europe what leave refugees with a few choices.
Security factors are in the first place referred to violence against aid workers (Stoddard, Harmer, & DiDomenico, 2009). Besides that could overcrowded refugee camps lead to security problems like robbery and sexual violence (L’Hermitte et al., 2014). Another important aspect of security is the security of the civilian population of member states in Europe. Since so many people are arriving in Europe is it due to the low labor capacity not possible to register all the victims and indicate the degree of vulnerability (Morgan, 2015) It is not known whether there are persons within the group that have bad intensions, for example terrorists. Since the attacks in Paris the refugees are seen as a threat, partly due to the media (Holmes & Castaneda, 2016). It is not known from literature how security factors influences HL, however relief organizations adopted security managements in order to prevent to violence against aid workers (Stoddard et al., 2009).
Finally, the physical environment influences HL which is referred to the variety of the environment and the difficulty to understand and adapt to it (L’Hermitte et al., 2014). Other issues in the physical environment are the weather, geographical location and the effect of climate changes (Kunz & Reiner, 2012). In terms of the refugee crisis are climate changes to the victims of great importance since they will face in Europe colder winters than they experienced in their homeland which means that they need other equipment (Louis, 2016).
2.4 Endogenous factors
10 cause of high personnel turnover (Dubey, Gunasekaran, Altay, Childe, & Papadopoulos, 2016). Personality factors such as jobsatisfaction and job readiness of the individual (biographical information, marital status, aptitude and intelligence) are important in how an employee is able to deal with a complex workplace (Dubey et al., 2016). Personnel should gain more training with certification programs within the HL sector to be able to cope with such external influences, this would lead to a pool of trained aid workers that are externally licensed (Thomas & Mizushima, 2005). This makes that staff can hired with greater flexibility and can be more easily deployed (Thomas & Mizushima, 2005). Another positive thing of training is that job satisfaction and career mobility is enhanced (Thomas & Mizushima, 2005). From literature, it appears that personnel is mainly used in adaption to security issues by making use of training. However, this research will investigate whether personnel is used to react to other exogenous factors.
Another factor is the use of information systems which can enhance the effectiveness of the humanitarian response and can reduce the amount of waste by tracking and tracing the relief commodities (Pettit & Beresford, 2009). Information technology (IT) make it possible to share information about the available suppliers in local or national markets, share information about distribution of supplies and share the needs of beneficiaries in certain regions (Howden, 2009). This is an example of reacting to socio-economic and infrastructural factors. The United Nation Joint Logistic Center (UNJLC) developed a disaster specific website to share crucial information with different actors (Van Wassenhove & Samii, 2003). These information enabled actors to make decisions based on available security, resources and the victim needs (Van Wassenhove & Martinez, 2012). It appears from literature that the usage of IT systems is mainly about sharing of data and information.
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2.5 Conceptual Model
The exogenous factors as described in section 2.3 determine the operational context of the ERC. The endogenous factors are possibly employed to react to certain exogenous factors. This research will show which exogenous factors are relevant in the ERC and what they implicate for HL performance and how HOs will react to these factors by employing some endogenous factors (section 2.4) and what that implicates for HL performance. This lead to the following conceptual model.
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3. METHODOLOGY
3.1 Case research and contextTo investigate how HOs are be able to react to relevant exogenous factors in the context of the ERC and what it implicates for HL performance in terms of effectiveness and efficiency, a multiple case study is used as methodological approach (Voss et al., 2002). A multiple case study is appropriate since it allows to compare how different types of HOs are influenced by exogenous factors in the ERC and how they are able to react to it (Yin, 2003). Additionally, a case study is appropriate when there is a ‘how-question’ and when the relevant exogenous and endogenous factors as defined by Kunz & Reiner (2012), L’Hermite et al. (2014) and Van der Laan et al. (2016) are validated into another context, the ERC.
This study focus on the ERC as the context of this research. The context is appropriate for several reasons. The exogenous factors, where this research is looking at, are present in the ERC. Besides that, is the ERC a quite stable context to investigate how organizations are adapting to the exogenous factors by employing endogenous factors. Finally, many different types of HOs are available within the context of the ERC which makes it possible to generalize it to other contexts, since many of these HOs are also represented in other contexts.
3.2 Case selection
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3.3 Data collection
Multiple sources of data are collected to answer the research question. The primary source of data are semi-structured interviews since it is the richest source of data and respondents are giving in-depth information from multiple perspectives (Vos, 2009). Additionally, secondary data is used including situational reports and (evaluation reports) from HOs. The usage of multiple sources of data enhances the reliability since data source triangulation increases the reliability when results are convergent (Yin, 2013). An interview protocol (appendix A) is developed for collecting interview data, containing semi-structured questions and a topic list (heading above each question), based on section 2.2-2.4, to be sure that all variables are addressed. The interview questions covered the exogenous factors and how the endogenous factors were employed to adapt to them. The interview protocol is piloted with three (student)colleagues. By using a protocol the validity and reliability of the research data increase (Yin, 1994). Eleven interviews are held, between one and seven per case. Although, one respondent within one case is low, the respondent was highly experienced and the most senior in the relevant function. The respondents (R#1 - R#11) are highly experienced and have much knowledge about the context and their operations within the context. The interviewees are people working at headquarters and in the field (e.g. refugee camps and the boarders of Europe) which makes that data is obtained with multiple perspectives on the same context. The interviews are recorded by permission of the interviewee and subsequently transcribed and verified with the interviewee to enhance the reliability (Yin, 2013)
14 in depth. The credibility and reliability of the documents is enhanced by selecting by source, assumed that organizations such as UNHCR, IFRC, WFP, MSF and Save the Children are reliable organizations. The documents and reports used as secondary data for the results can be found in Appendix C
3.4 Operationalization of the variables
Operationalization of the variables enhances the reliability since it provide the opportunity to repeat the research by using the same variables which lead to the same or comparable results (Voss et al., 2002; Yin, 1994)
The operationalization of the variables are shown in table 3.2.
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3.5 Data analysis
The analysis of the obtained data is done according the steps outlined by Miles & Huberman (1994): data reduction, displaying and conclusions drawing. Data reduction started with assigning the codes to analyzed sentences and words from the interviews and the secondary data. The code could be one of the exogenous or endogenous factors and HL performance. This part is called deductive coding where sentences and words from the data are linked to the ‘start-list’ of variables (Miles & Huberman, 1994). Hereafter, inductive coding is used in searching for similarities, causalities and patterns among the various factors and their relation toward HL performance (Miles & Huberman, 1994; Vos, 2009). Atlas.ti is used for systematically coding.
4. RESULTS
The results are structured as follows; firstly an in case analysis will displayed. There are four cases which are international active NGOs, national NGOs, GBOs between (EU) governments and GBOs within the (EU) government. For each individual case the relevant exogenous factors will be presented, which may have a negative and a positive impact on HL performance. When there are certain endogenous factors employed in adaption to (a specific aspect of) the exogenous factor it will be presented simultaneously including the implications for effectiveness and efficiency of HL.
4.1 In case analysis
4.1.1 Case 1 – international NGOs
The NGOs are international activated and have offices in almost every country in Europe and are within the ERC mainly situated in Greece, Italy and the Balkan. 80% of the organizations in this case are part of the Dutch Relief Alliance (DRA) which is a coordination and collaboration mechanism. The DRA means that the organization that could conduct the project the best will conduct the project which lead to less competition for money. International NGOs are 100% dependent from (institutional) donors which means that money is not abundantly available so it has to be spend as efficient as possible. The organizations conduct several programs like WASH (Water and Sanitarian and Hygiene), food and health. The organizations are activated based on observed needs rather than in (direct) mandate of a government. The term international NGO and IHO (International Humanitarian Organization) will be changed interchangeably from now.
Governmental factor
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’It is strange as IHO to work in your own continent to guarantee the human existence of refugee, that the EU could not handle this problem by themselves, that we as relief organization are necessary to guarantee the human existence of refugees and migrants.’
The EU has strong regulations regarding procurement and provision of medicines. Medicines must be approved at the European market which makes that procurement is expensive - since organizations also have suppliers of medicines in cheaper countries like China or India - which makes that the provision of humanitarian aid is less efficient. Additionally, in Italy it is for IHOs only allowed to use national staff in the provision of medical care. IHOs adapt to these by segmenting their personnel based on the requirements of the (Italian) government.
‘That means that we always have to work with Italian doctors, Italian nurses etc. But we are an international organization, we have available staff and knowledge all around the world.’ R#3
This decreased the effectiveness of HL since there is less staff available within this requirements and thereby less beneficiaries can be reached.
Infrastructural factor
Infrastructure is in the sense of availability and quality of roads very good. Although, coordination is used to cover possible supply chain bottlenecks and airports which increases the efficiency and effectiveness of humanitarian logistics. Additionally is information technology used to trace where supplies are. This increases the effectiveness of HL since it is known when supplies are available. No safe routes to and through Europe makes that people make use of human smugglers. This makes providing effective aid difficult since refugees are ‘out of sight’ for the IHOs. IHOs try – by making use of coordination with governments – to let some vulnerable groups of people travel to Europe on humanitarian visa’s. This enhances the effectiveness since people can be traced and direct aid can be provided. However, the majority come ashore with small boats. Once those people arrive, the assistance is not streamlined. IHOs arrange lodgings for them which causes that refugees are widespread among the country, staying in empty hotels, refugee camps and houses, which make the provision of humanitarian aid and keeping track on them complicated.
‘That was something which make the operations tough for us because people were widespread among the country. So it had impact on the success of the provision of humanitarian aid. After getting people at one location, it became more easy for us to get access to them. So in that sense it has influence on infrastructure (…) in particular in Europe’. (R#1)
Additionally, people are going through many countries to reach their final destinations in north western Europe. It is hard to trace the people on their route. IHOs react to this by employing
17 digital identities among all IHOs, in a digital system can be seen which services a refugee has received in the past, where he/she comes from and if family is looking for him/her. This enhances the effectiveness of HL since the need is early recognized and can immediately provided.
Socio-economic Factors
Organizations are active in Europe since the countries of first entry do not have the economic capabilities to provide the refugees with proper shelter, there are simply too many refugees entering those countries. This is an important socio-economic factor. The IHOs are coordinating and lobbying with governments of other member states to keep them to relocation agreements to disembarrass countries of first entry. Due to the widely availability of suppliers it is possible to procure locally 99,5%1 of the items which saves transportation costs to the IHOs. The latter makes that providing aid is done more efficiently and effectively in the sense that items are readily available and aid can be provided quickly. Another socio-economic factor is that since refugees are fleeing to another continent with other habits, the provision of aid is partly adapted to the refugees. However, standardizing is for IHOs very important since they stick to the humanitarian principles as neutrality, impartiality and independency. Although, IHOs do not employ endogenous factors to adapt to this exogenous factor, they adapt certain aspects to the refugees otherwise they will not be used by the refugees. Adapting the provision of humanitarian aid lowered the efficiency of HL, since items cannot be bought in bulk, and the effectiveness since giving individuals tailored services is complicated. However, there are aspects easily to adapt to the refugees which don’t influence efficiency and effectiveness.
‘When we build toilets in the camp we make sure that the toilet is not with backside to Mekka and (…) we do not offer pig-meat’. (R#2).
Security factor
Security is a great issue for IHOs in Europe. Safety of the beneficiaries and the aid workers is
important. Also in Europe there is a chance that thieves will target inventories, hospitals/medical centers will be bombed or that there will be fights within the camps.
‘We have to deal with security (…), your hospital could be bombed (…), certain inventories could be targeted by thieves. (…) These are all security implications that we have to deal with, in Europe this is not different. The politics are different, but whether you're hospitals get bombed in Syria, Afghanistan or Europe, the risk for the people inside an hospital remains the same’ (R#2)
IHOs deal with security to adapt their personnel to it by making use of security trainings and protocols. Staff receives security training regardless the destination of their project. This increases the
18 effectiveness of HL because all staff gets the same training, which means that they can be deployed quickly since the destination of their project does not matter. Protocols are used in the form of predetermined rules which are applied to a project. These protocols makes HL efficient because the staff can read the rules on their own instead of explaining it each time again.
Multiple exogenous factors
To know which exogenous factors are important in the context of HL coordination meetings are used. Needs assessments are done with multiple organization, also via the DRA, because it is impossible to do it as single organization. During the assessments is investigated what the role of the government is, which suppliers are available and which other HOs are active. After assessments it is decided which organization will conduct which project. However, the coordination at meta level (among countries) is too low, which is critical since the migration or refugee stream goes through more than one country.
‘That is also the difficulty of keeping up with the migration cycle, there is no coordination on meta level. (…) In Greece are several agreements between various organizations (…) the same in Croatia, the same in Italy. But the coordination between the various countries is too low’ R#3
This is something that is partly solved by IT systems but there is currently not a general coordination framework at meta level which makes providing aid less effective and efficient since the ‘wheel has to be invented’ again in other countries.
[emergent exogenous factor] Donors
Donors is an emergent exogenous factor revealed from the interviews. IHOs are dependent from donors, which means that IHOs send a proposal to a donor and they can approve and sign it. However, the donor add some requirements into the project. Sometimes personnel has to perform according the rules of the donor. IHOs adapt to this situation by training their personnel according the requirements of the donor. This implicates being less efficient since doing things different from standard means extra costs. Other requirements are suppliers that have to be conform the requirements of the donor and the funding has an expire date. The latter may mean that the job is not done yet but the funding is expiring. Conducting the project according the desires of the donor means reporting about the
progress. This is done by the IHO via information technology, via an online ERP system are periodic reports shared with the donor.
19 EXOGENOUS FACTORS Descriptions E ff ic ie n cy 1 E ff ec tiv en ess 2 Governmental factor
Transiting (refugees) from one place to another is against the law
(-)
Tight rules regarding import/suppliers of medicines (-) (-)
No safe routes, low investments into host-communities (campsites, shelters) which makes that the presence of NGOs is
necessary in Europe. (-) (-)
(member states)governments decide on their own their policy regarding the refugee crisis, people are located in camps but also
in existing buildings. (-) (-)
[NGO at sea] medical staff on board has to be Italian nationality (-) (-)
Governments at the Balkan are closing borders and Europe is externalizing the borders to Turkey (Turkey-deal).
(-)
Socio–Economic factor
Countries of first entry do not have the economic capabilities to provide proper shelter up the massive amount of refugees.
(-)
According to [NGO] is it odd to intervene in a continent as Europe to guarantee the human existence of refugees.
Refugees and migrants have other habitants which have to be respected. (-)
Suppliers with sufficient quality are widely available in the EU.
(+)
Infrastructural factor
There are no safe routes from danger zones to Europe, so people collaborates with human smugglers which means that they are
‘out of sight’ (-) (-)
Roads and airport density are good in Europe (+) (+)
It depends on the location of the boat whether the NGO is exporting and which rules has to be followed (-) (-)
Security factor
The recent attacks in Europe have fueled the fear of member states for terrorists among the refugees;
(-)
Hospitals could be bombed .(according to a [NGO] )the possibility is as relevant as it is in Syria or Pakistan);
Inventories could be targeted by thieves;
There are fights in the camps between refugees;
[emerged] Donors
NGOs are 100% dependent from donors and gifts (+)
Majority of the donors are institutional donors (governments)
The (institutional) donor has influence in which project is conducted and the manner of execution.
(-) Table 4.1: Relevant exogenous factors and their implications for efficiency and effectiveness (case 1)
1
Not every exogenous factor directly influences efficiency of HL
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4.1.2. Case 2: National NGOs
The organizations in this case are locally operating organizations. These organizations are characterized by having voluntary staff, having a single office and 100% dependent of donors. The NGOs are providing aid in kind to refugees with clothes, English education, food and mental support.
Governmental factor
The government decide what an organization may do in terms of projects and where they are allowed to work. The influence of the government became visible in Greece after signing the Turkey-deal. The Greek army took over the charge over the refugee camps and the atmosphere became grim because refugees became venomously since they did not know what would happen. The large IHOs left the campsites and the small local NGOs remain. The effectiveness of HL was negatively influenced since the army decided what was needed in the camps rather than the (local) NGOs, which activities are based on observed needs. Added to this, the assistance was provided with fewer organizations
ENDOGENOUS FACTORS Employed to exogenous factor How Descriptions # O rg E ff ic ie n cy E ff ec tiv en ess Personnel Security
Training Staff receives security training regardless the destination of the project Org#1, Org#2,
Org#3, (+)
Protocol There are security protocol/rules which staff have to follow. Org#1 Org#2,
Org#3, Org#4, (+)
Segmentation People will be matched with certain projects based on experiences and
predilection to conduct some projects or not. Org#2, Org#3 (-)
Government Segmentation [Medical staff in Italy] is chosen according rules of the government. Org#2 (-)
Donor Training People will be trained according the wishes of the donor Org#4 (-) (-)
Coordination
Infrastructure platform Digital
Organizations are part of a coordination platform where supply chain
bottlenecks such as airports and hubs are coordinated (managed by WFP) Org#1, Org#3 (+) (+)
Refugees and migrants are given a digital identity, so people could be
recognized by several organizations to identify their needs, searched families and past received aid on their journey
Org#1, Org#2, Org#3 (+) Multiple exogenous factors Meetings
Doing things as single organization is impossible, needs assessments are done
together
Org#1, Org#2,
Org#4 (+) (+)
There is communication about who is doing what and where (DRA) Org#1, Org#2,
Org#4 (+) (+)
Information Technology
Coordination Phone/mail IT (phone and mail) is used to coordinate which HO is doing what and where. Org#1, Org#3 (+) (+)
Donors Reporting
systems
Reports about activities, ways of spending money are reported in terms of
justification to the donor(s). Org#3 (+)
Infrastructure Online ERP
system
Digital identities of refugees are processed in an online tool Org#1, Org#2,
Org3 (+)
Used as a tool to know where supplies are. Org#3 (+)
21 available in the refugee camps. There is no endogenous factor employed in adaption to the governmental factor (see table 4.4)
Socio-economic factor
Regarding the socio-economic factor, suppliers are widely available and items can be bought at local supermarkets with sufficient quality. This enhanced the effectiveness of HL because items are readily available. WhatsApp is used in and around camps as a form of information technology to coordinate and share the availability of supplies and suppliers. This is a simple method but increases the effectiveness since it is easy to use.
Infrastructural factor
The availability of roads and airports is good. For small local operating NGOs it is hard to move people and supplies since renting vans is expensive, going by public transport is time-consuming and buying a van is impossible when you are a non-resident. In other words, the infrastructure is available with appropriate quality but there are some constraints. There is not an endogenous factor employed in adaption to this factor. However, it influences the effectiveness of HL since it takes time to move people and supplies to other places where aid is needed and moving is expensive what influences the efficiency. In adaptation to another infrastructural issue, the irregularities in arrivals due to unavailability of safe routes to Europe, WhatsApp is employed as information technology and
coordination tool to share information when a boat is arriving.
‘There was a WhatsApp group with several organizations were involved in. One organisation was
located at the shore and sent a message when a boat was arriving. [IHO] could prepare busses to transport refugees to the camps and organisations in the camp knew that they could expect a huge crowd of people which need direct help.’ (R#9)
The use of IT to adapt to infrastructure increases the effectiveness of humanitarian logistics since (local) NGOs could prepare their aid and were able to fulfil the need of the arriving people.
Security factor
22 large IHOs left the campsite, due to their justification to their donors and to not damage their reputation in order to be associated with possible consequences of the Turkey-deal.
‘They also have to justify their operations to their donors. They have to keep their reputation at a high level. And if they are associated with this (…) it can damage their reputation’. (R#9)
This is something that damaged the effectiveness of HL since it is difficult to provide aid as single organization or with a few organizations.
[emergent exogenous factor] donors
Donors are within this case an emergent exogenous variable. Donors determine how and where the money has to be spend and justification about this has to be reported. When a supplier, assigned by the donor - delivers with a longer delivery time than the regular supplier, the effectiveness of HL deceases. It is also possible that the assigned supplier is more expensive than regular suppliers which has a negative effect on the efficiency of HL.
23
4.1.3. Case 3 GBO (Governmental Based Organizations) between governments
The organization within this case is supporting and operating in mandate of national governments and the EU government. This organization is important for coordination within the humanitarian field between HOs but also between HOs and governments. This organization is part of the ‘UN family’ and is tailored to issues related to refugees. This GBO aims to protect refugees from trafficking and want to respect their human rights. This is done by coordination and cooperation with other HOs and in supporting governments of member states in protecting refugees and migrants.
Governmental factor
The governments have a large influence on the operations of a GBO. Since the closed borders at the Balkan, many refugees and migrants stranded in countries at the Balkan and in Greece, however, refugees and migrants make us of traffickers to move further into Europe and are exposed to human
ENDOGENOUS FACTORS Employed to exogenous factor How Description # o rg E ff ic ie n cy E ff ec tiv en ess Personnel Security Segmentation
[after signing the Turkey-deal] the age
threshold of volunteers/staff increased
Org#5
Org#6 (-)
Certain level of experience is required to apply Org#6 (-)
Protocols
Organizations take precautions to (possible)
security issues (not working on your own, active parking, in case of emergency going to a predetermined location) Org#5 Org#6 (+) Coordination Infrastructure Online tool (Google. Maps)
Google.maps was used to show where refugee
camps are located, aid is provided and which organizations were where located.
Org#6 (+) Multiple exogenous factor Weekly meetings
By having weekly meetings with UNHCR
information about regional developments are received.
Org#5
Org#6 (+)
Camp meetings are conducted to talk with each
other and prevent of duplicating Org#5 (+)
Information Technology
Infrastructure
WhatsApp WhatsApp is an information tool to share the
information that people are arriving, transport modes have to be prepared and the refugee camp could expect refugees.
Org#5
Org#6 (+)
Online tool (Google.
Maps)
Google.maps was used to show where refugee
camps are located, aid is provided and which organizations were where located.
Org#6 (+)
Socio-economic
WhatsApp Some organizations mention in a group
conversation (WhatsApp) that there is a load of specific items available for other organizations
#Org5 (+)
24 rights violence and exploitation. This decreases the effectiveness of HL since refugees are out of sight and cannot be traced which means that providing aid is difficult.
‘Without safe and regular pathways to safety, people who have nothing left to lose may risk dangerous journeys with smugglers’ (UNHCR, 2017b)
Hereby, the GBO conducts two projects at the same time videlicit protecting refugees and migrants and supporting governments in establishing a sustainable framework to deal with refugees and migrants according international and European law. The GBO adapt to this by making use of
coordination meetings to ensure that governments are meeting international laws and that involved
partners are complementary to each other. Making use of coordination enhances the effectiveness of HL since various projects in various countries can be directed in order to protect refugees. For more details and relations see table 4.5 and 4.6.
Socio-economic factor
The main suppliers of the GBO are located in Europe which enhances the effectiveness of HL since supplies are readily available. Efficiency is enhanced since transportation costs are saved. The social context of the ERC is characterized as xenophobe towards the influx of refugees and migrants. The GBO make use of coordination meetings with national governments to increase the responsibility of the host governments to counter the xenophobe thoughts of the society. Making use of coordination increase the effectiveness since many countries can be directed in this way.
Infrastructural factor
Infrastructure is no problem within this case in the sense of availability of roads. However, the limitation of safe routes for refugees and migrants results in irregular movements and refugees that are exposed to trafficking, which means that they are out of sight and that effective HL along the route is difficult. Due to the closed borders at the Balkan, which results in fragmentation of routes, leads to refugee movements to countries which were not affected before, this means that the GBO has to easily shift their resources and support to governments and refugees in those countries. This asks for more flexibility which suffers the efficiency since such movements costs money and economies of scale cannot be created. GBO adapt to this situation by employing information technology, a web based platform, to display the route of migrants and refugees to enable partners and other HOs to adapt their HL to it. This enhances the effectiveness of HL since it is known via this IT system along which route the stream is going and humanitarian aid can be provided along this route.
Security factor
25 skills to identify people who are victim of trafficking. To make sure that this arrival process is done according Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) the efficiency is enhanced by treating everyone the same by meeting the EU standards. Additionally, it enhances the effectiveness of HL since the security of beneficiaries and member states is enhanced. The latter is done by making use of information
technology. The data obtained from the arrival process (e.g. fingerprints) are compared with data from
Interpol to check whether refugees or migrants are wanted, having a criminal record or could have bad intensions.
Physical environment
The physical environment affects the efficiency of HL. Since the reception sites are widespread among the islands in Greece with populations from 400 – 4000 people, it is difficult to realize economies of scale which makes the HL less efficient in relation of having all the refugees and migrants at one location or one island. More staff, tents, cars and equipment is needed for HL. There is no endogenous factor employed to adapt to this, however, it influences HL performance (see table 4.5)
EXOGENOUS FACTORS Descriptions E ff ic ie n cy 1 E ff ec tiv en ess 2 Governmental factor
Local governments (member states) closed their borders after which refugees and migrants stranded
in several countries
(-)
GBO are exempt from paying taxes (+)
Due to closed borders people make use of human smugglers, refugees and migrants have to protect
to trafficking
(-)
Socio– Economic
factor
Xenophobia among European countries against influx of refugees and migrants
Widely available suppliers (+) (+)
Infrastructural factor
Roads are of good quality (+)
The routes of refugees and migrants constantly changes (-) (-)
There are no safe routes to Europe which lead to exploitation to trafficking and keep refugees and
migrants out of sight (-)
Security factor
European citizens are worried about their safety by the influx of so many refugees
Safety of refugees and migrants is important to the GBO.
Physical environment
More people remain at one place, which means that camps have to be winter proof (-)
Refugees and migrants are widespread among many islands in one country (Greece) (-)
Table 4.5: Exogenous factors and implications for efficiency and effectiveness (case 3)
26
4.1.4 Case 4: GBO within the Government
The GBO within the government is an organization that is operating in full mandate of the government, stronger yet, it is embedded within the government, in this case the EU government. The GBO has two instruments in the context of the ERC; civil protection and emergency support regulation. The GBO has partners who are working in name of the GBO in the field and the GBO arranges lots of activities behind the scenes between countries and between other HOs.
Governmental factor
The GBO is functioning as a governmental factor by approving proposals of partners and assigning projects to partners (see table 4.7). Despite the fact that the GBO function as a part of the EU government, the member states are sovereign and their government decide what kind of projects and where partners are allowed to operate. Additionally does the Greek government decide which campsites remain opened.
‘They need an agreement of the Greek authorities to be able to do that. If we started funding and the Greek authority say: ‘we do not want this, then that is wasting money. If they started building
ENDOGENOUS FACTORS
Employed to
exogenous factor How Descriptions
Org # E ff ic ie n cy E ff ec tiv en ess
Personnel Security Training
Personnel is used to train employees and staff to make the
arrival process more streamlined
Org#7 (+) (+)
Standardizing the process of screening identifying and
registering according international standards
Org#7 (+) (+)
Coordination
Government Meetings
By having meetings the GBO wants to check whether
governments meet international standards Org#7
(+)
Strengthens the refugee system according European
Union standard. Org#7
(+)
Ensuring complementarity of response of all partners
involved
Org#7 (+) (+)
Socio-economic Meetings Governments are instructed to counter the xenophobe
narratives of the society
Org#7 (+)
Security Meetings Ensuring coherent and effective response in order to
protect refugees in Europe Org#7
(+)
Information Technology
Security Digital platform
Registration details and fingerprints are shared among
various hotspots to increase security of member states.
Org#7 (+)
Data from INTERPOL is compared to fingerprints and
registration details
Org#7 (+)
Infrastructure Digital platform The stream of refugees and migrants is shared on monthly
basis
Org#7 (+)
27
something and the Greek authority’s say no you can’t use that, we can’t do that otherwise it will be a waste of money.’(R#7)
The GBO has to adapt their operations to the governments of the member states, since they decide what will happen within their country. The GBO uses coordination meetings to adapt to this. By coordinating with the national government and partners which campsites are opened it is clear in which sites could be invested in terms of infrastructure, services and equipment. This enhances the efficiency of humanitarians logistics since money is not waste by spending money in campsites with a short expire date.
Socio-economic factor
The socio-economic climate in Europe is fine in the sense of a well-functioning market. This enables the GBO to provide beneficiaries direct cash in Greece, the GBO has this ability since it has 700 million2 euros to spend between 2016 and 2018 into the ERC. The beneficiaries are now able to go to the local supermarket and buy what they need which enhances the effectiveness of HL since beneficiaries are able to buy what they need directly. It increases the efficiency of HL since there are less distribution issues which saves money. There is no specific endogenous factor employed in reaction to the socio-economic factor, however, the socio-economic factor; well-functioning markets do influence the effectiveness and efficiency of HL.
Infrastructural factor
The availability of roads, density of airports and transport modes are well represent in Europe The GBO has transport services available to provide assistance to member states in a few hours, which means that infrastructure is appropriate. This makes the effectiveness of humanitarian logistics high since supplies can distributed to beneficiaries in a short term. The GBO employs the endogenous factor information technology to coordinate the distribution of assistance to affected states.
‘Transport co-financing enables the delivery of assistance to the country affected within a few hours with lesser budgetary impact on the Member States offering the assistance’ (D#53)
The affected country can set up a request for assistance in the digital system whereafter an offering member state can offer assistance, the more member states that are offering assistance the higher the percentage of transport co-financing will be (50-85%) from the GBO. This enhances the efficiency of HL since the transportation costs per offering country will decrease and by coordinating this assistance the chance will decrease that from multiple countries in Europe airplanes with unoccupied space are flying to affected member states.
2
R#7 | Program Officer, Emergency Response unit
28
Security factor
The GBO recognizes that the context of the ERC is dangerous and challenging for staff. The GBO employs the endogenous factor personnel in adaption to his dangerous and challenging context. Their staff receives training and psychological support to be able to cope with the security issues during and after a possible incident. Additionally, the GBO recognizes that satisfied staff and a fulfilling working climate is key to the motivation of staff which enhances the performance of the organization, since people are more engaged with the organization which enhances their performances. This results in an increase of the effectiveness of HL since there is less staff turnover, because people are engaged and satisfied, which means that effective aid can be delivered.
In table 4.7 the relevant exogenous factors and possible implications for HL performance are displayed. In table 4.8 endogenous factors, employed in adaptation to certain exogenous factors, are displayed with the implications for HL performance
EXOGENOUS FACTORS Descriptions E ff iciency 1 E ff ec tiv eness 2 Governmental factor
The GBO function as a (EU) governmental factor. It approves proposals of NGOs and assign
projects;
(+) (+)
Government of Greece decides which campsites are opened; (-) (-)
Member states decide as sovereign countries what partners of the GBO may do or not, what kind
of project they may conduct and where they may work (they have to be registered);
(-) (-)
Socio–Economic
factor Europe have functioning markets;
(+) (+)
Infrastructural factor
Transportation services are available to conduct assistance to member states within a few hours; (+)
56000 refugees and migrants are widespread among the islands in Greece which implicates
distribution of services, arrival processes and more;
(-)
Security factor The GBO recognizes that staff is working in challenging and dangerous contexts, especially at
Lesbos is this an issue with overcrowded camps, people that cannot travel further into Europe;
Table 4.7: Exogenous factors and implications for efficiency and effectiveness (case 4)
1 Not every exogenous factor directly influences efficiency of HL 2
29
4.2 Cross-case analysis
4.2.1. Similarities within the exogenous factors
Across all cases are the exogenous factors governmental, socio-economic, infrastructural and security relevant (see table 4.9:1).
The government really wants to control the situation by having tight regulations regarding import of products, medicines, employees and the governments want to control which organizations is working on which project. These factor decreases the effectiveness and efficiency of HL since HOs cannot automatically work on projects in which they excel and due to tight regulations the projects takes more
ENDOGENOUS FACTORS
Employed to exogenous
factor
How Descriptions Org
# E ff ic ie n cy E ff ec tiv en ess
Personnel Security Training Trainings and psychological tests are provided to staff since the GBO recognizes that their staff is working in dangerous and challenging context;
Org#8 (+)
Coordination
Infrastructure Online
system
The GBO provide co-financing of transportation to
countries who provide assistance to affected countries within the ERC;
Org#8 (+) (+)
General context Meeting The GBO does have coordination meetings with an UN
organization to conduct needs assessments;
Org#8 (+) (+)
Government Meeting The GBO coordinates to the partners which sites are
opened and in which they are able to invest;
Org#8 (+)
Information Technology
Infrastructure Online
systems
The GBO uses IT (digital system) for co-financing,
countries can subscribe for co-financing in providing assistance to affected countries;
Org#8 (+) (+)
Coordination Online
system
Partners send situational reports to the GBO about
progress and obstacles; Org#8 (+) (+)
30 financial resources.
The socio-economic factor means in the context of the ERC that there is a functioning market and widely availability of suppliers. This increases the efficiency and effectiveness of HL since transport costs can be saved and supplies with the required quality are readily available.
Infrastructure is good in the sense of availability or roads, however, due to no safe routes for refugees there is irregularity of arrivals, refugees make use of human smugglers which decreases the effectiveness of HL since refugees are out of sight and providing them with direct aid is complicated. Security is the last shared exogenous factor. Security is important, for beneficiaries, staff and member states. It does not direct affect HL performance.
4.2.2 Similarities within employment of endogenous factors
The endogenous factor personnel is employed in reaction to security in all four cases (see table 4.9:2) Personnel is trained to adapt to security scenarios like fights in the camp, possible attacks and violence against aid workers. Protocols have been compiled to make clear to personnel what to do in case of security issues and personnel is segmented based on being able to cope with certain security issues. Employing people to security issues has both positive and negative implications for the effectiveness of HL. Training and protocols increases the effectiveness, people can easily be deployed and protocols make that people know the rules and expected security issues in a quick manner. However, segmentation – hiring people with a higher age threshold or more experience – lead to a lower effectiveness of HL since less staff can be hired within these criteria which lead to doing more with less people.
31 are available and where the people are to provide the humanitarian aid.
4.2.3 Differences within the exogenous factors
Case 3 is the only case where the physical environment is relevant. The GBO in case 3 is conducting projects at several locations in several countries. However, Greece is characterized by containing many islands which makes that traveling between camps, access to same services is more difficult for this GBO than in ‘mainland’ countries. The HOs in the other cases are in the context of the ERC conducting one project per country. For the GBO the influence of the physical environment decreases the efficiency since economies of scale cannot be reached since multiple projects do not have access to the same services and extra cars, tents and other equipment is needed.
4.2.4 Differences within the endogenous factors
Case 3 is the only case that is employing information technology in adaption to security. Here the security is referred to the security of member states. The GBO make us of information technology to compare the data from the register process (e.g. fingerprints) with data of (for example) Interpol to check whether refugees are wanted, have a criminal record or could have bad intensions. The GBO in case 3 is involved in implementing the SOP for the register procedures at the boarders of Europe. The effectiveness is enhanced since the member states are secured that there are no refugees coming in which are a danger for the member states, for example in terms of possible terrorist attacks.
Case 3 and 4 are employing coordination in adaption to the government. The GBO (between governments) in case 3 make use of coordination meetings with national governments to ensure that they keep to the international laws and European standards. This enhances the effectiveness since, by coordinating the national governments, the protection of refugees can be directed in a good manner. In case 4 the GBO (within the EU government) coordinate with the government of Greece which campsites remain opened to be sure that money is not invested in campsites that will close soon. This enhances the efficiency of the operations since money is not spend in campsites with a short expire date. The GBOs (between and within governments) is able to coordinate with governments, and have influence, since they are working in support and mandate of governments. They are able to react pro-actively to this exogenous factor.
4.2.5 Emergent variables
32 their money. The effectiveness is decreased, since training employees according the requirements of the donor means less time to spend in providing aid to refugees. The efficiency can be enhanced by reporting about financial justification, then you have to spend money wisely.
34
5. DISCUSSION
5.1. Key research insights
By studying four cases, eight organizations, in the context of the ERC, a slow-onset man-made disaster, this research aims to answer the research question: How do organizations adapt to relevant
exogenous factors in the European refugee crisis and what implications has it for humanitarian logistics performance in terms efficiency and effectiveness? The relevant exogenous factors are
displayed in table 4.9:1 and how the various endogenous factors are employed in adaption to certain exogenous factors is displayed in table 4.9:2. HOs do employ the endogenous factor personnel to adapt to security by making use of trainings and protocols, coordination is used to do things together and to reduce the chance of duplicating and information technology is mainly used in reaction to infrastructure and is mainly about communication, reports, and sharing of information.
5.2. Confirmative to literature 5.2.1 Exogenous factors
This research found that the government wants to control the situation, national governments close borders, assigning available campsites, decide what project HOs may conduct and where (because HOs have to register before they can provide aid) and there are tight regulations regarding import of medicines and supplies (EU wide). This is confirmative to what Dube et al. (2016) call selectively accommodating governments, which means imposing general limitations and moderate control. The governments impose some regulations regarding import, the obligation to register as HO and the government decide where a HO may conduct a project. In other words, the government wants to control the situation.
The socio-economic factor is about the quality of the local and availability of suppliers (Kunz & Reiner, 2012). In addition to this, Altay (2009) mention that this also includes adaptation of HL to the religion and culture of affected people, the refugees. Firstly, the availability of suppliers with sufficient quality are widely available in Europe. This enhances the effectiveness since items are readily available and transportation costs are reduced, which lead to increased efficiency. Adaptation of HL to the cultures and religions of affected people is minimally done. Items are only distributed when it is applicable to everybody. However, exceptions are made which do not affect HL performance like location of toilets in refugee camps (not with the backside to Mecca, sanitary napkins are not provided to man, pig-meat is not served).
35 delivery time of assistance and digital platforms can be deployed. Gustavsson (2003) mentioned that bringing people from danger zones to safe zones (refugee camps) is also part of HL. In the ERC there are no safe routes for refugees and those people are fleeing from outside Europe via the Mediterranean Sea to Europe. Due to this no-legal pathway there is irregularity in arrivals and people make use of human smugglers which makes that it is difficult to trace people and provide effective aid.
The security factor is in literature linked to several things. Security issues are related to possible violence against aid workers (Stoddard et al., 2009), overcrowded refugee camps, robbery, sexual violence and rising tensions between communities (L’Hermitte et al., 2014). These are things that are taken into account by the HOs operating within the ERC. Although the HOs are operating within a stable context, scenarios of being bombed, robbed by thieves and rising tensions and fights within the refugee camps are taken in to account.
The physical environment refers, according to literature, to the dynamics of the environment in terms of weather, climate, mountains and geographical location (L’Hermitte et al., 2014). This is in the context of the ERC not an influencing factor for HL.
5.2.2 Endogenous factors
The endogenous factor personnel is employed in adaptation to security issues. Personnel is trained to react to security issues and there are protocols to follow in preventing a security issue and to use when a security issue occurs. This is conforming to literature since increasing basic security trainings are provided to staff of NGOs by specialized NGOs and private organizations in preparedness to security issues (Bollettino, 2008; Brabant, 1999; Bruderlein & Gassmann, 2006). However, Bruderlein & Gassmann (2006) mention that this reaction to security is mainly based on thefts, kidnapping and shootings rather than understanding social, economic and political environments of man-made disasters – something which could help to better react to it. Adapting to a security factor is not just training personnel to be able to react, it is also about the mitigation after a possible incident, the continuity of HL must be ensured (Bruderlein & Gassmann, 2006). This is done by physical support for staff who have experienced a security incident (Bruderlein & Gassmann, 2006). This is an approach to enable staff to remain in the field and remain effective in their work, in other words it keeps the effectiveness of HL high. This is something that is confirmed by the data analysis. The GBO within the government pays attention to the psychological support of their staff since they recognize that their staff is working in challenging circumstances.
