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Improving treatment outcomes of tuberculosis

Pradipta, Ivan

DOI:

10.33612/diss.113506043

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Publication date:

2020

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Citation for published version (APA):

Pradipta, I. (2020). Improving treatment outcomes of tuberculosis: towards an antimicrobial stewardship

program. University of Groningen. https://doi.org/10.33612/diss.113506043

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SUMMARY

NEDERLANDSE SAMENVATTING

RINGKASAN

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Ph.D. PORTOFOLIO

ADDENDUM

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SUMMARY

Nowadays, tuberculosis (TB) is one of the top 10 causes of death. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimated that 10 million people developed TB and 1.3 million patients died because of TB in 2017. The problem has further worsened due to the increase of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB). The treatment success rate of MDR-TB was reported to be as low as 55%. A history of previous TB treatment is one of the main risk factors for MDR-TB. It highlights that emerging problems associated with TB drug treatment management should be primarily controlled to avoid the development of MDR-TB. Therefore, an effective antimicrobial stewardship program is essentially needed to achieve a global target for TB elimination in 2035. Unfortunately, comprehensive information on the current situation of high-risk groups for therapeutic failure and drug-related problems in TB disease is lacking. Updated studies and novel strategies are required to develop effective antimicrobial stewardship programs in TB disease. By applying drug utilization and pharmacoepidemiological studies, this thesis, therefore, aimed to identify effective strategies for improving TB treatment outcomes as part of drug resistance control in TB disease with the specific objectives were to analyze: 1) high-risk groups for therapeutic failure among TB patients, 2) potential interventions to improve treatment adherence in TB patients, 3) treatment barriers and potential strategies to successful TB treatment.

In chapter 2, a global meta-analytic study was conducted to identify risk factors of MDR-TB. Our study showed that previous TB disease and prior drug treatment are the most influential factors for the development of MDR-TB. Another finding from this meta-analysis was that non-adherence to drug regimens was highly associated with the development of MDR-TB. Importantly, the effects of several other risk factors for MDR-TB, such as male gender, being married, urban domicile, homelessness and having a history of imprisonment vary by geographical area. This so-called effect modification highlighted that prognostic studies for MDR-TB should be conducted locally to enable the development of the most effective strategy to control DR-TB.

In chapter 3, predictors for unsuccessful TB treatment among drug-susceptible TB (DS-TB) patients in the Netherlands were analyzed. A retrospective cohort study that involved 5,674 DS-TB patients showed that having an age between 18 to 24 years, being homeless or prisoner, and having diabetes predicted unsuccessful treatments, while several other factors, such as older age, combined pulmonary and extra-pulmonary TB, central nervous system or miliary TB, drug addiction and renal insufficiency/dialysis predicted mortality among adult DS-TB patients. Our study confirmed that approximately 92% of patients with a diagnosis of DS-TB were successfully treated, while the remainder experienced either defaulted or failed treatment or died due to TB.

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Summary

In chapter 4, the current situation of the high-risk DR-TB patients in the Netherlands is presented. The highest proportion of DR-TB cases existed of patients with isoniazid mono- or poly-resistance (68%), followed by patients with MDR-TB (18.9%), pyrazinamide mono-resistance (8.3%), rifampicin mono- or poly-mono-resistance (3.1%), extensively drug-mono-resistance (0.7%), and ethambutol mono-resistance (0.1%). Among all DR-TB cases, patients with MDR-TB, substance abuse and homelessness were more likely to experience unsuccessful treatment, while miliary and central nervous system TB predicted TB mortality. Also, male gender and substance abuse were more likely to predict poor outcome after MDR-TB treatment. Our study demonstrated that the majority of DR-TB cases in the Netherlands were foreign-born and most of the DR-TB patients were diagnosed with primary drug-resistant TB. This situation is different from a high TB burden country such as Indonesia.

As previously studied, treatment adherence is a risk factor of MDR-TB. Accordingly, a systematic review of the measurement of adherence and persistence to multiple medications is described in chapter 5. Using a pharmacoepidemiological approach, we analyzed studies on multiple cardio-metabolic medications since such studies that used prescription databases were lacking in the scientific TB area. Our study demonstrated that adherence to multiple medications is currently measured using several different approaches, namely: 1) “All medication”, 2) “Both medication”, 3) “Any medication”, 4) “Average medication”, 5) “Highest/lowest medication”. Regarding persistence to medication, two main approaches were applied: 1) persistence to “all medication”, and 2) “both medication”. In the TB context, the “all medication” approach with an interval-based measurement can be used to measure medication adherence of anti-TB drugs, because the regimen should be strictly taken by patients within a defined period. However, the prescription system and quality of the database should be taken into consideration when measuring drug adherence and persistence in TB patients using a prescription database.

In chapter 6, a systematic review of the randomized controlled studies on intervention to improve medication adherence in patients with latent and active TB infection is presented. The interventions targeted several aspects, including socio-economic, health-care, patient, and treatment aspects. However, not all interventions appeared to significantly improve medication adherence. Several interventions were found effective in improving adherence and outcomes of active TB patients, i.e. DOT by trained community members, SMS combined with TB education, a reinforced counseling method, monthly TB voucher, drug box reminder, and a combination drug box reminder with text messaging. In the LTBI patients, shorter regimens and DOT interventions effectively improved treatment completion. Interestingly, interventions using DOT showed heterogeneous effects on the study outcomes that indicated the interventions can be effective with a varying impact across studies and settings. Since non-adherence factors are patient-specific, personalized

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interventions that take into account such factors are required to enhance the impact of a program to improve medication adherence in TB patients.

In chapter 7, a phenomenological qualitative study about barriers to successful TB treatment was performed in a province of Indonesia with high TB prevalence. We identified three barriers from the patient’s perspective: 1) socio-demography (i.e. stigmatization, lack of family support, long-distance to public health service, transportation difficulties, costs of the private and public health service, cost of transportation and loss of household income and economy); 2) knowledge and perception (i.e. lack of knowledge about TB disease and program, negative perception of the own patient condition, and negative viewpoint of public health service); 3) TB treatment (i.e. adverse drug reaction and long duration of treatment). The results of data analysis demonstrated that all different barriers could be interrelated. In all, the most important barriers that should be prioritized for intervention are part of the following five main barriers: lack of TB knowledge, stigmatization, long-distance to the health facility, loss of household income and adverse drug reaction.

In the general discussion (chapter 8), we proposed recommendations for developing an effective antimicrobial stewardship program in TB disease. We identified that strategies to control DR-TB should include local issues. In low burden countries, such as the Netherlands, an effective screening strategy and treatment program for immigrants and hard-to-reach populations should be developed to have an effective antimicrobial stewardship program. However, in high burden countries, such as Indonesia, management of TB treatment is crucial and it can only be improved by the development and implementation of an integrated antimicrobial stewardship program. Since delayed treatment has been found as a factor for unsuccessful TB treatment in Indonesia, TB case detection should be part of such a program. Several strategies are required to have an optimal antimicrobial stewardship program in Indonesia, including engaging leadership commitment, strengthening community health center for case detection and TB treatment, increasing public-private partnership, and re-defining the pharmacist’s role in TB management. In terms of treatment adherence, our study suggests that the prescription system and quality of prescription databases in particular areas should be considered to measure medication adherence in TB patients adequately. Furthermore, since non-adherence factors can be individual, interventions with a personalized approach are required for the future development of effective programs on improving medication adherence among TB patients.

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Nederlandse samenvatting

NEDERLANDSE SAMENVATTING

Tegenwoordig is TB een van de top-10 doodsoorzaken. De Wereld Gezondheidsorganisatie (WHO) schat dat 10 miljoen mensen TB kregen en dat 1.3 miljoen patiënten zijn overleden aan de gevolgen van TB in 2017. Het probleem is verergerd door de toename van multiresistente tuberculose (MDR-TB). Het gemiddelde succespercentage van de behandeling van MDR-TB is volgens onderzoek slechts 55%. Een voorgeschiedenis van eerdere TB behandelingen is een van de grootste risicofactoren voor MDR-TB. Dit geeft aan dat problemen die geassocieerd zijn met medicamenteuze TB behandeling zouden moeten worden opgelost om de ontwikkeling van MDR-TB te voorkomen. Daarom is een effectief antimicrobieel leiderschapsprogramma nodig om de mondiale doelstelling van TB eliminatie in 2035 te behalen. Helaas ontbreekt het aan volledige informatie over de huidige situatie van hoog-risico groepen met betrekking tot therapeutisch falen en medicijn-gerelateerde problemen bij TB. Vernieuwde studies en innovatieve strategieën zijn nodig om effectieve programma’s voor TB te ontwikkelen. Met behulp van geneesmiddelengebruik en farmaco-epidemiologische onderzoeken worden effectieve strategieën geïdentificeerd om TB behandelresultaten te verbeteren. Het onderzoek maakt daarmee deel uit van de resistentiecontrole van TB met de specifieke doelstellingen om: 1) hoog-risico groepen te identificeren op therapeutisch falen bij TB patiënten; 2) potentiële maatregelen te onderzoeken om de therapietrouw in TB patiënten te vergroten; 3) behandelingsobstakels en potentiële strategieën voor succesvolle TB behandelingen te onderzoeken.

In hoofdstuk 2 verrichten we een wereldwijd meta-analyse onderzoek om de risicofactoren van MDR-TB vast te stellen. Ons onderzoek wijst uit dat voorgaande TB besmetting en medicamenteuze behandeling de meest invloedrijke risicofactoren zijn voor de ontwikkeling van MDR-TB. Een andere bevinding uit deze meta-analyse bevestigt dat het niet navolgen van medicatievoorschriften ook sterk geassocieerd is met de ontwikkeling van MDR-TB. Belangrijk is dat de effecten van verscheidene andere risicofactoren voor MDR-TB, zoals het mannelijk geslacht, getrouwd zijn, stedelijke verblijfplaats, dakloosheid en een gevangenisstraf hebben uitgezeten, verschillen per geografische locatie. Deze zogenoemde effectmodificatie benadrukt dat voorspellende studies voor MDR-TB lokaal moeten worden verricht om de meest effectieve strategieën voor DR-TB bestrijding te ontwikkelen.

In hoofdstuk 3 analyseren we voorspellers voor onsuccesvolle TB behandeling onder antibiotica-gevoelige TB (DS-TB) patiënten in Nederland. Een retrospectief cohortonderzoek waarbij 5674 DS-TB patiënten betrokken waren, toonde aan dat de volgende factoren een onsuccesvolle behandeling voorspelden: tussen de 18 en 24 jaar oud zijn, dakloos zijn of in de gevangenis zitten, en diabetes hebben. Verscheidene andere factoren, zoals op hogere leeftijd zijn, gecombineerde longtuberculose en extrapulmonale tuberculose hebben, centraal zenuwstelsel of miliaire TB, drugsverslaving en een gestoorde

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nierfunctie/dialyse voorspelden de ernstige uitkomst sterfte onder volwassen DS-TB patiënten. Ons onderzoek bevestigt dat ongeveer 92% van de patiënten met een diagnose van DS-TB een succesvolle behandeling onderging, terwijl de overige patiënten een falende behandeling hadden, of overleden aan TB.

In hoofdstuk 4 presenteren we de huidige situatie van de hoog-risico DR-TB patiënten in Nederland. Het grootste deel van DR-TB patiënten bestaat out patiënten met isoniazid mono- of poly-resistentie (68%), gevolgd door patiënten met MDR-TB (18.9%), pyrazinamide mono-resistentie (8.3%), rifampicin mono- of poly-resistentie (3.1%), uitgebreide antibiotica-resistentie (0.7%), en ethambutol mono-antibiotica-resistentie (0.1%). Van alle DR-TB patiënten hebben degenen met MDR-TB, drugsgebruik en dakloosheid de meeste kans op een onsuccesvolle behandeling, terwijl patiënten met miliaire TB en TB van het centraal zenuwstelsel de grootste kans hadden hieraan te overlijden. Daarbij komt dat mannen en drugsgebruikers meer kans liepen op een slechte uitkomst na een MDR-TB behandeling. Ons onderzoek toont aan dat de meerderheid van Nederlandse DR-TB gevallen in het buitenland geboren was en de meeste DR-TB patiënten gediagnostiseerd waren met primaire geneesmiddel resistente TB. Deze situatie verschilt met een land als Indonesië waar de TB ziektelast hoger ligt.

Zoals eerder onderzocht, blijkt dat therapietrouw een risicofactor is bij MDR-TB. Daarom beschrijft hoofdstuk 5 een systematisch overzicht van het meten van het houden aan geneesmiddelvoorschriften bij meerdere medicaties. Door de farmaco-epidemiologische aanpak te gebruiken, hebben we verschillende onderzoeken geanalyseerd met betrekking tot verscheidene hart-medicaties, omdat dit soort onderzoek dat gebruik maakt van prescriptiedatabases ontbrak op wetenschappelijk TB gebied. Ons onderzoek demonstreert dat therapietrouw op dit moment gemeten wordt op verschillende manieren, namelijk: 1) “Alle medicatie”; 2) “Beide medicaties”; 3) “Elke medicatie”; 4) “Gemiddelde medicatie”; 5) “Hoogste/laagste medicatie”. Als het gaat om het houden aan meerdere medicatievoorschriften, dan kunnen twee methodes worden gebruikt: 1) het houden aan “alle medicaties”, en 2) “beide medicaties”. In de TB context kan de “alle medicatie” aanpak met een interval-gebaseerde meting gebruikt worden om therapietrouw van anti-TB geneesmiddelen te meten, omdat de kuur alleen binnen bepaalde tijd gevolgd mag worden door de patiënt. Echter, er moet rekening gehouden worden met het voorschrijfsysteem en de kwaliteit van de database als men therapietrouw meet in TB.

In hoofdstuk 6 presenteren we een systematisch overzicht van de gerandomiseerde en gecontroleerde onderzoeken naar interventies om therapietrouw bij patiënten met latente en actieve TB infectie te verbeteren. De interventies richtten zich op meerdere onderdelen, zoals socio-economische-, gezondheidszorg-, patiënt- en behandelingsaspecten. Echter, niet alle interventies bleken significante verbeteringen

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Nederlandse samenvatting

te veroorzaken in de therapietrouw. Verscheidene interventies waren effectief in het verbeteren van therapietrouw als ook de behandelingsuitkomsten bij actieve TB patiënten zoals: DOT door getrainde gezondheidswerkers, SMS gecombineerd met TB onderwijs, een verscherpte begeleidingsmethode, maandelijkse TB voucher, geneesmiddeldoos herinnering, en een combinatie van geneesmiddel herinnering met sms berichtjes. Onder de latente TB patiënten verbeterde de voltooiing van de behandeling door kortere kuren en DOT interventies. Opvallend genoeg bleek dat interventie met DOT een heterogeen effect toonde in de onderzoeksresultaten, wat laat zien dat de interventies effectief kunnen zijn met wisselende invloed tussen verschillende onderzoeken en omgevingen. Omdat therapietrouw patiëntgebonden is, is gepersonaliseerde interventie nodig waarbij met dat soort factoren rekening gehouden wordt om zo de impact van het programma te vergroten en de therapietrouw in TB patiënten te verbeteren.

In hoofdstuk 7 onderzochten we met behulp van een fenomenologisch kwalitatieve studie de belemmeringen voor een succesvolle TB behandeling in een provincie in Indonesië waar TB veel voorkomt. We vonden drie centrale thema’s vanuit het perspectief van de patiënt: 1) socio-demografie (met name stigmatisering, gebrek aan steun vanuit de familie, reisafstand tot een gezondheidscentrum, mobiliteitsproblemen, prijs van private en openbare gezondheidszorg, prijs van vervoer, en daling van het huishoudelijk inkomen en de economie); 2) kennis en gewaarwording (gebrek aan kennis over TB ziekte en programma, negatief beeld van de toestand van de patiënt, en een negatief beeld van de gezondheidszorg); 3) TB behandeling (medicatiebijwerkingen en de lange duur van de behandeling). De resultaten van de data-analyse laten zien dat alle verschillende hindernissen gerelateerd kunnen zijn. Uiteindelijk maken de belangrijkste belemmeringen deel uit van de volgende vijf groepen: gebrekkige kennis van TB, stigmatisering, grote afstand tot gezondheidscentrum, daling van het huishoudelijk inkomen en bijwerkingen.

Hoofdstuk 8 beschrijft een algemene discussie om aanbevelingen voor te stellen voor het ontwikkelen van een effectief antimicrobieel leiderschapsprogramma bij TB. We vonden dat er rekening moet worden gehouden met lokale omstandigheden bij het bepalen van strategieën om DR-TB te controleren. In landen met een lage prevalentie van TB zoals Nederland, moet een effectieve screeningsstrategie ontwikkeld worden en een behandelingsprogramma voor immigranten en moeilijk te bereiken bevolkingsgroepen worden opgezet, om een dergelijk programma te creëren. In landen met een hoge prevalentie van TB, zoals Indonesië, is de management van TB behandeling cruciaal en dit kan alleen maar verbeterd worden door de ontwikkeling en toepassing van een geïntegreerd antimicrobieel leiderschapsprogramma. Omdat uitgestelde behandeling een rol speelt in de onsuccesvolle behandeling van TB in Indonesië, zou TB opsporing een rol moeten spelen in zo’n programma. Verscheidene strategieën zijn nodig om een optimaal programma te creëren in Indonesië, inclusief betrokken leiderschap, het verbeteren van

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openbare gezondheidscentra voor het detecteren en behandelen van TB, meer openbare en private samenwerking, en het herdefiniëren van de apothekersrol in het TB beleid. Als het gaat om therapietrouw, toont ons onderzoek aan dat de prescriptiesystemen en de kwaliteit van de apothekersdatabase in bepaalde gebieden in acht moeten worden genomen om de therapietrouw van TB patiënten te kunnen meten. Bovendien moeten interventies worden ontwikkeld voor een gepersonaliseerde aanpak, omdat therapietrouw grotendeels gebaseerd is op individuele factoren. Dit is nodig voor de verdere ontwikkeling van effectieve programma’s om therapietrouw onder TB patiënten te verbeteren.

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Ringkasan

RINGKASAN

Saat ini penyakit tuberkulosis (TB) merupakan satu dari sepuluh jenis penyakit yang menyebabkan kematian tertinggi di dunia. Badan kesehatan dunia memperkirakan pada tahun 2017 terdapat 10 juta orang terinfeksi TB dan 1,3 juta orang meninggal dunia dikarenakan TB. Permasalahan tersebut semakin diperparah dengan adanya peningkatan kejadian tuberkulosis resistensi multipel obat (TB-RMO) dengan kesuksesan terapi yang masih relatif rendah yaitu hanya berkisar 55%. Riwayat pengobatan TB sebelumnya pada pasien TB merupakan satu dari faktor risiko utama kejadian-kejadian TB-RMO. Hal tersebut menunjukkan bahwa perlunya pengendalian permasalahan TB yang berkaitan dengan pengobatan TB untuk mengatasi kejadian TB-RMO. Atas dasar tersebut, diperlukan sebuah program pengelolaan antibiotik / Antimicrobial Stewardship Program (ASP) yang efektif untuk mencapai target global dalam mengeliminasi TB pada tahun 2035. Akan tetapi, informasi terkini mengenai kelompok berisiko tinggi terhadap kegagalan terapi dan permasalahan-permasalahan mengenai pengobatan TB masih belum banyak diketahui, sehingga diperlukan studi dan strategi terbaru untuk mengembangkan ASP yang efektif. Berdasarkan uraian tersebut, melalui penerapan studi penggunaan obat dan farmakoepidemiologi, disertasi ini bertujuan untuk mengidentifikasi strategi yang efektif dalam meningkatkan luaran terapi TB dengan menganalisis beberapa hal, yaitu: 1) kelompok berisiko terhadap kegagalan terapi TB, 2) intervensi yang berpotensi dalam meningkatkan kepatuhan terapi obat anti-TB, 3) faktor-faktor penghalang dalam kesuksesan pengobatan TB, serta strategi-strategi yang berpotensi untuk meningkatkan kesuksesan terapi TB.

Sebuah studi meta-analisis dengan cakupan global di uraikan pada bab 2. Studi ini bertujuan untuk mengidentifikasi faktor risiko TB-RMO. Kami mengidentifikasi bahwa riwayat penyakit dan pengobatan TB merupakan faktor yang sangat mempengaruhi berkembangnya TB-RMO. Temuan lain menunjukkan bahwa ketidakpatuhan terhadap pengobatan TB berkaitan erat dengan berkembangnya TB-RMO. Hal penting lainnya adalah adanya perbedaan beberapa faktor risiko TB-RMO yang dipengaruhi oleh lokasi penelitian. Beberapa faktor tersebut yaitu jenis kelamin, status pernikahan, lokasi domisili, status kepemilikan tempat tinggal dan status riwayat sebagai tahanan. Adanya perbedaan faktor risiko tersebut menunjukkan bahwa identifikasi terhadap faktor risiko TB-RMO perlu dilakukan pada cakupan daerah tertentu untuk dapat mengembangkan strategi yang paling efektif dalam mengendalikan Tuberkulosis Resistensi Obat (TB-RO).

Pada bab 3 dipaparkan studi mengenai faktor prediksi terhadap kegagalan pengobatan TB pada pasien Tuberkulosis Sensitif Obat (TB-SO) di Belanda. Sebuah studi retrospektif- kohort yang melibatkan 5.674 pasien TB-SO menunjukkan bahwa memiliki umur 18 hingga 24 tahun, status sebagai tuna wisma dan tahanan, atau memiliki penyakit diabetes merupakan faktor prediksi terhadap kegagalan pengobatan TB. Selain itu kami

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mengidentifikasi beberapa faktor lainnya, seperti pasien-pasien dengan umur lanjut usia, kombinasi penyakit TB paru dan ekstra paru, penyakit TB sistem saraf pusat atau milier, kecanduan zat adiktif, dan gangguan ginjal/ dialisis, merupakan faktor-faktor prediksi kematian pada kelompok pasien TB-SO dewasa di Belanda. Studi kami juga mengkonfirmasi bahwa 92% pasien dewasa yang didiagnosis TB-SO telah secara sukses diobati, namun sisanya mengalami penghentian, kegagalan terapi atau meninggal dunia dikarenakan TB.

Pada bab 4, kami memaparkan situasi terkini mengenai kelompok berisiko pasien TB-RO di Belanda. Persentase tertinggi kasus TB-RO di Belanda terdapat pada kelompok pasien dengan mono- atau poli-resistensi TB (68%), kemudian diikuti oleh kelompok-kelompok pasien dengan TB-RMO (18,9%), mono-resistensi pirazinamid (8.3%), mono- atau poli-resistensi rifampisin (3,1%), TB poli-resistensi obat extensif / TB-XDR (0.7%) dan mono-poli-resistensi pirazinamid (0.1%). Secara keseluruhan, pasien dengan status TB-RMO, kecanduan zat adiktif dan tuna wisma memiliki kecenderungan mengalami kegagalan terapi TB-RO, sementara pasien TB-RO dengan diagnosis TB milier dan susunan saraf pusat memiliki kecenderungan meninggal dunia dikarenakan TB. Selain itu juga studi ini menunjukkan bahwa kelompok pasien dengan jenis kelamin laki-laki dan kelompok pasien dengan status kecanduan zat adiktif memiliki kecenderungan mendapatkan luaran terapi yang buruk. Studi kami mengkonfirmasi bahwa mayoritas kasus TB-RO di Belanda merupakan pasien-pasien dengan tempat kelahiran dari luar Belanda dan jenis TB-RO primer merupakan jenis kasus resistensi obat TB yang mendominasi di Belanda. Hal ini sangat berbeda situasinya dengan negara dengan angka kejadian TB tinggi seperti Indonesia.

Seperti yang telah dianalisis sebelumnya, ketidakpatuhan pengobatan TB merupakan salah satu faktor yang mempengaruhi kejadian TB-RMO. Berdasarkan hal tersebut, pada bab 5 kami memaparkan sebuah review sistematik yang membahas mengenai penilaian kepatuhan dan kesinambungan (persistence) penggunaan multipel obat. Dengan menggunakan pendekatan farmakoepidemiologi, kami menganalisis studi-studi yang terkait dengan penggunaan multipel obat kardio-metabolik. Pemilihan obat kardio- metabolik dikarenakan minimnya studi di area TB yang menggunakan bank data peresepan. Studi kami menunjukkan bahwa kepatuhan penggunaan multipel obat dianalisis dengan beberapa pengukuran yang berbeda, yaitu pengukuran: 1) “keseluruhan obat”, 2) “kedua-duanya obat”, 3) “salah satu obat”, 4) “rata-rata obat”, 5) “penggunaan obat yang tertinggi/terendah. Berkaitan dengan kesinambungan (persistence) terhadap pengobatan, kami mengidentifikasi dua pendekatan pengukuran yang berbeda, yaitu kesinambungan penggunaan “obat keseluruhan” dan “kedua-duanya obat”. Selain itu juga kami menganalisis bahwa kepatuhan penggunaan obat anti TB dapat diukur melalui penilaian yang menggunakan “keseluruhan obat” dengan sistem penilaian berdasarkan interval waktu. Hal tersebut dikarenakan regimen TB telah dianjurkan untuk selalu diminum dalam periode yang telah ditetapkan. Meskipun demikian, sistem peresapan dan kualitas bank data peresepan perlu diperhatikan

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Ringkasan

ketika akan melakukan penilaian kepatuhan dan kesinambungan penggunaan obat dengan menggunakan bank data peresepan.

Pada bab 6 kami memaparkan sebuah review sistematik terhadap studi-studi intervensi untuk meningkatkan kepatuhan penggunaan obat TB. Studi-studi intervensi dengan desain Randomized Controlled Trial (RCT) tersebut menargetkan beberapa aspek, yaitu sosio-ekonomi, pelayanan kesehatan, pasien dan pengobatan. Akan tetapi, tidak semua intervensi menunjukkan secara signifikan dalam memperbaiki kepatuhan penggunaan obat. Beberapa intervensi yang diketahui memiliki efektivitas dalam meningkatkan kepatuhan penggunaan obat dan memperbaiki luaran terapi pada kelompok pasien TB aktif, antara lain Directly Observed Treatment (DOT) yang dilakukan oleh anggota masyarakat yang terlatih, Short Message Service (SMS) yang dikombinasikan dengan edukasi TB, penguatan metode konseling, penggunaan voucer belanja, alat pengingat yang terintegrasi dengan kotak obat, dan kombinasi alat pengingat kotak obat dengan pesan teks. Pada kelompok pasien dengan infeksi TB laten, intervensi yang menggunakan regimen singkat atau intervensi DOT menunjukkan secara efektif dalam meningkatkan penggunaan obat hingga akhir periode pengobatan. Hal yang menarik adalah intervensi yang menggunakan DOT menunjukkan hasil yang bervariasi, hal tersebut menggarisbawahi bahwa intervensi dapat memiliki dampak yang berbeda di berbagai lokasi dan studi. Oleh karena itu diperlukan intervensi yang bersifat personal untuk meningkatkan kepatuhan penggunaan obat pada pasien TB mengingat faktor ketidakpatuhan pengobatan dapat bersifat individual.

Pada bab 7 kami memaparkan sebuah studi kualitatif dengan pendekatan fenomenologi yang membahas mengenai faktor-faktor penghalang terhadap kesuksesan terapi TB di sebuah provinsi di Indonesia. Kami mengidentifikasi tiga tema yang berkaitan dengan faktor penghalang kesuksesan pengobatan TB dari perspektif pasien, antara lain: 1) sosio-ekonomi (adanya stigma, minimnya dukungan keluarga, jarak yang jauh menuju fasilitas pelayanan kesehatan primer publik, kesulitan transportasi, beban biaya di pelayanan kesehatan, beban biaya transportasi dan hilangnya pendapatan keluarga), 2) pengetahuan dan persepsi (minimnya pengetahuan pasien mengenai penyakit dan program TB, persepsi negatif pasien terhadap kondisi diri sendiri, dan pandangan negatif pasien terhadap pelayanan kesehatan publik, 3) Pengobatan TB (adanya efek samping obat dan panjangnya masa terapi). Hasil dari analisis data tersebut menunjukkan bahwa faktor-faktor penghalang yang telah teridentifikasi dapat saling berhubungan, sehingga secara keseluruhan, setidaknya terdapat lima faktor penghalang utama dalam kesuksesan pengobatan TB, antara lain minimnya pengetahuan pasien mengenai TB, adanya stigma, jarak yang relatif jauh menuju fasilitas kesehatan, hilangnya pendapatan keluarga dan adanya kejadian efek samping obat.

Pada bab 8, kami mengajukan beberapa rekomendasi untuk pengembangan ASP yang efektif pada penyakit TB. Kami mengidentifikasi bahwa strategi-strategi untuk mengendalikan

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TB-RO perlu mempertimbangkan masalah-masalah lokal. Di negara dengan prevalensi TB yang rendah, diperlukan sebuah strategi yang efektif yang terkait dengan program skrining dan pengobatan TB bagi imigran dan populasi-populasi yang sulit dijangkau. Akan tetapi, pada negara-negara dengan prevalensi TB yang tinggi, seperti Indonesia, manajemen pengobatan TB merupakan hal yang sangat penting dan hal tersebut perlu dilakukan dan diterapkan melalui ASP yang terintegrasi. Selain itu, penemuan kasus TB juga perlu menjadi bagian dari kegiatan ASP, mengingat keterlambatan terapi TB merupakan salah satu faktor terhadap ketidaksuksesan pengobatan TB di Indonesia. Beberapa strategi yang diperlukan untuk menciptakan ASP yang optimal di Indonesia, diantarnya adalah pelibatan komitmen pemimpin lokal dan nasional, penguatan pusat pelayanan kesehatan primer untuk deteksi kasus dan pengobatan TB, peningkatan kolaborasi antara sektor publik dan swasta, serta peningkatan peran apoteker dalam manajemen TB. Berkaitan dengan kepatuhan penggunaan obat, studi kami menyarankan bahwa sistem peresepan dan kualitas bank data peresepan di suatu daerah perlu dipertimbangkan jika akan menggunakan bank data peresepan sebagai alat untuk menilai kepatuhan penggunaan obat pada pasien TB. Selain itu, intervensi melalui pendekatan personal (personalized approach) dengan mempertimbangkan faktor-faktor individual sangat diperlukan untuk pengembangan program peningkatan kepatuhan penggunaan obat pada pasien-pasien TB.

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Acknowledgement

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

A thousand miles was travelled to have a fantastic journey in my four years of Ph.D. trajectory. Without any supports from many kind people, my Ph.D. promotion cannot be real. Therefore, I would like to express my gratitude to all people and institutions who supported me during my Ph.D. time.

Firstly, I would like thank to the Indonesia Endowment Fund for Education or LPDP who sponsored me studying at the University of Groningen, the Netherlands. “Aku pasti kembali !”

I would like sincerely thank my promoters, Prof. Eelko Hak and Prof. Jan-Willem Alffenaar.

Dear Eelko, thank you for allowing me to do my Ph.D. in our unit. I still remember when I met you for the first time at the International Conference on Pharmacoepidemiology, 2014, Taipei. You allowed me to develop my idea and connected with another expert to enrich my research content. I learned a lot from you on how you manage your Ph.D. students. You offered me many independencies, but still under your supervision to have qualified works and get in time finishing my Ph.D. projects. Your fast-thinking inspired me to do smart and effective works. It also motivated me to make decisions bravely when facing with some research problems.

Dear Jan-Willem, thank you for supervising me during my Ph.D. trajectory. I am fortunate to have you as my supervisor. Your creative idea helps me to conduct my research projects. You also connected me with collaborators who support my project, so I can learn how to manage a network. I learned a lot from you on how to be a good listener and problem solver in research projects. Your quick response makes the distance of Sydney-Groningen is close. I always remember your words that as a scientist, we must have high aims. It helped me to publish our work in the top 10% journal and motivated me to use my best effort in every single work.

The reading committee, Prof. T.S. Van der Werf, Prof. K. Taxis and Prof. F.G.J Cobelens, who spent their time to review and gave constructive advice for my thesis.

All my collaborators: Dr. Judith Bruchfeld and Dr. Lina D. Forsman (Karolinska Institute); Prof. Petra Denig, Dr. Onno W. Akkerman, Dr. Job FM. Van Boven, Daphne Houtsma, M.Sc (UMCG, Groningen); dr. Natasha van’t Boveneind-Vrubleuskaya (GGD, the Hague); Dr. Ari Probandari (UNS, Solo); Prof. Ajeng Diantini, Bonny Wiem Lestari, M.Sc (UNPAD, Bandung). Thank you for all your support and insight during my studies. Also, mbak Lusiana R. Idrus and Sofa D. Alfian, who help me a lot for conducting and reporting some studies in this thesis. I also extend my gratitude to Mira Miratuljannah, Pepi, Puti Primadini, Chevy Luviana, and Ibu Devi Aulia, who helped and supported me during my field study.

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My roommates, Yuan, Akbar and mbak Sylvi. Thank you for the fruitful discussions and sharing experiences. I still remember when we struggled in performing data handling assignments and systematic review studies. I will miss that moment where we can work together in our room. Your hard work ensured me that you all will be a successful person in the future.

All the current and former member of PTE2 and PEGET: Prof. Bob Wilfert, Prof. Katja Taxis, Prof. Marteen J. Postma, Prof. Puijenbroek, Dr. Nynke, Pepijn, Marcy, Neily, Jurjen, Pieter, kaka Ury, mba Tia, mba Lusi, Qi, Wandy, Eva, mas Didik, mas Khairul, mba Afifah, Sofa, Christian, Yuan, Akbar, mbak Sylvi, Fajri, mbak Ira, Abraham, Tanja, Simon, Taichi, Aizati, Lan, Thang, Linda, Helen, Atiqul, Monik, Jens, Bert and Anya. Thank you for your support and help during my studies. I also thank Jannie and Jugo for their care in supporting administration things and providing an excellent computer with double screens.

The Faculty members of Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universitas Padjadjaran, Prof. Anas Subarnas, Prof. Ajeng Diantini, Prof. Keri Lestari, Prof. Jutti Levita, Prof. Sri adi Sumiwi, Prof. Ahmad Muhtadi and Dr. Eli Halimah, who always support and encourage me until this stage. Also, the “young and dangerous gang”, Auliya, teh Moly, teh Ellin, teh Eli, teh Rizki, Rano, Arif, Imam, Sofa, Dika and Adi priyanto, thank you for supporting me all the time. For bang Rizky Abdulah, thanks for being a mentor and discussion partner; I hope you can still guide us patiently.

For the awesome guys in my Ph.D. courses, Omar Faroque and Bart Hiemstra. You helped me to understand about statistic and prediction model. I wish you all the best for your future carrier.

A sweet BBBO family who always help each other’s: mas Amak- mba Putri, mas Khairul- mba Retno, mas Joko- mba Uchi, and om Agung- tante Inna, mba Icha- mas Erdi and Riswandy- Cici. We should continue our group meeting and make more massive barbeque and “lutisan” in Indonesia. I also thank om Sem Likumahua and tante Sarah Hawun for being part of Beren 43, thank you for your patience during your stay in Beren. Renata and Arkan will miss you.

All Indonesian friends in the DeGromist, PPIG and LPDP: mas Chalis- mba Jean, Nazmudin-Anis, Azka Muji- Aidina, Adhyat- Nuri, Afif, Guntur, Ali- Liany, Fajar- Monik, mas Romi- mba Arlina, bude Nunung, mas Ega- mba Irma, mas Ega- mba titis, Habibi- Ma’wa, mba Zamrotul, mas Latif- Septi, mas Panji Jamaah, pak Yopi- mba Dewi, kang Tatang, mas Surya- mba Yassaroh, mas Krisna- mba Icha, Umar Djalin, mas Ristiono- mba Afifah, Adityo, mas Lana- mba Arum, Dimas- Anya, mas rifqi Rohman, Bhimo, mas ust Naufal, Novita Rudiany, Masyita, Ucon, Salva, Sofa- Yudi, Zaki- Nadya, pak lurah Thomas, Prety, Alfian, pak Petrus, Adjie Pratama, mba Rosyta, mba Tania, pak Asmoro- bu Rini om Deka, Marina Ika, Ghozi,

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Acknowledgement

and bli Kadek. You all make my Ph.D. days so colorful with sharing ideas, experiences, foods and opinions. As a communal person, your friendship makes me alive. I hope we still keep in touch in the future and share our happy stories.

Tim Zwagastra, a kind person who advise me many things related to Groningen. I always remember when you help me arguing with a housing provider at the beginning of my study. After that, I try to apply your lesson that debate is primarily needed in the Netherlands. Thanks for helping me and other Indonesian students

Finally, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my lovely family, who continually stand for me every single time.

Dear Dita Fitria, I know that it is not easy to accompany me in the new chapter of our journey in the Netherlands. Your patience, care and sacrifice realize me that I am the luckiest person to have you in my side. I am glad that you are thoughtful and so much fun to be around with, but I am most glad that you are my wife. I always believe that behind every great man is a truly amazing wife. Thank you for understanding me always.

Renata and Arkan, thank you for accompanying Abi in Groningen. Your smile and happiness raise me up from many difficult situations. I hope you will understand that life is a dynamic process. Don’t be afraid of all challenges, because it will help you to understand the meaning of life.

Dear mama Lilik Sabdaningtyas and papa Annukman Sulaiman, thankful words are not enough to express my gratitude for your unconditional love and support. I always remember that your sacrifice to allow me to stay far away in Java is amazing. Since that, I fully realize that your blessing led me at this stage. I’m thankful for your love and care. May your days be stuffed with health, happiness and love.

Dear mama Diah Herawaty and papa Faturachman, thank you for always supporting and understanding me in every situation. I’m thankful for your love and care to me, Dita, Renata and Arkan. May your days be stuffed with health, happiness and love.

My brothers and sisters, Citra Agung Budhi Dharma- Nirmala Tina; Danny Rachdiana, Dimas Firmanudin- Heni Suherman and also all my nephews and nieces Raya, Lady, Malik, Radif and Arine. Thank you for always being part of me and taking care of our parents. Wishing your days with God’s amazing love and blessings.

Last but not least, I am grateful to all people who gave their contribution to my Ph.D. projects that cannot be listed one by one in this acknowledgment. Thank you very much!.

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ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Ivan Surya Pradipta (1983) was born in Yogyakarta, Indonesia. After finishing high school in Bandar Lampung, Indonesia, he began studying pharmacy at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Universitas Padjadjaran, Indonesia in 2001. He had finished the bachelor’s degree in Pharmacy, then continued his professional degree as a Pharmacist at the same University in 2006. He holds a master’s degree in clinical pharmacy with cum-laude from the Faculty of Pharmacy, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Indonesia, in 2009. After that, He continued working as a lecturer and researcher at the Departement of Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universitas Padjadjaran, Indonesia. As a researcher, he has an interest in the topic of antimicrobial use and resistance. In February 2016, He started a Ph.D. trajectory under the supervision of Prof. Eelko Hak and Prof. Jan-Willem Alffenaar at the Unit of Pharmaco-Therapy, -Epidemiology and -Economics (PTE2), University of Groningen, the Netherlands. His Ph.D. project focused on the strategy to improve treatment outcomes and control drug resistance of tuberculosis, with the funding from the Indonesia Endowment Fund for Education or LPDP. During his Ph.D. trajectory, He actively presented his study in international conferences and successfully published his studies in the top 10% scientific journal. He also obtained a travel grant from the International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease to present his studies in The 49th Union World Conference on Lung

Health. After finishing Ph.D., he will continue his career as a lecturer and researcher at the Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universitas Padjadjaran, Indonesia.

Ivan lives in Bandung, Indonesia, with his lovely wife (Dita) and two children (Renata and Arkan).

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PhD Portfolio

PHD PORTFOLIO

Name : Ivan Surya Pradipta

Unit of PhD : Unit of Pharmaco-Therapy, -Epidemiology and –Economics, Department of Pharmacy, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy (GRIP), University of Groningen, the Netherlands.

PhD period : 2016-2020

Promotors : Prof. Eelko Hak

Prof. Jan-Willem Alffenaar

Courses/ Workshops Year Workload

(hours/ ECTS) Internal

• Presentation skills 2016 0.5

• Academic writing 2016 2

• Data handling and pharmacoepidemiology in practice 2016 5

• Health technology assessment: quality-of-life and patient-reported outcome measures (PROMs)

2016 2.5

• Systematic review and meta-analysis 2016 1

• Scientific integrity 2016 2.5

• Multivariate analyses: how to handle three variables 2016 1

• Working with questionnaires in patient-related research 2016 1

• Pharmacoepidemiology UK 2016 5

• Epidemiology and applied statistics 2016 3

• Managing your PhD 2016 2

• Medical statistics 2017 3

• Study design in clinical epidemiology 2017 4

• Science writing 2017 2

• Advance pharmacoepidemiology 2017 5

• Critical appraisal of literature 2018 1.5

• Advanced clinical epidemiology 2018 3

• Publishing in English 2018 3

• Introduction to qualitative research methods 2018 2

External

• European Society for Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases (ESCMID): post-graduate technical workshop on better methods for clinical studies in infectious diseases and clinical microbiology. Seville, Spain.

2016 1

• Erasmus Summer Program: marker and prediction research. Rotterdam, the Netherlands.

2017 0.7

• ESCMID: antimicrobial stewardship program, principle and practice. Istanbul, Turkey.

2017 2

• USAID- CCR ARI (Center for collaborative research on acute respiratory infection), Faculty of Medicine, Universitas Padjadjaran: Applied clinical trial training, Bandung, Indonesia.

2019 1

• European Consortium for Political Research (ECPR): qualitative data analysis, concept and approaches. Budapest, Hungary.

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Journal referee

• Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacy Research 2016

• The Journal of Infection in Developing Countries 2018

• Medical Journal Indonesia 2018

• Indonesian Journal of Clinical Pharmacy 2016-2019

• BMC Infectious Diseases 2019

• BMC Systematic review 2019

• Therapeutics and Clinical Risk Management 2019

• The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 2019

• International Journal of Integrated Health Sciences 2019

• The Lancet Infectious Diseases 2020

Professional organization

• International Society for Pharmacoepidemiology (ISPE), Membership Identificaton number : 30080

2013- now • European Society for Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Disease

(ESCMID), member ID: 133948

2016- now • International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease. Member

ID: CU-0780309

2018- now

Scientific journals

Pradipta IS, Van’t Boveneind-Vrubleuskaya N, Akkerman OW, Alffenaar JC, Hak E. Treatment outcomes of drug-resistant tuberculosis in the Netherlands, 2005-2015. Antimicrob Resist Infect Control. 2019 Jul 12;8:115.

Pradipta IS, Van’t Boveneind-Vrubleuskaya N, Akkerman OW, Alffenaar JWC, Hak E. Predictors for treatment outcomes among patients with drug-susceptible tuberculosis in the Netherlands: a retrospective cohort study. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2019 Jun;25(6):761. e1-761.e7.

Pradipta IS, Forsman LD, Bruchfeld J, Hak E, Alffenaar JW. Risk factors of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis: A global systematic review and meta-analysis. J Infect. 2018 Dec;77(6):469-478.

Pradipta IS, Houtsma D, Van Boven JFM, Alffenaar JWC, Hak E. Interventions to improve medication adherence in patients with latent and active tuberculosis infection: a systematic review of randomized controlled studies. (Submitted)

Pradipta IS, Idrus LR, Probandari A, Lestari BW, Diantini A, Alffenaar JWC, Hak E. Barriers and strategies to successful tuberculosis treatment in a high-burden tuberculosis setting: a qualitative study from the patient’s perspective. (Submitted)

Alfian SD, Pradipta IS, Hak E, Denig P. A systematic review finds inconsistency in the measures used to estimate adherence and persistence to multiple cardiometabolic medications. J Clin Epidemiol. 2019 Apr;108:44-53.

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PhD Portfolio

Jannah MM, Pradipta IS, Santoso P, Puspitasari IM. Association between DOTS program and the outcome of previous therapy in MDR-TB patients: a case study in Tasikmalaya district, West Java, Indonesia. J Adv Pharm Edu Res. 2019 Jan; 9(1):69-71.

Destiani DP, Milanda T, Susilawati S, Suwantika AA, Pradipta IS, et al. Cost-effectiveness analysis of ceftazidime-levofloxacin and cefotaxime-erythromycin as empirical antibiotic combinations in respiratory infection-induced sepsis. Asian J Pharm Clin Res. 2017 Jan; 10 (s1): 119-121 Barliana MI, Amalya SN, Pradipta IS, Alfian SD, Kusuma AS, Milanda T, Abdulah R. DNA methyltransferase 3A gene polymorphism contributes to daily life stress susceptibility. Psychol Res Behav Manag. 2017 Dec 15;10:395-401.

Chimeh RA, Gafar F, Pradipta IS, Akkerman OW, Hak E, Alffenaar JWC, Van Boven JFM. Clinical and economic impact of non-adherence to medication in patients with drug-susceptible tuberculosis: a systematic review. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2019.(In press)

Scientific conferences

Pradipta IS, Van’t Boveneind-Vrubleuskaya N, Akkerman OW, Alffenaar JW, Hak E . Predictors for treatment outcomes among drug-resistant tuberculosis patients in the Netherlands: A retrospective cohort study. The 35th International Conference on Pharmacoepidemiology & Therapeutic Risk Management. Philadelphia, the United States. August 24-28, 2019. (poster presentation)

Pradipta IS, Van’t Boveneind-Vrubleuskaya N, Akkerman OW, Alffenaar JW, Hak E. Development of a multivariable prediction model for poor outcome of tuberculosis treatment among drug-resistant tuberculosis patients in the Netherlands. The 49th Union World Conference on Lung Health. The Hague, The Netherlands, 24-27 October 2018. (oral presentation)

Pradipta IS, Van’t Boveneind-Vrubleuskaya N, Akkerman OW, Alffenaar JW, Hak E. Predictors for Treatment Outcomes among Patients with Drug-susceptible Tuberculosis in the Netherlands. The 49th Union World Conference on Lung Health. The Hague, The Netherlands, 24-27 October 2018. (oral presentation)

Pradipta IS, Van’t Boveneind-Vrubleuskaya N, Akkerman OW, Alffenaar JW, Hak E. Development and validation of a prediction model for poor outcome of tuberculosis treatment: a nationwide, register-based retrospective cohort study from the Netherlands. The 34th International Conference on Pharmacoepidemiology & Therapeutic Risk Management. Prague, Czech Republic. August 22-26, 2018. (poster presentation)

Alfian SD, Pradipta IS, Hak E, Denig P. A systematic review of measures for calculating adherence and persistence to multiple medications from prescription data. The 34th International Conference on Pharmacoepidemiology & Therapeutic Risk Management. Prague, Czech Republic. August 22-26, 2018. (poster presentation)

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