The Interactivity of Online Newspapers
Its influence on the readers of the Volkskrant
University of Groningen
Faculty of Management and Organization
MSc in Business Administration
Strategy and Innovation
Preface
This study has been carried out at the faculty of Management and Organization of the University of Groningen, and is the final part of the master Strategy and Innovation. The research started in October 2006 and finished May 2007. I would like to thank the people that have supported me in writing this thesis.
I owe my thanks to my supervisor, Dr. Thijs Broekhuizen, whose theoretical insights and support were very valuable to the research. His feedback proved to be very helpful for finishing the thesis. Also, I would like to thank Dr. Hendrik Snijders for his efforts to assess this paper.
Thanks to Eddy Hamoen and Lia Heller for giving me the opportunity to carry out the survey to complete my thesis.
Amsterdam, May 2007
ABSTRACT
In times that newspapers struggle with retaining their readers, it is important for newspapers to distinguish themselves from their competitors. A newspaper can do this through interactivity of the online paper. However, does interactivity influence the reader? In this article, the influence of interactivity on the consequences for the user is examined. Interactivity is operationalized in four variables: two-way communication, user control, multimedia, and synchronicity. The consequences are determined as flow, processing information, and online preference. Also, need for cognition was determined as an antecedent of interactivity. A survey was held under 314 readers of the online Volkskrant. Based on the regression results, it is concluded that need for cognition influences interactivity. Also, two-way communication, user control, multimedia, and synchronicity influences flow, processing information, and online preference. Thus, a focus on interactivity seems an appropriate strategy for the Volkskrant, wanting to increase the amount of readers and to retain them.
Key words: Interactivity, online news, antecedents of interactivity, dimensions of interactivity, and consequences of interactivity
Table of Content
1. Introduction 7
1.1 Background 7
1.2 Market Analysis 7
1.3 Types of Online Journalism 9
1.3.1 Mainstream News Sites 9
1.3.2 Index and Category Sites 9
1.3.3 Meta- and Comment Sites 9
1.3.4 Share and Discussion Sites 9
1.4 Research Question 10
1.5 Restriction 10
1.6 Contents of the thesis 11
2. Interactivity 12
2.1 Innovation defined 12
2.2 Innovation at Online Newspapers 13
2.3 Defining Interactivity 14 2.3.1 Two-way Communication 14 2.3.2 User Control 15 2.3.3 Synchronicity 15 2.3.4 Multimedia 18 2.4 Levels of Interactivity 18
2.5 Actual and Perceived Interactivity 19
2.5.1 Perceived Interactivity 20
2.6 Antecedents of Perceived Interactivity 21
2.6.1 Need for Cognition 21
2.6.2 Skills 22
2.7 Consequences of Interactivity for Consumers 22
2.7.1 Quality and Ease of Information Processing 22
2.7.2 Online Preference 23
2.7.3 Flow 23
3. Conceptual Model and Hypotheses 25
3.1 Hypotheses and Operationalization 25
3.1.1 Antecedents of Interactivity 25 3.1.2 Consequences of Interactivity 26 3.2 Conceptual Model 27 4. Methodology 28 4.1 Survey Instrument 28 4.2 Measurement 29 4.3 Data collection 30
5. Results and Discussion 31
5.1 Respondent Characteristics 31
5.2 User Characteristics 32
5.3 Interactivity 33
5.3.1 Two-way Communication 33
5.3.2 Multimedia 34
5.3.3 User Control and Synchronicity 35
5.3.4 Interactivity Overall 36
5.4 Interactivity Outcome 37
5.4.1 Online Preference 37
5.4.2 Flow 38
5.4.3 Depth of Processing Information 38
5.4.4 Advantages and Disadvantages 39
Bibliography 53 Appendix
Questionnaire 59
Table 12 Correlation Matrix 63
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Background
The release of the world wide web has created the apparent phenomenon of online journalism. In roughly 10 years, not only thousands of mainstream news media have started websites, but millions of individual users and special interest groups have used the internet as an outlet for their news as well. In that regard, the growth of internet news has had a dramatic impact on the way people, particularly those with access to technology, get news. As a result, new patterns of news consumption are emerging and the core audiences for traditional news outlets are steadily diminishing. Also, the upcoming of free newspapers have changed the perspective of consumers. Individuals are becoming less willing to pay for news and this is another threat to traditional mass media.
Many people now have access to the internet. Europe accounts for 121.1 million internet users in 2006, and in The Netherlands alone there are 9.5 million users of the internet (www.advertising.msn.be). With the rise of the internet it has been made possible to develop ‘new’ media. “New media can be interactive, on-demand, customizable; since it can incorporate new combinations of text, images, moving images, and sound; since it can build new communities based on shared interests and concerns; and since it has the almost unlimited space to offer levels of reportorial depth, texture, and context that are impossible in any other medium — new media can transform journalism” (Pavlik, 1997).
1.2 Market analysis
information with interactivity features is based on the assumption “that increased interactivity will lead to increased likelihood of behaviors such as returning to a website, referring others to the website and purchasing from a website” (McMillan, 2002). With newspapers purchase is about the online subscriptions. However, the printed version has the advantage that it does not need technical tools to be read. A printed version, therefore, provides more flexibility, the paper can be read everywhere and in every moment. This could change in the near future, because access to internet is now available through hotspots. So, through new technologies the online version can also become more flexible.
The number of newspapers in Europe offering online editions of national and regional papers has grown rapidly. The following numbers show this growth. In 1997 the United Kingdom offered 120 links to newspapers and in 2006 there are 472 links to national and regional papers. For Germany in 1997 34 links grew to 52 links in 2006. France had 8 links in 1997 and 42 in 2006. The Netherlands came from 13 links in 1997 to 44 links in 2006. However, in the United States occurred the most substantial growth, 2059 links in 1997 and 5608 links in 2006. An overview of the amount of visitors for the top ten Dutch newspapers is shown in table 1.
Table 1
Top ten Dutch online newspapers.
Krant 2004 2005 2006 Rank 2006 Telegraaf 3.150.000 3.300.000 2.708.000 1 Volkskrant 713.000 1.091.000 1.318.000 2 NRC Handelsblad 956.000 1.042.000 1.163.000 3 Algemeen Dagblad 511.000 554.000 1.065.000 4 Parool 275.000 384.000 368.000 5 Trouw 290.000 300.000 354.000 6 Financieel Dagblad 216.000 156.000 264.000 7 Reformatorisch Dagblad 62.000 100.000 122.000 8 HDC (1) 629.000 473.000 421.000 9 NDC (2) 317.000 428.000 NB 10 Total 6.802.000 7.400.000 7.783.000
1= Noordhollands Dagblad, Haarlems Dagblad, IJmuider Courant, Leidsch Dagblad, De Gooi- en Eemlander, Almere Vandaag
2= Dagblad van het Noorden, Leeuwarder Courant
Source: WebWereld
1.3 Types of Online Journalism
Different types of online journalism can be distinguished. The four types of online journalism will now be described. These can be seen as the most commonly operating distinctive journalisms on the web.
1.3.1 Mainstream News Sites.
The most common form of news online is the mainstream news site, generally providing a selection of editorial content and a minimum, generally filtered or moderated form of participatory communication (Jankowski and Van Selm, 2000; Kenney et al., 2000). This type of content is distinctive in that it can be “characterized as ‘originated’ (produced originally for the web) or ‘aggregated’ (shoveled from a linked parent medium or linked from an external source)” (Deuze, 2003). Most online newspapers can be located in this category. Examples are the websites from CNN, the Volkskrant and MSNBC.
1.3.2 Index and Category Sites.
A second type of online journalism offers hyperlinks to existing news sites elsewhere on the world wide web. Those hyperlinks are sometimes categorized, thus generally featuring more aggregated content. Search engines fall under this category, like Yahoo and Google.
1.3.3 Meta- and Comment Sites.
The third form contains sites about news media and media issues in general; sometimes intended as media watchdogs and sometimes as an extended index and category site. “Many of these sites exist as online journalisms in that they collect, annotate and comment upon sources of news all over the web” (Deuze, 2003). They focus explicitly on issues and angles that they feel the ‘mainstream’ journalists do not cover. Examples of these kinds of sites are Mediachannel in the US, dotJournalism in the UK and Extra! in the Netherlands.
1.3.4 Share and Discussion Sites.
According to Murdoch, director of News Corporation, the online edition will grow substantially in the next 10 years and will become a serious threat to the printed newspaper. A study from Nielsen/NetRatings shows that at this moment, 21% reads only the paper online instead of a printed newspaper. This phenomenon is interesting to research and therefore, I would like to propose the following research question.
1.4 Research Question
The research question consists of a goal of the research, a general research question and five sub-questions.
Goal of this research:
To recommend online newspapers how to use a certain degree of interactivity for their online versions to attract and interact with their consumers.
Research question:
To what extent should online newspapers use interactivity to attract and retain more consumers to their website and how does interactivity influence consumers’ outcomes of reading online?
Sub-questions:
1 What are the strengths of online newspapers compared to offline newspapers? 2 What is interactivity and in which degree is it the most effective?
3 What are the antecedents that determine the interactivity of online newspapers? 4 Which dimensions of interactivity positively influence overall interactivity? 5 What are the consequences of interactivity?
1.5 Restriction:
1.6 Contents of the thesis
Chapter 2
Interactivity
In this chapter, interactivity will be explored in more detail. Although the focus of this thesis is upon interactivity of online newspapers, it is necessary to explain how this phenomenon is an innovation. The reason for this is that, innovation is an important emphasis within Strategy & Innovation. Firstly, a definition of innovation will be provided and will be applied to the interactivity of online newspapers. Secondly, the three dimensions of interactivity will be discussed. Followed by an elaboration about interactivity’s technical aspects. Then the exploration of the antecedents of perceived interactivity. Fourthly, an overview of the consequences of interactivity for consumers and journalists will be given. Finally, a distinction of actual and perceived interactivity will be made.
2.1 Innovation defined
There are a lot of different ideas about innovation. An overview of the definitions of innovation will be provided in this section.
Bodewes and de Jong (2003) classify innovation as “the development and/ or implementation of products or production processes that require a substantial degree of learning”. Postma talks about innovation as “bringing something into new use” (2005). Innovation not only deals with artefacts, but also with deconstructing social constructions, and constructing these again (Jacobs, 2005). It is necessary to convince people that your innovation is really worth it. “Innovation involves using new knowledge to transform organizational process or create commercially viable products and services. The source of new knowledge may include the latest technology, the results of experiments, creative insights, or competitive information. However it comes about, innovation occurs when new combinations of ideas and information bring about positive change”, according to Dess et al. (2005, p. 409). In this paper the definition of Wijnberg will be used. He sees an innovation as “something new which is presented in such a way that the value will be determined by the selectors”. The selectors can be divided into markets, peers and experts (Wijnberg, 2004. p. 1472).
Another distinction that can be made about innovation is between product/ service and process innovation. “Product innovation refers to efforts to create product designs and applications of technology to develop new products for end users. … Process innovation, by contrast, is typically associated with improving the efficiency of an organizational process, especially manufacturing systems and operations” (Dess et al., 2005, p. 411). According to Jacobs (2005) a third distinction can be made, transaction innovations. “Transaction innovation is a new way of selling products” (Jacobs, 2005, p. 5).
Finally, a different focus can be placed on non-technical innovation. A lot of new ideas are supported with new technology, but there are also numerous examples of non-technical innovation. For example, internet banking, the production of a new play, a web-version of a newspaper. Technical newness is not the main focus within these non-technical innovations, it is a new application of an idea that is perceived by the company and the consumers.
2.2 Innovation at online newspapers
In this section the different views of innovation, described in the previous section, will be applied to online newspapers. In the beginning, the offering of an online version is a radical innovation, because it is new to the industry and has not been done before. However, nowadays, it is an incremental innovation. The small improvements that are made, is in the service that is delivered to the readers. The innovations can be distinguished between technical and non-technical aspects and these will be explored next.
A technological innovation in the newspaper industry is to provide an online version of the newspaper, next to the printed version. Without technological innovativeness, this product would not have been made possible. This innovation is highly related to the next innovation, which is the interactivity of online newspapers. Interactivity is a key factor of the internet, so this means that without the invention of the internet, interactivity of online newspapers would not have been possible. Through these technological applications the reader can experience more interaction with the online version than with the paper version. Even though technology makes the interactivity of online newspapers possible, the added value of interactivity is also important to the readers.
up large databases that provide more in-depth information about a particular subject. If a reader wants more background information, it is provided to him, while a printed paper has limits to the amount of pages available. Finally, the news on a website is more current, because news can be uploaded during the day. When comparing this with the paper version, which comes out once a day, it provides the reader more value. Therefore, readers of an online newspaper are more up-to-date.
2.3 Defining Interactivity
Many scholars have researched the concept of interactivity. However, there is still no consensus about its definition. The definitions can be applied using multiple processes, functions, and perceptions. In the process perspective, scholars focus on activities, such as interchange and responsiveness, that are an important feature of interactivity. Researchers who focus on features seek to identify either “general characteristics (such as user control and two-way communication) or specific characteristics of websites (such as search engines and chat rooms) that define interactivity” (McMillan and Huang, 2002). Lee et al. (2002) suggests that interactivity should not be measured by analyzing processes or functions. Rather, researchers should investigate what the perception of users is on interactivity. The focus on perception is consistent with marketing, advertising and communication traditions. However, three elements appear frequently in the interactivity literature: (1) two-way communication, (2) user control, and (3) synchronicity. These elements are the basis for the exploration of perceived interactivity of a website. The next sections will describe the three elements in more detail.
2.3.1 Two-way Communication
2.3.2 User Control
A website provides the users, in general, with more tools to control the content and navigation than traditional media does. Most of the literature about human-to-computer interaction (HCI) examines the ways humans have control over computers and other new media (Burgoon et al., 2000; Hanssen et al., 1996; Murray, 1997; Trevino and Webster, 1992).
Reeves and Nass (2000) say that some HCI studies focus on human perceptions and other on computer design. Studies with a human focus examine how persons interpret computer personality (Moon and Nass, 1996), the level of control that persons perceive they have in working with computers (Huhtamo, 1999; Murray, 1997), individual decision styles (Vasarhelyi, 1977), and the goals that persons want from the system (Belkin et al., 1993; Xie, 2000). Computer-focused studies examine issues such as interfaces and input devices (Baecker, 1980; Biocca, 1993; Nielsen, 2000; Schneiderman, 1998), navigation tools (Heeter, 2000; Nielsen, 2000), features for user choice and input (Belkin et al., 1993; Daft et al., 1987; Mahood et al., 2000; Steuer, 1992; Zeltzer, 1992), and system activity (Milheim, 1996; Valalich et al., 1993).
2.3.3 Synchronicity
Perceived interactivity by the user is also influenced by “the speed at which messages can be delivered and by the speed of persons to process messages” (McMillan and Hwang, 2002). Crawford (1990) mentions that, for interactive systems, “the ideal is to have the computer moving at a speed that doesn’t inhibit the user”. A great concern of both developers and users of interactive media is the speed of response (Dellaert and Kahn, 1999; Kay, 1990; Liu and Shrum, 2002; Nielsen, 2000; Vora, 1998).
Another element of synchroncity is the ability of users to navigate through a wealth of information quickly and when it is easy to find what they are looking for (Mahood et al., 2000; Nielsen, 2000; Wu, 1999). One study (Latchem et al., 1993) show that a benefit of interactive systems is that users “can work in their own time and at their own pace, choose their preferred navigational pathways and delivery systems and develop their own mental models and schemata”. In summary, time to load the message, to find information, to communicate with others, and the loss of time as the user gets caught in the flow of computer-mediated communication.
Each of the three dimensions is central to the concept of interactivity, but in much of the literature, these concepts overlap and are interrelated. Communication and control are intertwined, because higher levels of control lead to more active participation in communication. Interaction is often defined at the intersection on these two concepts, as Naimark (1990) notes: “Though interactivity always requires information flowing in both directions, it is our input and its effect that distinguishes it from non-interactivity”. In other words, it is the user that determines interactivity, when s/he decides to participate in communication.
The overlap of synchronicity and communication is often viewed as whether interactive communication occurs in real time. Some have suggested that real-time, synchronous communication is an important feature of interactivity (Kiousis, 1999; Murray, 1997; Steuer, 1992). Others have suggested that asynchronous communication, characterized by tools such as email and newsgroups is a key benefit of interactivity (Rheingold, 1993; Williams et al., 1988). Some studies have compared synchronous and asynchronous communication in the context of interactivity (Hesse et al., 1988; McMillan and Downes, 2000; Morris and Ogan, 1996; Walther, 1992).
Synchronicity and control overlap in that user control affects the time required to access content. But time spent controlling the system is not always related to complexity; increased time can also be a result of intense engagement. Literature on the concept of ‘flow’ (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975; Novak, Hoffman and Yung, 2000) focuses on how users can become absorbed in new media and lose track of time. More about flow in section 2.6.
Table 1
Definitions of Interactivity
Study Definition/Description of Interactivity Key Elements
Bezjian-Avery, In interactive systems, a customer controls the User Control et al. (1998) content of the interaction requesting or giving
information. The hallmark of these new media is their interactivity - the consumer and the manufacturer enter into dialogue in a way not previously possible.
Bretz (1983) Interactivity is a two-way message exchange Two-way between communicants. Shorter duration communication between messages and informatility increase
interactivity.
Study Definition/Description of Interactivity Key Elements
to suit the needs of communicants, (3) the time, user communication process creates a sense of control and being present in a certain location, (4) responsiveness the communicants perceive they have
control over the communication environment, and (5) the communicants perceive
responsiveness in the communication process.
Ha and James Interactivity should be defined in terms Responsiveness (1998) of extent to which the communicator and the
audience responds to, or are willing to facilitate, each other’s communication needs.
Heeter (1989) Interactivity is a multi-dimensional concept Responsiveness, that includes complexity of choice available, participation, effort users must exert, responsiveness to effort and user the user, monitoring information use, ease of control adding information, and facilitation of
interpersonal communication.
Jensen (1998) A measure of a media’s potential ability to let User Control the user exert an influence on the content and/
or the mediated presentation or experience.
Liu and Shrum Interactivity is the degree to which two or more User Control, (2002) communication parties can act on each other, two-way
on the communication medium, and on the communication, messages and the degree to which such responsiveness
influences are synchronized. and time
Lombard and A characteristic of a medium in which the user User Control Snyder-Dutch can influence the form and/or content of the
(2001) mediated presentation or experience.
McMillan (2000a) Identified thirteen features that, based on User Control, literature about interactivity, might suggest two-way that a website is interactive, including e-mail communication links, registration forms, survey/comment
forms chat rooms, search engines, and games.
McMillan (2000b) Individuals rated interactivity of sites on the Two-way Basis of their perceptions of two-way communication, communication, level of control, user activity, user control and sense of place, and time sensitivity. time sensitivity Miles (1992) An interactive communication involves Responsiveness
responsiveness of the displayed message to the message receiver.
Pavlik (1998) Interactivity means two-way communication Two-way between source and receiver, or more broadly communication multidirectional communication between any
Study Definition/Description of Interactivity Key Elements
Rafaeli (1988) Interactivity is an expression of the extent that Responsiveness in a given series of communication exchanges,
any third (or later) transmission (or message) related to the degree to which previous exchanges referred to even earlier transmissions.
Rogers (1995) Interactivity is the degree to which participants User Control in a communication process exchange roles and
have control over their mutual discourse.
Steuer (1992) Interactivity is the extent to which users can Real-time participate in modifying the form and content participation and of a mediated environment in real time. user control Yadav and Interactivity in the electronic marketplace is Two-way Varadarajan the degree to which computer-mediated communication (2005) communication is perceived by each of the user control,
communicating entities to be (a) bidirectional, responsiveness (b) timely, (c) mutually controllable, and (d) and timely responsive.
The definition that best describes the three dimensions of two-way communication, user control, and synchronicity is the one of Yadav and Varadarajan (2005). It contains every single dimension and therefore it will be used in this study.
2.3.4 Multimedia
Another dimension that will be added to interactivity is multimedia. The online nature of interactivity is technical in origin. Hypertext markup language (HTML), on which the world wide web is built, is primarily a way to deliver information in a ‘dynamic, non-hierarchical format’ (Stromer-Galley, 2004). As a content delivery system, the web functions similarly to a newspaper, delivering information on request to users in textual or graphical form. Additional functions built on top of HTML allow for multimedia, such as audio and video downloads, to be called up and played back, as well as functions that allow users to communicate bilaterally. Such multimedia is preprogrammed by developers, but the user has the choice and control of when and whether to experience these features (Sundar, 2000).
2.4 Levels of Interactivity
The level of interactivity in a website might is very important by getting surfers involved in the communication process (Ghose and Dou, 1998). People surfing the web perceive more personal control over the information process and its outcomes with high levels of interactivity as compared with low levels of interactivity (Klein, 2003).
Interactivity, however, is not all positive for the consumer. Interactive media also require the user to invest processing resources in managing the information flow (Ariely, 2000; Eveland and Dunwoody, 2002). The need to process the information received while simultaneously making decisions to control or respond to that information raises several questions about the navigation process in interactive websites. In this context, questions arise concerning how consumers process that information, along with how they feel in an interactive as compared with a non-interactive website environment.
2.5 Actual and Perceived Interactivity
Empirical evidence regarding the effects of interactivity on consumers shows seemingly inconsistent or inconclusive findings. Some researchers have found that interactivity had a positive impact on attitude toward a website, while others find a negative relationship between interactivity and attitude toward the website. One possible reason is that, in these studies, interactivity may have been defined and operationalized differently (Liu and Shrum, 2002). Wu (2005) proposes the dichotomy of actual interactivity vs. perceived interactivity, perceived interactivity mediates the effect of actual interactivity on attitude toward the website. First it is necessary to achieve a clear understanding about what is actual and perceived interactivity.
Actual interactivity could be defined by focusing on the features of a website, or capabilities of creating interactive content or messages (Hoffman and Novak, 1996; Neuman, 1991; Rice and Willliams, 1984; Steuer, 1992), or potential for interaction in general (Rafaeli, 1988).
simple interaction is too costly and inconvenient, so that interaction between the newspaper and it readers is prohibited.
In contrast, interactive media such as an online newspaper have a much higher potential for interaction. For instance, an online newspaper allows for various interactions that would be prohibited by cost for an paper newspaper. In the online newspaper environment, readers can click on a writer’s email address to send a message. This is easily and quickly done with zero cost. It is also possible to find other related content on a page. In addition, readers can click on a hyperlink, which leads them to another part of the website to obtain more information. Readers can even interact with other readers in real time. Their opinion on a topic or a common interest could be shared easily. Apparently, interactive media have a higher potential for interaction or actual interactivity than traditional one-way mass media.
Nevertheless, actual interactivity can only provide the potential to allow for interaction, because “Interactivity is potential adequacy, but it is up to the communicators to realize it” (Rafaeli, 1988). The degree to which interactivity is perceived (Willliams, Rice and Rogers, 1988), will be determined largely by the user. In other words, whether and in which degree, such higher potential for interaction in interactive media can be realized to benefit readers and the newspaper is largely determined by how interactions are perceived by the users. Hence, perceived interactivity appears to play an important role in shaping actual interactivity’s influence on interaction participants. This paper focuses on the interactivity that is perceived by its users.
2.5.1 Perceived Interactivity
Perceived interactivity is “a psychological state experienced by a site-visitor during the interaction process” (Wu, 2005). The author mentions that it is operational in three dimensions: “(1) perceived control over the (a) site navigation; (b) the pace of rhythm of the interaction; (c) the content being accessed, (2) perceived responsiveness from (a) the site-owner; (b) from the navigation cues and signs; (c) the persons online, (3) perceived personalization of the site with regard to (a) acting as if it were a person; (b) acting as it wants to know the site visitor; and (c) acting as if it understands the site visitor” (Wu, 2000).
In the context of interactivity, site-owners must decide on an optimal level of actual interactivity by selecting from a wide variety of interactive technologies with different levels of cost and sophistication. For example, chatrooms, online bulleting boards, personalization technology. The perceived interactivity by customers will influence the effects of actual interactivity on consumers’ attitudes and behaviors towards the website.
2.6 Antecedents of Perceived Interactivity
Over the past decades, rapid advancement in media technology has made using the internet a central part of consumers’ daily lives. Ghose and Dou’s (1998) find that websites providing more interactive functions are more likely to be evaluated as quality sites. This further stresses the importance of interactivity.
Several studies have suggested that there might be a difference between a website’s ‘actual’ interactivity and the one perceived by consumers (Heeter, 2000; Lee et al., 2002). These studies investigate the factors that might contribute to the difference in consumers’ perception. However, the studies were unable to explain how and why certain factors influence consumers’ perception of a website’s interactivity.
The study of Jee and Lee (2002) show the personal factors that might influence the perceived interactivity. They categorize personal factors into ‘general factors’ and ‘internet-specific factors’ However, some of these factors are not relevant to this study. Therefore, some of the factors are left out, need for cognition, and skills and challenges will be explicated in the next section.
2.6.1 Need for Cognition.
judgements on ‘global comparisons or attitudes’ (Kivetz and Simonson, 2000). Therefore, it is expected that consumers with high levels for cognition, compared to consumers with low levels for cognition, are more likely to search on a website to gather information and are more likely to be exposed to use the interactive functions.
2.6.2 Skills
According to Novak, Hoffman and Yung (2000), skills may be defined as “a consumer’s capacity for action during the online navigation process”, whereas challenges are defined as “his or her opportunities for action on the internet”. Several studies show that high skills and challenges lead to a satisfying consumer experience on the internet (e.g. Csikszentmihaly, 1997; Hoffman and Novak, 1996). Wu (2000) found that consumers’ web skills was positively related to their perception of interactivity.
2.7 Consequences of Interactivity for Consumers
Consequences of interactivity for consumers are mainly positive. Increased levels of interactivity are associated with better process of information, it creates flow and eventually could lead to a better attitude towards the website. These outcomes will be described next.
2.7.1 Quality and Ease of Information Processing
According to the Elaboration Likelihood model (ELM) from Petty et al. (1983), “information processing is related to the elaboration of information”. “Elaboration indicates the amount, complexity, or range of activity occasioned by a stimulus” (Mcquarrie and Mick, 1999) and includes the “parallel cognitive subprocesses of encoding, storage, and retrieval” (Lang et al., 2002). According to Gardial et al. (1993), elaboration can be considered as a “continuum, from a degree of minimum elaboration to a maximum level”. In summary, more elaboration is equivalent to a higher amount of information processing (Grunert, 1996).
“Interactive systems can help consumers to process information, as they are able to easily reduce or eliminate unwanted information and can organize that information in such a way that facilitates the process” (Widing and Talarzyk, 1993). Because the consumer can select the information and the order in which such information is presented (Bezjian-Avery et al., 1998; Rodgers and Thorson, 2000), control and involvement will be high (Shih, 1998), and this will lead to a better process of information (Cho, 1999; Eveland and Dunwoody, 2002).
with low levels of need for cognition. An interactive website will result in a higher increase in information processing for individuals with low need for cognition as compared with the increase produced for individuals with high need for cognition (Meyers-Levy and Peracchio, 1992).
2.7.2 Online preference
It could be expected that when the interactivity is to the satisfaction of the user, this individual will have a better attitude towards the website. This could lead to the preference of the online version above the paper version. When the expectations of the website matches the actual interactivity that is offered, it can create that the users prefers the online version more. It is expected that the online paper will provide the user with more value, as was discussed in section 2.2. The possibilities like two-way communication, availability of large databases, and more up-to-date news adds value to the user. Great value can be delivered by using the online website (Hoffman and Novak, 2005).
2.7.3 Flow
According to Hoffman and Novak (1996), when consumers experience a balance between their skills and the challenges of the interaction, they are in a flow state. The flow experience is the “process of optimal experience” (Csikszentmihalyi, 1977). This is defined as “the holistic sensation that people feel when they act with total involvement” (Csikszentmihalyi, 1977). In the flow experience self-consciousness disappears, the consumer’s sense of time becomes distorted, and the resulting state of mind is extremely enjoyable. In an interactive system, individuals will experience flow with more intensity when they are allowed to interact with the website then without interaction (Wolfinbarger and Gilly, 2001).
In summary, this section described that when interactivity is provided to the consumer, that it can processing information easier and it can generate flow. Therefore, it can be expected that when the interactivity is satisfactory, it will create a better attitude towards the website. If it matches the skills and expectations, the consumer will experience a higher level of satisfaction when visiting the online newspaper.
2.8 Conclusion
user. Studies show that individuals with higher need for cognition base their decisions more accurately and, therefore search for information more intensely. The second factor that influences the perception of interactivity is skills. A more skillfulled individual will generally perceive the website to be more interactive.
An interactive website influences the consumer. Interactivity’s effects are a better processing of information, an optimal flow experience, and a preference for the online newspaper.
Chapter 3
Conceptual Model and Hypotheses
Having explained the basic rationale for the existence of interactivity and having provided an overview of the literature on the types of interactivity, the research design can now be introduced. Firstly, the hypotheses will be provided.
3.1 Hypotheses and Operationalization
The dimensions of interactivity (two-way communication, user control, multimedia, and synchronicity) and the antecedents of perceived interactivity (need for cognition, expected benefits, expected quality, skills and challenges, and web experience) are the subject of this research. These dimensions and antecedents are explicated for online journalism as follows.
3.1.1 Antecedents of Interactivity
Need for cognition. Individuals with high need for cognition are likely to take advantage of the interactive nature of the online environment, benefiting from an increase in engagement, reinforced business relationships and enhanced effectiveness of communications. The greater cognitive demands in this environment allow high NFC consumers to make a fully informed decision. The higher the individual’s need for cognition, the greater the access to product information and the greater the motivation to think about information. Whereas low NFC individuals may not like thinking or reasoning very much and may be less disposed to put forth much effort in processing the information. Therefore, low NFC consumers have less cognitive abilities to manage interactivity.
Hypothesis 1:
Individuals with a stronger need for cognition perceive the website to be more interactive.
Skills and challenges. An individual experiences control when their own skills matches the challenges they are facing. High skills and challenges lead to a satisfying consumer experience on the internet. Therefore, the higher the skills and challenges of an individual, they are more likely to try out interactive functions.
Hypothesis 2:
Individuals with a high need for cognition put much effort into processing information. Therefore, it could be expected that they have higher skills when they gather their wanted information. The more advanced websites will probably be more appealing to the individuals with high need for cognition and high skills.
Hypothesis 3:
Individuals with greater congruence between need for cognition and skills perceive a website to be more interactive.
3.1.2 Consequences of Interactivity
Quality and Ease of Processing information. This is the elaboration of information, it indicates the amount, complexity or range of activity occasioned by a stimulus (Mcquarrie and Mick, 1999), Interactive websites can help individuals to process information, through eliminating unwanted information or to organize information.
Hypothesis 4:
Higher levels of interactivity lead to higher quality of processing information.
Online preference. How a consumer sees the website will be influenced by the perception of interactivity. If the degree of interactivity matches the expectations and skills of the consumer, it influences the attitude towards the website. This means that it determines the satisfaction or dislike of the consumer, and influences the use of the website and the return of the website. The value that the online version can deliver makes readers prefer it more (Hoffman and Novak, 2005). Therefore can make the user prefer the online paper over the printed version.
Hypothesis 5:
Higher levels of interactivity enhance the preference for the online version.
(Wolfinbarger and Gilly 2001). In an interactive system, individuals will experience flow with more intensity when they are allowed to interact with the Web site than when they are not.
Hypothesis 6:
Higher levels of interactivity are positively affecting consumers’ state of flow.
3.2 Conceptual Model
Figure 1 depicts the conceptual model that was chosen for this thesis. It shows the relationships between the hypotheses.
Chapter 4
Methodology
4.1 Survey Instrument
This study has chosen for an online questionnaire to collect data. The most important advantages are lower costs and short response time. (Deutskens et al., 2004). The disadvantages are lower response rates and the need for technology (Ilieva et al., 2002). However, the survey is appropriate because it is assumed that the users that read the paper online already have the required technology.
A questionnaire has been developed to examine the interactivity preferences of the readers of a Dutch online newspaper version, the Volkskrant. The questionnaire contains four major components and can be distinguished as follows; demographic information, antecedents of interactivity, interactive elements of the website and satisfaction factors with regard to the website.
A profile of the website user is created by gathering information about age and gender of the user. User’s relationship with the Volkskrant, amount of visits to the website of the Volkskrant, when the visits started, the expectation of visits in the future and which other websites they use for news. The final question was open and respondents could answer with more than one website.
One other major component of the survey is to examine user’s experience when using the website. A set of four questions is developed to gather what the experience of a user is. Two of these questions are about the need for cognition. These items are based on Sicilia e.a. (2005). Another two questions are added to examine the skills a user needs to use the website, which are from the study of Novak e.a. (2000). Respondents are asked to indicate their opinion about the experience of the website on a five-point Likert scale, where 1 stands for ‘totally disagree’ and 5 stands for ‘totally agree’.
With regard to the satisfaction of the user when using the website, twelve questions were developed to measure this component. Three questions are about user’s comparison of the online and paper version of the Volkskrant and which one they prefer. Four of these questions are aimed towards reasons related to processing information. The final two are about the flow a user experiences when using the website. This is measured on a five-point Likert Scale, where 1 stands for ‘totally disagree’ and 5 stands for ‘totally agree’. Respondents were also asked to grade the website of the Volkskrant, where 1 stands for ‘very bad’ and 10 stands for ‘excellent’. Finally, two questions are asked to determine the advantages and disadvantages of the online version of the Volkskrant. Questions asked are: “What are, according to you, the main advantages of the website of the Volkskrant?”. People could answer: “No advantages”, “Advantages like…”. Another question was: “ What are, according to you, the main disadvantages of the website of the Volkskrant?”. People could answer: “No disadvantages”, “Disadvantages like…”.
4.2 Measurement
Most of the constructs in the questionnaire were measured with five-point Likert scale, anchoring at 1 (totally disagree) and 5 (totally agree). Table 2 displays the operationalization of the variables used in this study.
Table 2. Operationalization of the variables in the survey. Construct Variable Description
Web usage Start web When did you start using the web? (6 categories) Time use How much time in a week would you estimate that you
use the web? (6 categories)
Online news Start use When did you start reading the newspaper online? (6 categories)
Time use How much time in a week would you estimate that you read the newspaper online? (6: daily-never)
Expected use In the future, how much time do you expect to read the newspaper online? (6: daily-never)
Two-way communication
Responsiveness There are enough response possibilities, when I have a question.
Feedback There are enough possibilities to provide feedback to a journalist.
Add information The possibility to add information to the website is satisfactory.
User control I am in control of my navigation through this website. I have control over the content of this website that I wanted to see.
Synchronicity Immediacy of content
Need for cognition I would prefer complex to simple problems. I find satisfaction in deliberating hard and for long hours.
Online preference I prefer reading the online newspaper more than the printed version.
I read the online newspaper more than the printed version.
Flow The website makes me forget my surroundings.
The website distorts my sense of time. Processing
information
Relevant information is better to select when using the online paper
The information online is better to understand The information online is easier to remember The online version clarifies information better
Skills To use an online newspaper is a challenge to me.
Using the web provides a good test of my skills. Multimedia Hyperlinks There are sufficient hyperlinks to find more
background information on a story.
Multimedia I am satisfied with the multimedia this site offers. Search engines The site offers a good search engine.
Note: most scales are measured with 5-point Likert scales, anchoring at 1= totally disagree, 5= totally agree.
4.3 Data Collection
The first version of the questionnaire was pre-tested by the Volkskrant and PcM marketing department and potential attendees. Based on the results, minor modifications were made to the original instrument to improve clarity. Subsequently, the modified version of the questionnaire was distributed to a random sample drawn from the email address database from the Volkskrant, resulting in collecting 314 completed surveys over a seven-day period (13 March 2007 – 20 March 2007).
Chapter 5
Results and Discussion
5.1 Respondent Characteristics
The socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents of this study are presented in table 3. It shows that more than 60% are male and most of the respondents are older than 50 years. Users mostly (43.6%) visit the Volkskrant website daily. Almost 60% of the users says that they have been using the website for over 2 years. The study also shows that 80% of the users will use the website in the future just as often as they do now. Even though 66.6% of the users also uses other websites next to the Volkskrant website. Under this group, it seems that almost half of the group also visits the website of NRC. Another apparent outcome is that 43.8% also uses a foreign newspaper website.
Table 3. Sample Characteristics - Demographics
Variable Frequencies Percentages
Gender (n=314) Male 194 61.8% Female 120 38.2% Age (n=314) <35 years 68 21.7% 35-50 years 119 37.9% >50 years 127 40.4%
Visits to the website (n=314)
Daily 137 43.6%
4/5 days a week 49 15.6%
2/3 days a week 57 18.2%
1 day a week 33 10.5%
Table 3.1 Continued
Start of using the website (n=314) Frequencies Percentages
1-6 months 17 5.4%
6 months – 1 year 16 5.1%
1-2 years 96 30.6%
>2 years 185 58.9%
Use of the website in the future (n=314)
More often 38 12.1%
About the same 258 82.2%
Less 7 2.2%
I don’t know 11 3.5%
Use of other newssites (n=314)
No 105 33.4% Yes 209 66.6% Other newssites (n=314) NRC 96 46.2% Telegraaf 35 16.8% Algemeen Dagblad 27 13.0% Trouw 22 10.6% Parool 20 9.6% Financieel Dagblad 6 2.9% Foreign newspapers 91 43.8% Local newspapers 42 20.2% Free newspapers 13 6.3% 5.2 User Characteristics
Need for cognition could be considered an important characteristic of the users of the Volkskrant. The users have a more than average need for cognition (average score: 3.3). However, they do not find themselves very skillfull (average score: 2.4). The results show that they consider themselves to be less than average skilled when using the website of the Volkskrant. Although it should be reminded that the results does not show high fluctuation.
An other part of table 4 shows the match of the lower need for cognition and skills of 47 users. They have scored on NFC <3 and skills <3. These users do not have a high need for cognition (average score: 2.0) and do not find that they have good skills (average score: 2.0).
The final part of table 4 shows the users that have scored NFC >=3 and skills >=3. It shows that 92 users find themselves to have a higher need for cognition and rate themselves skillfull. The users almost agree with a high need for cognition (average score: 3.7) and are neutral about their skills (average score: 3.3).
Table 4. Antecedents of Interactivity Antecedents of Interactivity Need for Cognition Skills
Low 1.98 1.98
Middle 3.33 2.43
High 3.74 3.31
Note: summed scales, anchoring at 1=very low, 5=very high
5.3 Interactivity
Interactivity consists out of four parts: two-way communication (table 5), multimedia (table 6), user control and synchronicity (table 7). At the end of this section an overall score of interactivity will be provided (table 8).
5.3.1. Two-way Communication
Table 5. Two-way Communication
Mean SD
Two-way Communication (n=210) 3.05 0.64
Possibilities to ask a question (n=232) 3.23 0.82
Possibilities to have contact with a journalist (n=223) 2.95 0.73 Possibilities to add information to the website (n=217) 2.98 0.80 Note: Summed scales, anchoring at 1=very low, 5=very high
The number of items is averaged to create a new comparable measure. The averaged outcome is that two-way communication has a score of 3.1. This means that the respondents rate their satisfaction for possibilities for two-way communication as neutral. Most users agree with the possibilities to ask a question (score: 3.2). Although all three elements are judged as average. Overall, the users do not agree with the fact that the possibilities to have two-way communication is to their satisfaction. A cause for the low score can be explained by the fact that it is not easy to find how to respond to an article. There is an opinion page for readers to send in their reactions, however this page does not provide possibilities to respond to all articles. Some subjects are available, however, they are chosen by the editor of the Volkskrant. Only 21 percent of the respondents actually make use of the possibilities for two-way communication. Of this small sample almost 30 percent, actually uses the communication possibilities once a month or more often.
5.3.2 Multimedia
Five questions were developed to measure the satisfaction with the multimedia offered. Reliability of each measurement scale was first examined using Cronbach Alpha. Results from the tests indicate that multimedia is sufficiently reliable (α=0.69). The five elements are averaged to create an overall score of multimedia, which are shown in table 6.
Table 6. Multimedia
Mean SD
Multimedia (n=213) 3.61 0.43
The website has a good search engine (n=260) 3.39 0,81
There are sufficient sound fragments on the website (n=245) 3.29 0.68 There are sufficient pictures on the website (n=286) 3.57 0.73 Note: Summed scales, anchoring at 1=very low, 5=very high
The overall score of perceived interactivity is ranked above neutral satisfaction (score: 3.6). The users are most satisfied about the offering of hyperlinks (score: 3.8) to receive more background information. An explanation for this could be that the website of the Volkskrant has a special section of dossiers on different subjects. Also, when reading the articles, it provides other hyperlinks related to the article. The satisfaction about the pictures almost gets a high average score (score: 3.6). Articles usually are provided with pictures to illustrate the article. However, this is not the case with some articles and this could be an explanation for this average score. The search engine (score: 3.4) and movie fragments (score: 3.4) receives an above average satisfaction rate. The movie fragments also have a special section on the website. Although it could be unclear for the user to find the related movie fragment, which could be an explanation for this score. The sound fragments (score: 3.3) were given the lowest satisfaction score. Not many sound fragments are available for the user of the Volkskrant. This could be an explanation for the relatively low score.
5.3.3. User Control and Synchronicity
This section provides a description of the results of user control and synchronicity together. To get an overview of user control, three questions were developed. Reliability of each measurement scale was first examined using Cronbach Alpha. Results from the tests indicate that all three scales are sufficiently reliable (α=0.78). The results of user control are shown in table 7.
Synchronicity was determined with one question. This is about the paper version versus the website version and which one is more up-to-date. The results are also shown in table 7.
Table 7. User Control and Synchronicity
Mean SD
User Control (n=296) 3.85 0.62
Synchronicity Mean SD The online newspaper offers the most up-to-date news (n=307) 3.98 0.85 Note: Summed scales, anchoring at 1=very low, 5=very high
Control over the content and control over the navigation are elements that the users of the Volkskrant highly experiences. The respondents are above average satisfied about the control they experience when navigating through the website. Around 80 percent of the users find themselves in control over the content and in control of their navigation. Therefore, the overall score of user control is above average, namely 3.9.
Synchronicity of the online newspaper was an element that the users of the Volkskrant highly appreciates (score: 4.0). An explanation could be that the website could be updated more often on a day, whereas a newspaper appears once a day. 72 percent of the users agree upon that the website is more up-to-date than the paper newspaper.
5.3.4 Interactivity Overall
As mentioned earlier, interactivity consists of four elements: two-way communication, synchronicity, user control, and multimedia. To determine an overall score of interactivity, these four elements will be averaged. The result is that 169 surveys are usable and shows an average score of 3.6. This outcome is above average and it appears that the users of the website are, therefore, more than average satisfied with the interactivity they experience.
Table 8. Overall score of Interactivity
Mean SD Interactivity (n=169) 3.63 0.42 Two-Way Communication (n=210) 3.05 0.64 Multimedia (n=213) 3.61 0.43 User Control (n=296) 3.85 0.62 Synchronicity (n=307) 3.98 0.85
Note: Summed scores, anchoring at 1=very low, 5=very high
test is about the partition by age. It also does not show any difference when it is divided by age. The average score is for both variables around the 3.6.
Table 9. Independent sample T-test
Gender N M SD Male 105 3.64 0,43 Female 64 3.62 0.41 Age <35 years 28 3.61 0.43 35-50 years 69 3.61 0.37 >50 years 72 3.67 0.46
Note: Summed scores, anchoring at 1=very low, 5=very high
5.4 Interactivity Outcome
With regard to the outcome of interactivity twelve questions were developed. This part consists of four elements: online preference (table 10), flow (table 11), processing information (table 12), and (dis)advantages.
5.4.1 Online Preference
According to three elements related to the element of online preference, the respondents had to fill in their appreciation on a scale from 1 to 5. Reliability of each measurement scale was first examined using Cronbach Alpha. Results from the tests indicate that all three scales are sufficiently reliable (α=0.73). The results of online preference are shown in table 10.
Table 10. Online preference
Mean SD
Online preference (n=307) 3.28 1.18
I read the online version more often than the paper version (=313) 3.87 1.42 I prefer the online version more than the paper version (n=308) 3.72 1.24 Note: Summed scores, anchoring at 1=very low, 5=very high
read and prefer the online version more than the paper version. Almost 70 percent agrees with this statement. This is also tested with an one-sample T Test with the average of 3. The result shows that the average score of the users is significantly higher than 3. Therefore, it can be assumed that the readers prefer the online version more than the paper version. This could be that the users appear to see more advantages of the online version. Section 5.4.4 deals with this issue.
5.4.2 Flow
Two questions were related to flow. The first is about the loss of the environment and the second is about the time distortion a user experiences. Reliability of the measurement scales was first examined using Cronbach Alpha. The Alpha for flow is (α=0.86) and is sufficiently reliable. The results are shown in table 11.
Table 11. Flow
Mean SD
Flow (n=308) 2.18 0.82
The website makes me forget my surroundings (n=309) 2.13 0.86
The websites distorts my sense of time (n=311) 2.24 0,90
Note: Summed scores anchoring at 1=very low, 5=very high
The results show that the respondents do not agree with the two statements. The average score of rating flow is 2.2. Almost 70 percent mentioned that they do not experience flow when using the website of the Volkskrant. An explanation for this could be that users do not navigate through the website with total involvement and there is not much of a challenge for the reader. Users tend to use the online paper to get up-to-date with the latest news. As a result, the users do not create an optimal experience, to facilitate the sense of flow.
5.4.3 Depth of Information Processing
Table 12. Depth of Processing Information
Mean SD
Processing Information (n=299) 2.76 0.72
Relevant information is better to select when using the online paper (n=309) 3.45 1.09 The information online is better to understand (n=302) 2.32 0,82 The information online is easier to remember (n=303) 2.33 0,86 The online version clarifies information better (n=304) 2.92 1,03 Note: Summed scores, anchoring at 1=very low, 5=very high
The multi-item measures are averaged to create a new overall score for processing information. This shows the score of 2.8 and this means that the users rate processing information a little below average. With an one-sample T Test, the score is compared between the online and paper version. It appears that the readers find that the depth of information processing is higher when reading the paper version. Relevant information is easier to obtain when using the online newspaper (average score: 3.5). The respondents rate this element as above average. An explanation of this score could be that the website contains a search engine. The website also has a frontpage with headlines, which is easily to scan. A neutral score is the way the online paper is more clarifying (score: 2.9). However, the respondents do not agree with the statements that the online version presents information more understandable (score: 2.3) and makes it easier to remember (score: 2.3). A reason for this low score could be that articles on the website usually are shorter than the paper version. In the newspaper, most of the related articles are put together and with the online paper, the user has to click on a hyperlink to receive more related articles.
5.4.4 Advantages and Disadvantages
With regard to (dis)advantages, people were not limited by fixed answers. People were directly asked: “What are the most important advantages of the website of the Volkskrant?” and “What are the most important disadvantages of the website of the Volkskrant?”. Almost 22 percent answered with ‘No advantages’ and around 78 percent answered with ‘Advantages, like…’. Almost 54 percent of the respondents answered with ‘No disadvantages’ and around 46 percent answered with ‘Disadvantages, like…’.
1. Up-to-date (n=143): e.g. “The website keeps me up-to-date with the latest news”, and “Fast information”;
2. Availability (n=64): e.g. “Access to news from all over the world”, “Available at anytime and anyplace”, and “Directly available”;
3. Clarifying (n=32): e.g. “The headlines are presented in a clear manner”, “The news is clarifying and clear”, and “Fast scanning of headlines”.
One hundred and forty five respondents supported their opinion about the disadvantages of the use of the website of the Volkskrant. Arguments that users of the website have on the disadvantages can be summarized in the following categories:
1. Computer (n=71): e.g. “You have to sit behind the computer”, “A paper version is easier to read”, and “I cannot read the paper while I’m on the road”;
2. Background information (n=26): e.g. “Background information is only available through subscription”, “Limited background information”, and “Articles are abbreviated”;
3. Unclear (n=19): e.g. “The website is unclear compared to the previous website”, “Search engine does not work properly”, and “Navigation through the website is horrible”.
It is surprising that respondents only mention some aspects of interactivity, namely synchronicity and perceived interactivity. However, the users are very satisfied about synchronicity and not very much about the amount of background information that is available to them.
5.5 Correlations
Due to the fact of ordinal nature of selection variables, the Kendall’s tau-b correlation analysis is deployed to examine the association between two variables. As shown in table 13, many selection variables are mutually correlated. However, between the interactivity’s antecedents and interactivity variables less correlation is observed. The antecedents of interactivity do not appear to have a strong positive correlation with the elements of interactivity.
intention to communicate will have higher skills to do so. Two-way communication does not have a correlation with need for cognition. The relation between these variables appears not to be significant. This means that when need for cognition is high, it does not affect two-way communication. Although people with a higher need for cognition have more motivation to think about information, does not make them more likely to engage in two-way communication. No correlation (r=0.08) exists between need for cognition and synchronicity. Synchronicity has also no correlation with skills (r=0.05). This is remarkable, people with higher skills, would expect that information is accessible sooner to them. This group is more aware of their skills and want the speed of delivery of their information to be a match. A final element that has no correlation with skills, is user control. User control is about the amount of control a user experiences when navigating through the website. Whenever, a user feel that he/she has high skills, it is likely that they will experience more control surfing through the website. However, this is not significant.
The four elements of interactivity all have strong correlations with interactivity overall. The strongest relationship is between user control and interactivity overall (r=0.56). Higher levels of user control are associated with higher levels of interactivity overall.
The elements of interactivity also appear to have strong positive correlations with consequences of interactivity. Firstly, processing information seems to have positive correlations with all of the elements of interactivity. Although, one element really stands out, synchronicity and processing information have the strongest correlation (r=0.28). So, if the requested information is provided in a timely matter, the better information can be processed. An explanation could be that the sooner the website offers information and multimedia, it helps the user to process the information. Processing information and the overall score of interactivity have a correlation of 0.34. This is associated with higher levels of interactivity makes processing information easier.
Although, attitude towards the website has positive correlations with all four of the elements of interactivity, it is the strongest with synchronicity (r=0.28). It appears that the respondents who are satisfied with the synchronicity, they will have a positive attitude towards the website. If the overall score of interactivity is taken into account, the correlation is also positive (r=0.26). This means that the elements of interactivity is to the user’s satisfaction.
