Storybook reading, attachment, and emergent
literacy: some experimental studies with
children from lower socioeconomic status
families
Bus, A.G.; IJzendoorn, M.H. van
Citation
Bus, A. G., & IJzendoorn, M. H. van. (1989). Storybook
reading, attachment, and emergent literacy: some
experimental studies with children from lower socioeconomic
status families. In . Kansas City, MI. Retrieved from
https://hdl.handle.net/1887/1418
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Storjbook R e i d i n g l Storybook R e a d l n g , A t t a c h m e n t , a n d E i e r g e n t L i t e r a c y .
So»e E x p e r i e e n t a l S t u d l e s «rith C h i l d r e n fro· t e u e r Socioeconoafc Status F a » 1 1 i e s A d r i a n a G. Bus Departient of E d u c a t i o n U n i v e r s i t y of fironingen H a r i n u s H. Van IJzendoorn Departaent of E d u c a t i o n Unlvcrstty of Leiden
Storybook R e a d i n g Z Abstract
In thls paper ue hypothestze that early knowledge about «ritten language 1s stiaulated through Storybook reading at hoea. Furthermore, we suggest that
attachaent security is related to the frequency and q u a l l t y of Storybook reading, and to c h i l d r e n ' s energent llteracy s k l l l s . In the first study, we coapared 18 three-year old c h i l d r e n who were d a i l y read to, wlth a aatched group of 18 c h i l d r e n who were read to once a week or less. In the second study, the frequency of Storybook reading was e x p e r i m e n t a l l y Increased In half of the c h i l d r e n who were read to once a week or less. All nother-child dyads were fron low socio-econonic Status f a n i l i e s . R e s u l t s show t h a t c h i l d r e n w i t h few Storybook reading e x p e r i e n c e s f a l l b e h i n d i n energent l i t e r a c y s k i l l s ; t h e i r i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h their mother d u r i n g Storybook reading shows that they are less i n v o l v e d and h a v e to be s u p p o r t e d more i n t e n s i v e l y by t h e i r m o t h e r s . They a l s o are more a n x i o u s l y a t t a c h e d to t h e i r raothers. The
e x p e r i m e n t a l study showed t h a t t h e q u a l i t y o f
Storybook Reading 3 thelr toddlers.
Due to the emphasls on p h o n i c s , research Into early reading developnent his natnly been focussed on prereading s k l l l s such äs naning letters and blending
^ *"*
phonenes. Slnce these s k i l l s were generally thought to be acquired äs part of school l e a r n i n g , researchers rarely consldered children's knowledge prior to school entry. As researchers began to v i e w reading w l t h i n the larger context of c o g n i t i v e and I f n g u l s t i c developnent, they began to pay more attention to readtng development prior to formal I n s t r u c t l o n (Ferrelro & Teberosky, 1982; Sulzby, 198S; Teale i Sulzby, 1986). In t h i s research, an Interactive model of reading 1s preferred to a s k i l l - o r i e n t e d model focussing on r e l a t i v e l y independent components such äs phoneme b l e n d i n g and l e t t e r knowledge (Hiebert, 1988). The Idea is that knowledge about function (why and how people use w r i t t e n language), c o n v e n t i o n s (starting at the top of a page, reading from left to r i g h t ,
St o r v book R e a d i n g 4 m e a m n g t h r o u g h w r i t i n g b e c a m e t t o p i c of r e s e a r c h From t h i s r e s e a r c h it a p p e a r e d t h a t > o u n g c h i l d r e n know more about w r l t t e n l a n g u a g e t h a n w a s e x p e c t e d H o w e v e r , there a r e c o n s i d e r a b l e m d i v i d u a l
d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n c h i l d r e n (Bus, 1986). T h e p u r p o s e o f t h e p r e s e n t s t u d i e s i n t o e m e r g e n t l i t e r a c y s k i l l s is to explore w h i c h e x p e r i e n c e s mfluence early r e a d i n g d e v e l o p m e n t , a n d how d i f f e r e n c e s i n e m e r g e n t literajcy s k i l l s a t t h e S t a r t o f formal r e a d i n g i n s t r u c t i o n can be e x p l a i n e d .
H o t h e r - c h i l d i n t e r a c t i o n s d u r i n g storvbook r e a d i n g Our f i r s t h y p o t h e s i s is that k n o w l e d g e about
St o r y b o o k R e a d i r j 5 q u e s t i o n s d u r i n g r e a d i n g , encojr«g m g c h i l d r e n t o a s k , q u e s t i o n s , and r e s p o n d i n g to tne c h i l d r e n ' s q u e s t i o n s l
(Flood, 1977, S h a n a h a n & H o g a n , 1983) Emergent l i t e r a c y may be s t i m u l a t e d by c h i l d r e n ' s attempts to i m i t a t e t h e i r parents' b e h a v i o r . T h r o u g h I m i t a t i o n they a c q u i r e new b e h a v i o r w h i c h i n i t i a l l y they were only a b l e to show w i t h the p a r e n t s ' h e l p (Teale, 1982). For e x a m p l e , m o t h e r s turn t h e i r c h i l d r e n ' s attention to "their own letter" (the first letter of their name). A c c o r d i n g l y c h i l d r e n d e v e l o p more interest in this aspect, and Start calling attention to their letter spontaneously. The commumcat ιοη on this topic stops when this aspect of «ritten language has become seif-evident. Therefore, reading is first practiced on an interpersonal level, and afterwards intrapersonally integrated ( P e l l e g r i n i , Brody, & Sigel, 1985). As children's Knowledge about written l a n g u a g e increasss, i n s t r u c t i o n on a r u d i m e n t a r y level decreases, for example explanations of the Storybook
1 1 1 u s t r a t l o n s , and more attention is p a i d to
S t o r y b o o k R e a d i n g 6 n e e d e d t o s u s t a i n 1 n v o l v e r o e n t ( P e l l e g r i m ,
M c G i l l i c u d d y - D e l 1 s 1 , Brody, i S i g e l , 1986). A d u l t s adapt t h e l r b e h a v l o r i n t u i t i v e l y t o w h a t V y g o t s k y c a l l e d "the Zone of proximal d e v e l opirent' (Vygotsky, 1978).
S t o r y b o o k R e a d i n g 7 m o t h e r s i n s t r u c t t h e i r c h i l d r e n l e s s e f f e c t i v e l y t h a n h i g h e r c l a s s m o t h e r s ( H e a t h , 1980, N i n i o & B r u n e r , 1978) T h e r e f o r e , e s p e c i a l l y w i t h l o w e r c l a s s m o t h e r s Intervention effects may differ from s t u d i e s u s i n g e x p e n m e n t e r s äs i n s t r u c t o r s L a s t l y , i t a l s o r e m a i n s u n c l e a r w h e t h e r S t i m u l a t i o n o f Storybook r e a d i n g n o t only i n f l u e n c e s t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e r e a d i n g (Horrow, 1988), tut c h i l d r e n ' s emergent l i t e r a c y s k i l l s äs w e l l . T r a d l t l o n a l l y , researchers h a v e used outcome measures such äs test scores, äs m e a s u r e s of e f f e c t i v e t e a c h i n g . In t h i s study we w i l l also e x a m i n e the s t r a t e g l e s that parents use to i n v o l v e c h i l d r e n In a task at i certain l e v e l . That f s , the extent to w h i c h a d u l t d i r e c t i o n 1s needed to h e l p c h i l d r e n solve a problem or c o m p l e t e a task is the c r i t e r i o n for e v a l u a t i n g c h i l d r e n ' s responses. A c h i l d n e e d i n g m u c h a d u l t g u i d a n c e and s u p p o r t 1s c o n s i d e r e d to be less competent than a c h i l d who c o m p l e t e d the task w i t h m i n i m a l g u i d a n c e ( P e l l e g r i n l , M c G i 1 1 i c u d d y - D e L i s t , S i g e l , & Brody, 1986).
S t o r y b o o k R e a d i n g 8 q u a l i t y o f Storybook r e a d i n g a n d , c o n s e q u e n t l y ,
c h i l d r e n ' s emergent l i t e r a c y s k i l l s A c c o r d i n g t o a t t a c h m e n t theory, a secure a t t a c h m e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p serves äs a safe base fron w h i c h to e x p l o r e the social a n d p h y s i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t (Lamb, T h o m p s o n , Gardner, & C h a r n o v , 1985). C h i l d r e n who h a v e an a n x i o u s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h e i r p a r e n t , h a v e l i t t l e c o n f i d e n c e in t h e a v a i l a b i l lty o f t h e i r p a r e n t n h e n left alone. These c h i l d r e n r e m a i n a n x i o u s l y focussed on their c a r e g i v e r , and do not pay äs m u c h a t t e n t i o n to their e n v i r o n m e n t äs securely attached c h i l d r e n : t h e i r e x p l o r a t l o n s of u n c h a r t e d aspects of t h e i r e n v i r o n m e n t , such äs w r i t t e n l a n g u a g e , is supposed to be less frequent and less thorough. Therefore, anxiously attached children aay acquire less emergent l i t e r a c y s k i l l s t h a n securely a t t a c h e d c h i l d r e n äs a consequence of t h e i r lesser exploratory i n c l i n a t i o n s (Bus & Van Uzendoorn, }988a).
Stor>book R e a d i n g 10 19B8b).
T h e p o s i t i v e r e l a t l o r t between p r e s c h o o l ers' r e a d i n g i n t e r e s t a n d a t t a c h m e n t s e c u r i t y w h i c h w e found i n a n e a r l i e r study (Bus & Van Uzendoorn, ]9B8a), can therefore be e x p l a i n e d äs a consequence of the d i f f e r e n c e s in a t m o s p h e r e . H o w e v e r , a n a l t e r n a t i v e e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e a f f e c t i v e characten st i es of the r e l a t i o n s h i p and emergent l i t e r a c y can not be e x c l u d e d : securely a t t a c h e d c h i l d r e n may be more i n c l i n e d to e x p l o r e « r i t t e n l a n g u a g e and, through t h a t , may a c q u i r e nore l i t e r a c y s k l l l s ; because of their curiosity and thelr emergent l i t e r a c y s k i l l s they provoke nore p a r e n t a l Storybook r e a d i n g on a h i g h e r l e v e l of i n s t r u c t i o n . Indeed the two 1 n t e r p r e t a t i o n s about the d l r e c t or i n d i r e c t effects of a t t a c h m e n t s e c u r i t y on energent l i t e r a c y are not n e c e s s a n l y i n c o m p a t i b l e. It t;ay be t h a t s e c u r i t y has a d i r e c t i n f l u e n c e on emergent l i t e r a c y , because securely attached children explore more, äs w e l l äs an I n d i r e c t I n f l u e n c e , because securely attached c h i l d r e n ire more easy to i n s t r u c t .
S t o r y b o o k R e a d i rc d u r i n g Storybook r e a c h n g , a n d s t i m u l a t e s e m e r g e n t literacy s k i l l s . Furthermore. i t is e x a m i n e d w h e t h e n a t t a c h m e n t s e c u r l t y i s r e l a t e d t o f r e q u e n c y a n d q u a l i t y o f Storybook r e a d i n g , a n d t o d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e ' a c q u i s l t i o n o f e m e r g e n t l i t e r a c y s k i l l s . B e c a u s e we i n t e n d e d to 'cjpry out an I n t e r v e n t i o n study i n low soci oeconomi c Status f a m i l i e s (SES), and l i t t l e is known about Storybook r e a d i n g , a t t a c h m e n t , a n d ecergent l i t e r a c y s k i l l s in a l o w SES p o p u l a t i o n , we first explored the r e l a t i o n s between Storybook
r e a d i n g , a t t a c h m e n t , and emergent l i t e r a c y in a q u a s i -e x p -e r l m -e n t a l study c o m p a r i n g c h i l d r -e n w h o a r -e
frequentljr read t o a n d c h i l d r e n w i t h l i t t l e r e a d i n g experlences. Secondly, the I n t e r v e n t i o n study is presented, 1n w h l c h the effects of e x p e n m e n t a l ly increased frequency of Storybook r e a d i n g on q u a l i t y of the r e a d i n g and on emergent l i t e r a c y s k i l l s are
e x a m i n e d .
STUDY I
S t o r y b o o k Reatlir.g 12 a t t a c h m e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p bet*een m o t h e r a n d c h i l d .
Hethod Sub.iects
At the Start of the project, we i n t e n d e d to f i n d t h r e e - y e a r - o l d s fron lower c l a s s f a m i l i e s w l t h o u t any Storybook r e a d i n g e x p e r i e n c e s . However, it soon became clear t h a t Outch c h i l d r e n w i t h o u t a n y Storybook r e a d i n g e x p e r i e n c e are very rare. We d e c i d e d ,
therefore, to carry out a study w i t h t o d d l e r s w h o are read to once a week or less. The lower c l a s s mothers and c h i l d r e n were selected w i t h a q u e s t i o n n a i r e . Every child with l i t t l e reading experiences was natched with a child who was frequently read to, on basis of SIS, age and sex. If an adequate match on these three v a r i a b l e s could not be found, c h i l d r e n were natched on age and SES o n l y . A f t e r w a r d s , p a r t i c i p a t i n g mothers were p a i d $15.00 äs
compensation. The s a m p l e c o n s i s t e d of 18 mothers w i t h c h i l d r e n that were very i n f r e q u e n t l y read to, and tihe
-r*1 · <f
saoie number of mothers and c h i l d r e n who were d a i l y read to (see Table l for some c h a r a c t e r i s t i es of the two groups).
Procedure
St orybook R e a d i ng 13 w a s t e s t e d i n d i v i d u a l l y { i n t e l l i g e n c e test^ a n d
e m e r g e n t l i t e r a c y t e s t s ) , m o t h e r a n d c h i l d were separated for about h a l f an h o u r , and the mothers read t h e b o o k l e t Doedel a n d t h e r e d D a n g e r to t h e c h i l d r e n The « h o l e S e s s i o n was v i d e o r e c o r d e d . The m o t h e r s were t o l d t h a t t h e s t u d y focussed on c h i l d r e n ' s p l a y
b e h a v l o r . T o d i v e r t t h e m o t h e r s1 a t t e n t i o n from t h e
g o a l s of the s t u d y , we s t a r t e d w i t h a p r o b ! e m - s o l v i n g task - the Butter Dish - in w h i c h w r i t t e n l a n g u a g e d i d not play any role. The c h i l d r e n had to s o l v e t h i s task w i t h the h e l p of t h e i r m o t h e r . Fron I n t e r v i e w s afterwards, 1t appeared that none of the mothers had understood that the study was focussed on Storybook r e a d i n g and emergent l i t e r a c y . We dscided to c o l l e c t our data in the laboratory, b e c a u s e for c o d i n g purposes 1t was necessary to record the s e s s i o n s on v i d e o t a p e ; v i d e o r e c o r d i n g at hone was c o n s i d e r e d to be more i n t r u s i v e t h a n in the l a b o r a t o r y b e c a u s e the V i d e o recording equipnent and operator would be more v i s i b l e at hörne, e s p e c i a l l y to the c h i l d .
Questicnnaire
S t o r > b o o k R e a d i n g 14
N e t h e r l a n d s ) . T h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e c o n s i s t e d o f s i x questions on play behavior. B e s i d e two q u e s t i o n s on book reading ('Did you already start r e a d i n g to your c h i l d ? " and "How frequently are you r e a d i n g to v o u r c h i l d ? " ) , four questions on other p l a y a c t i v i t i e s were asked to keep the m o t h e r s " b l i n d " for the study's purpose. The mothers chose fron four a l t e r n a t i v e s i n a n s w e r i n g the q u e s t i o n a b o u t the f r e q u e n c y of book r e a d i n g : (1) less than once a oionth, (2) once a m o n t h , (3) about once a week, (4) (almost) every day.
Tests
Children's Intelllgence was Beasured wlth the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test (Dünn & Dünn, 1981} and the test S p a t i a l O r i e n t a t i o n (Frostig, 1968). To measure the emergent l i t e r a c y s k i l l s , the c h i l d r e n I n d i v i d u a l l y c o m p l e t e d six tests (Bus i Van
Uzendoorn, 1988b), constructed to operat i o n a l i ze the f o l l o w i n g aspects of early r e a d i n g : function,
S t o r y b o o k R e a d i n g 15 I n f o r m a t i o n : f u n c t i o n , l e t t e r r e c o g m t i o n , end c o n s t r u c t i n g words. F u n c t i o n . T h i s t e s t c o n s i s t e d o f 1 0 p i c t u r e s r e p r e s e n t i n g a c t i v i t i e s such äs p l a y i n g , e a t i n g , a n d a l s o · r e a d i n g , and w r i t i n g . It was coded how
f r e q u e n t l y chjldren were a b l e to c o r r e c t l y i d e n t i f y a c t i v i t i e s äs r e a d i n g a n d w r i t i n g . T h e m a x i r c u m score was s l x . Two coders r e a c h e d 100% a g r e e m e n t , and the a l p h a r e l i a b i l i t y was .94.
Letter r e c o g n i t i o n . The c h i l d had to find the letter which was presented each t i m e between three a r b i t r a r y s i g n s . The m a x i m u m score on t h i s test was five. Two coders reached 100Ϊ agreement, and the alphj r e l i a b i l i t y was .94.
St or> Dook R e a d i n g 16 b e t w e e n two c o d e r s on c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e nare was 89, and on rose 95. The f i n a l score was d e t e r m i n e d by c a l c u l a t i n g the irean The a l p h a r e l i a b i l i t y «ras 66 A t t a c h m e n t
F o l l o w l n g H a i n , K a p l a n , and C a s s i d y (1935, p. 80 ff ), the c h i l d r e n were s e p a r a t e d once for a b o u t h a l f a n hour from t h e i r m o t h e r s , a n d t h e i r r e u n i o n w a s v i d e o r e c o r d e d . T h e c h i l d r e n ' s b e h a v i o r d u r i n g t h e reunion episode was scored on a rating scale. T h i s scale is a revlsed V e r s i o n of H a i n et al's (1985) securlty scale for s i x - y e a r - o l d s . It c o n s i s t s of n i n e scale p o i n t s w i t h e x t e n s i v e b e h a v i o r a l d e s c r i p t i o n s o f the odd scale p o i n t s . The r e v i s i o n of the s c a l e includes more extensive descriptions of insecure b e h a v i o r , äs w e l l äs an e m p h a s i s on the b e h a v i o r a l repertory of the younger age category The
i n t e r c o d e r r e l i a b i l i t y of two i n d e p e n d e n t coders was .86 (u-15). The children's b e h a v i o r was scored d u p n g the first f i v e m i n u t e s of the r e u n i o n A siimläV scale for the same age group was a p p l i e d i n a r e l i a b l e and v a l i d way 1n e a r l i e r research (Bus l Van
S t o r y b o o k R e a d i n g 17 U o r k s h o p of t h e U m v e r s i t y o f M i n n e s o t a (i n s t r u c t l o n s L. A. S r o u f e and B. E. V a u g h n ) . T h e r e is no reason to d o u b t t h e c r o s s - c u l t u r a l v a l i d i t y o f a t t a c h m e n t ireasures b a s e d o n r e u n i o n b e h a v i o r s s u c h äs t h e
S t r a n g e S i t u a t i o n (Van Uzendoorn & K r o n e n b e r g , 1988). S t o r v b o o k readino.
Hothers were asked to read the n a r r a t i v e booklet D o e d e l a n d t h e red d a n o e r . w h i c h i s r i c h l y i l l u s t r a t e d and c o n t a i n s a c l e a r p l o t . The r e a d i n g s e s s i o n s were t r a n s c r i b e d v e r b a t i m . D e n v i n g from Horrow (1988), the mothers' äs w e l l äs the c h i l d r e n ' s q u e s t i o n s and comments were coded into four c a t e g o r i e s : (1) focus on S t o r y s t r u c t u r e ( i n t r i g u e , s e t t i n g , p l o t , o r
c h a r a c t e r s ) , (2) focus on m e a n i n o ( i n t e r p r e t a t l o n s of e v e n t s d e s c r i b e d in the t e x t , word def im 11 ons ), (3) focus on pr i nt (referring to r e a d i n g äs a c t i v i t y , t a l k i n g about letters, sounds, and words), (4) and focus on 1 1 1 u s t r a t i o n s ( l a b e l i n g , d e t a i l s ,
S t o r ^ b o o k R e a d i n g 18 was .75; the a g r e e m e n t for story s t r u c t u r e ( m o t h e r s ) was .73, for m e a n i n g (mothers) .82, for p r i n t
(mothers) .83, for i 1 1 u s t r a t 1 o n s ( m o t h e r s ) .90, for story structure (child) .51, for m e a n i n g (child) .37, for p r i n t ( c h i l d ) .67, for 1 1 1 u s t r a t i o n s ( c h i l d ) .94, for p r o b l e m a t i c interactions (.83), and for turns .90. E v e n a f t e r i n t e n s i v e t r a i n i n g , s o E e a s p e c t s of
children's verbal b e h a v i o r remained d i f f i c u l t to code, b e c a u s e they were not always a b l e to e x p r e s s t h e m s e l v e s c l e a r l y .
R e s u l t s
The two groups did not d i f f e r on i n t e l l i g e n c e , sex, SES, the number of s i b l i n g s , and b i r t h order (see T a b l e 1). As was expected, the frequency of Storybook r e a d i n g d i d d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y . I n o n e g r o u p t h e c h i l d r e n were read to every day, and in the other g r o u p once a week or less.
- T a b l e
1-F i r s t , it was e x a m i n e d w h e t h e r there were
S t or> Book R e a d i ng 19 n e e d of a d u l t S u p p o r t , and w o u l d c o n r u n l c a t e on a h i g h e r l e v e l . To l e s t t h i s h y p o t h e s i s , we c o m p a r e d t h e m o t h e r s ' a n d t h e c h i l d r e n ' s b e h a v i o r d u r i n g t h e r e a d i n g s e s s i o n s . H o t h e r s o f c h i l d r e n who a r e r e a d t o f r e q u e n t l y , a p p e a r e d to be l e s s c o t n m e n t i n g on
1 1 1 u s t r a t ions 'and -s'tory s t r u c t u r e . The n u m b e r of turns was also s i g n i f i c a n 1 1 y h i g h e r i n dyads w i t h less S t o r y b o o k r e a d i n g e x p e r i e n c e s w h i c h o f t e n i n d i c a t e s t h a t p a r e n t s a r e a c t i v e l y e l i c i t i n g c h i l d r n e ' s utterances (Pellegrinl et al. , 1985). Furthermore, the c h i l d r e n who are read to f r e q u e n t l y , tended to b e h a v e less often n e g a t i v e l y (&·.06). O t h e r d i f f e r e n c e s i n c h i l d b e h a v i o r d i d n o t reach s i g n i f i c a n c e , and in both g r o u p s oiost of the
q u e s t i o n s and c o m m e n t s focussed on the i 1 1 u s t r a t i o n s .
- T a b l e
2-Secondly, it was tested whether there were any d i f f e r e n c e s in emergent l i t e r a c y s k i l l s , a n d whether d i f f e r e n c e s i n emergent l i t e r a c y s k i l l s were
S t o r > b o o k R e e i i r c
:5
d a i l y r e a d i n g e x p e n e n c e s scored h i g h e r on r e a d i r g t e s t s . A c c o r d i n g to a inul 11 var i ate a n a l y s i s of vanance, the differences were s i g n i f i c a n t (Hilks' lambda-.76; f. (3.32J-3 AZ; f.029). Post hoc u m v a n a t e a n a l y s i s o f v a n a n c e showed t h a t t h e k n o w l e d g e about the f u n c t i o n of r e a d i n g and w r i t i n g di f ferent üted sigm f icantly between the two groups. The mean scores on l e t t e r r e c o g n i t i o n and c o n s t r u c t i n g words a p p e a r e d to be low for both g r o u p s .
- T a b l e
S t ö r ) b o o k K e a d i n g 21 story m e a n i n g , u n d l e s s t o t h e 1 1 1 u s t r a t l o n s
F u r t h e r m o r e , c h i l d r e n w i t h h i g h e r s c o r e s on t h e emergent l l t e r a c y tests tended to make more corarents a b o u t t h e s t r u c t u r e a n d t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e story
- T a b l e
4-T h i r d l y , it w a s e x a m i n e d w h e t h e r d i f f e r e n c e s i n frequency and q u a l i t y of Storybook r e a d i n g was r e l a t e d to attachnent security. Especially in the group c h i l d r e n w i t h few r e a d i n g e x p e r i e n c e s i t s o m e t i m e s w a s i m p o s s i b l e to arrange the S e p a r a t i o n and to observe the r e u n i o n b e h a v i o r because of the c h i l d ' s a n x i e t y . Therefore, these analyses concern only 31 c h i l d r e n . C h i l d r e n who are i n f r e q u e n t l y read to, a p p e a r e d more often a n x i o u s l y a t t a c h e d to t h e i r m o t h e r s On a s c a l e r a n g i n g froin one (very a n x i o u s ) to n i n e (very
S t o r > b o o k R e a d i r g 22 s i g n i f i c a n t (£ (J,29)-5 74, p_< 05), and w o u l d
p r o b a b l y h a v e been h i g h e r w i t h o u t s e l e c t i v e a t t r i t i o n We d1d not find a s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n between a t t a c h m e n t s e c u r l t y a n d m o t h e r - c h 1 1 d i n t e r a c t i o n d u r i n g Storybook r e a d l n g .
F l n a l l y , it w a s tested w h e t h e r a t t a c h r e n t w a s related to eraergent literacy s k i l l s T a b l e 5 shows that the c o r r e l a t i o n s were p o s i t i v e , a n d t h a t two o u t of three c o r r e l a t i o n s were s i g n i f i c a n t . The more securely attached the c h i l d r e n were, the uore p r o f i c i e n t thelr readlng s k i l l s a p p e a r e d to be. Control for verbal i n t e l l i g e n t e , w h i c h was most strongly correlated w i t h t h e r e a d i n g t e s t s , y i e l d e d s i m i l a r r e s u l t s .
- T a b l e
5-D i s c u s s l o n
S t o r y b o o k R e a d i ng 23 e x p e r i e n c e s to a c o m p a r i s o n g r o u p o f c h i l d r e n who a r e d a i l y read to. T h e s e two g r o u p s do not d i f f e r on r e l e v a n t b a c k g r o u n d v a r i a b l e s s u c h äs SES, a g e , 1 n t e l l i g e n c e , n u m b e r o f s i b l i n g s , a n d b i r t h order. Therefore, 1t is not p l a u s i b l e to suggest that these v a r i a b l e s i n f l u e n c e p o s s i b l e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n the
l „·*
t w o groups i n e m e r g e n t l i t e r a c y s k i l l s , a t t a c h m e n t s e c u r i t y , apd f r e q u e n c y and q u a l i t y of Storybook r e a d i ng.
We found e v i d e n c e for the h y p o t h e s i s that q u a l i t y of Storybook reading is related to its freouency. C h f l d r e n who are read to f r e q u e n t l y , need l e s s
maternal guidance and support during Storybook reading t h a n c h i l d r e n w i t h few storybook r e a d i n g experiences. The former group also b e h a v e s l e s s often n e g a t i v e l y d u r i n g storybook r e a d i n g , and t h e i r m o t h e r s do not need to be very a c t i v e to i n v o l v e the c h i l d r e n . T h i s r e l a t i o n may also be considered to i m p l y more reading c o m p e t e n c e in the group of c h i l d r e n who are
S t o r > b o o k R e a d i n g 24 Ue a l s o measurei energent l i t e r a c y s k i l l s w i t h s e v e r a l r e a d i n g tests. O u r f i n d i n g s c o n f i r m t h e h y p o t h e s i s thit frequency of Storybook r e a d i n g i s r e l a t e d t o emergent l i t e r a c y s k i l l s T h r e e - y e a r - o l d s who are read to d a i l y , do have more knowledge about « r i t t e n l a n g u a g e , and e s p e c i a l l y about the f u n c t i o n of r e a d i n g a n d w r i t i n g I n s i g h t i n t o t h e f u n c t i o n o f w r i t t e n l a n g u a g e is to be c o n s i d e r e d äs a f i r s t S t e p in the d e v e l o p m e n t of r e a d i n g (Ferreiro l Teberosky, 1982; Lonax l KcGee, 1987; Mason, 1980).
Explorlng the relition between quality of Storybook reading and emergent literacy s k i l l s , we found t h a t c h i l d r e n who have »ore knowledge about w r i t t e n
l a n g u a g e , show less probleaatic i n t e r a c t l o n s , and tend to pay «10re a t t e n t i o n to d i f f i c u l t aspects of the Storybook, such äs the neaning of the story. Their nothers also tend to e m p h a s i z e the o e a n i n g of the story more than m o t h e r s of c h i l d r e n w i t h less emergent l i t e r a c y s k i l l s . A l t h o u g h the differences nerif s m a l l , these f i n d i n g s support the hypothesis that the l e v e l of communicatιοη during Storybook reading is related to children's emergent literacy skills (Bus & Van Uzendoorn, 1988b; Horrow, 1988).
S l o r y b o o k R e a a i rg 25 b e t w e e n a t t a c h m e n t s e c u r i t y on t r e one h a n d , a n d t h e frequency and q u a l i t y of S t o r y b o o k r e a d i n g , and e m e r g e n t l i t e r a c y s k i l l s o n t h e o t h e r hand. C h i l d r e n with nany reading experiences appear to be more securely attached than the c h i l d r e n w i t h few
Storybook r e a d i n g e x p e r i e n c e s , and securely attached c h i l d r e n show more k n o w l e d g e about w r i t t e n l a n g u a g e Ue d i d not find a r e l a t i o n between a t t a c h m e n t s e c u r i t y and the q u a l i t y of the interactions during Storybook reading. Thus, the h y p o t h e s i s that an i n d i r e c t
Storybook R e a d i n g 26 emergent l i t e r a c y s k i l l s (Bus & Van IJzendoorn, 1988b).
STUDY II
A l t h o u g h our first study w i t h lower SES f a m i l i e s shows r e l a t i o n s between the frequency of story r e a d i n g on the one h a n d , and emergent l i t e r a c y s k i l l s , q u a l i t y of Storybook r e a d i n g , and a t t a c h m e n t on the other hand, some questlons about the c a u s a l l t y of the relatlon are unanswered. The results of the q u a s i -experlmental study do not prove that Storybook reading 1s a sufflclent condltlon to stlmulate emergent llteracy s k i l l s . Storybook reading nay not be the cause but the consequence of emergent l l t e r a c y s k i l l s . C h l l d r e n w i t h more knowledge about w r i t t e n l a n g u a g e may be more Interested, and, b e c a u s e of that, more frequently I n v o l v e d In Storybook readlngs. To test the h y p o t h e s l s , that Storybook r e a d i n g 1s a s u f f i d e n t c o n d l t l o n to s t l m u l a t e emergent l i t e r y s k i l l s we carMed out an I n t e r v e n t i o n - e x p e r l m e n t . The group w i t h r e l a t l v e l y few Storybook r e a d i n g e x p e r i e n c e s was randomly asslgned to a control (a-9) and an
Storybook R e a d i n g 27
dummy I n t e r v e n t i o n was c a r r i e d o u t . The e x p e r i m e n t c o n t i n u e d for six w e e k s . We expected to f i n d an effect of Increased Storybook r e a d i n g on q u a l i t y of the Storybook r e a d i n g , and on emergent l i t e r a c y sk'ills. Because we did not find the expected relation between att-achm^nt security and quality of Storybook
'·" l
r e a d i n g In the f i r s t study, the r e s u l t s of the I n t e r v e n t i o n were not expected to d e p e n d on the c h l l d r e n ' s a t t a c h m e n t s e c u r i t y .
Method Procedure
We v i s i t e d the m o t h e r s w e e k l y In order to d e l i v e r new material (three new booklets or three new games), and to inquire after the experiences during the preceding week. The m o t h e r s r e c e i v e d 18 books or games In t o t a l . The booklets were i l l u s t r a t e d s t o r i e s w i t h a clear p l o t , and had about the same l e n g t h . The games were d e r i v e d from a c h i l d r e n ' s p e r i o d i c a l
Stor>book K e a d i n g 28 e x p e r i m e n t a l group recorded e a c h weck at l e a s t one reading S e s s i o n on audiotape. After the I n t e r v e n t i o n , the mothers and chtldren were i n v i t e d to v i s i t our lab. The sä·« procedure was c a r r i e d out äs d u r i n g the pretest: we videorecorded a book r e a d i n g S e s s i o n (the mothers read the n a r r a t i v e b o o k l e t W h e r e is Teddv?. w h l c h was c o e p a r a b l e in c o n t e n t and i 1 1 u s t r a t i o n s to the pretest booklet), and the r e u n i o n e p i s o d e a f t e r a long Separation, and each child i n d i v i d u a l l y completed several reading tests. P a r t i c i p a t i n g mothers were paid {25.00 äs compensation.
The I n t e r v e n t i o n
S t o r y b o o k R e a d i n g 29 o n p r i n t , o r o n 1 1 1 u s t r a t l o n s . I n s p e c t i n g t h e m e a n s , i t a p p e a r e d t h a t t h e m a t e r n a l b e h a v i o r w a s s t a b l e , a n d t h a t m o s t a t t e n t i o n was p a i d to 1 1 1 u s t rat i o n s , f o l l o w e d by m e a n i n g , s t r u c t u r e , and p r i n t successively (see F i g u r e 1). -F i g u r e l · R e s u l t s
The two nndomly asslgned groups did not differ on background variables 11ke age, sex, SES, intelligente, r e a d i n g e x p e r i e n c e s at hörne, b i r t h order, number of s l b l i n g s , and a t t a c h m e n t s e c u r i t y (see T a b l e 6).
- T a b l e
Storybook R e a d i n g 30 the e x p e r i m e n t a l group scored s i g n l f i c a n t l y h i g h e r on I l l u s t r a t i o n ! äs w e l l äs on m e a n i n g . As can be d e r i v e d fron the n e g a t i v e t - v a l u e s , the mothers in the e x p e r i m e n t a l group tended to be l e s s a c t i v e . In case of the most frequent category - f o c u s s i n g on
i 1 1 u s t r a t i o n s by the mother - the d i f f e r e n c e between the means was signlficant. Analyses of variance w i t h the pretest äs c o v a r i a t e (ANCOVA's) y i e l d e d the same r e s u l t s for the i n t e r a c t i v e behaviors of the c h i l d r e n äs well äs the mothers.
To determine whether the effects of the
I n t e r v e n t i o n were related to attachment securlty, we also carried out analyses of variance w i t h security äs covariate. We did not find signlficant interactions between a t t a c h m e n t securlty and the I n t e r v e n t i o n .
-Table
Storybook R e a d t n g 31 s k i l l s . A n a l y s e s o f v a r i a n c e w i t h a t t a c h m e n t äs c o v a r i a t e (ANCOVA's) d i d n o t c h a n g e t h e r e s u l t s .
Di scuss ion
To e x a m i n e the r e l a t i o n between repeated Storybook r e a d i n g s and emergent l l t e r a c y , we carrled out an e x p e r i m e n t a l study. J h l s s m a l l - s c a l e study (in total 18 m o t h e r - c h i l d dyads p a r t i c i p a t e d ) S u p p o r t s the h y p o t h e s i s t h a t repeated r e a d i n g s h a v e an effect on the q u a l i t y of the i n t e r a c t l o n s between mother and c h l l d . Increased frequency of Storybook r e a d i n g s leads to more a c t l v e b e h a v l o r of the c h l l d r e n (more comments or questions about i 1 1 u s t r a t t o n s and
meanlng). Therefore, the chlldren's a c t i v i t y appears to be a consequence of Storybook reading e x p e r i e n c e s and not a consequence of c h i l d r e n ' s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s such äs Intel lIgence. (Consldering the low Intercoder r e l i a b l l i t y of c h i l d r e n ' s comments and q u e s t i o n s on m e a n i n g , the relation between meaning and frequency of Storybook reading 1s s u b s t a n t i a l because u n r e l i a b i l ity of variables 1s a sufficient reason for weak effects, and 1t can not cause effects to be s p u r i o u s l y strong; Cohen l Cohen, 1983.) Furthermore, Increased
Storybook R e a d i n g 32 competence In t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p , s i n c e t h e extent to w h l c h a d u l t d l r e c t l o n 1s needed to hei p c h i l d r e n solve a probiere or complete a task 1s a crlterlon for j u d g l n g c h i l d r e n ' s performance ( P e l l e g r l n l et a l ,
1986). We d i d , however, not find any d l r e c t effect on emergent Ilteracy skills. The relatively short d u r a t l o n of the I n t e r v e n t i o n äs w e l l äs the rather restricted I n s t r u c t l o n a l b e h a v l o r of the mothers (they mainly focussed on the 111ustrat1ons and nuch less on the story neanlng or structure), may have been the cause of t h l s lack of effect on emergent literacy äs measured by the early reading tests. Pellegrlni et al. (1985) however suggest that children's level of a c t l v l t y nay be a more sensitive Index of their competence than more t r a d l t l o n a l psychometrlc neasures.
The study d i d not y l e l d e v i d e n c e for a p o s i t i v e or n e g a t i v e i n f l u e n c e of attachment security on the , ;
-*' ι
Intervention effects. However, considerlng the' absence of a relation between attachment security and q u a l i t y of Storybook reading in the first study, we could hardly expect such effects.
SUMHARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Storybook R e a d i n g 33
q u a l i t y of Storybook r e a d i n g s , e m e r g e n t l i t e r a c y s k t l l s , and attachraent security is explored. The research presented here is the first to address the q u e s t l o n w h e t h e r in a low s o c i o - e c o n o m i c S t a t u s sample r e l a t i o n s e x i s t between frequency and q u a l i t y of Storybook r e a d i n g , emergent l i t e r a c y s k i l l s , and attachment security. Our Intervention study is the first to a i m at c h a n g i n g frequency of m a t e r n a l
Storybook r e a d i n g , and to focus on the effects of the I n t e r v e n t i o n on the c h i l d r e n ' s emergent l i t e r a c y s k i l l s . It should be kept in m i n d , however, that the generalIzabi11ty of our results may be restrlcted because of the use of one text genre and bookformat, I.e. n a r r a t i v e storybooks w i t h i l l u s t r a t i o n s , w h i c h could be less f a m i l i ä r to c h i l d r e n from lower SES families (Cornell, Senechal , & Broda, 1988; P e l l e g r i n i , Perlmutter, G a l d a , l Brody, 1989).
S t o r v b o o k R e a d i ng 34 From our s t u d i e s , it can be d e r i v e d that repeated Storybook r e a d i n g s l e a d to an i n c r e a s e of t h e c h l l d r e n ' s a c t i v i t y , and to a d e c r e a s e of r.aternal a c t i v i t y . In the q u a s i - e x p e r i m e n t a l study we found t h a t c h H d r e n who a r e f r e q u e n t l y read t o , b e h a v e l e s s often n e g a t i v e l y d u r i n g S t o r y b o o k r e a d i n g , a n d t h a t t h e l r m o t h e r s a r e l e s s a c t i v e . Fron t h e e x p e r i m e n t i t can be d e r i v e d that repeated readings lead to more ( p o s i t i v e ) a c t i v i t y o f t h e c h i l d r e n , i n c l u d i n g more comments on i l l u s t r a t i o n s and on the n e a n i n g of the story, and to less a c t i v i t y of the «others. As c h i l d r e n experience Storybook reading more frequently, they show less d l s t r a c t e d b e h a v l o r and e x p l o r e « r i t t e n l a n g u a g e nore i n t e n s i v e l y . T h e i r »others betone less active probably because they can rely on t h e i r c h l l d r e n ' s increased m o t i v a t l o n and competence.
St or> book R e a d i rg 35 l l t e r a c y s k l l l s äs m e a s u r e d b y e a r i j r e a d i n g t e s t s B e c a u s e t h e c h i l d r e n i n t h e e x p e n r e n t a l g r o u p n e e d e d l e s s r a t e r n a l s u p p o r t , it may b e a r g u e d t h a t t h e I n t e r v e n t i o n i n c r e a s e d t h e c h i l d r e n ' s c o r p e t e n c e äs I n d i c a t e d b y t h e l o w e r l e v e l o f m a t e r n a l a c t i v i t y ( P e l l e g r i n l et »\„ 1986) Storybook r e a d i n g therefore a p p e a r s t o b e a s u f f i c i e n t c o n d i t i o n t o s t i m u l a t e e a r l y r e a d i n g d e v e l o p m e n t I t iray a l s o b e s u g g e s t e d that an Intervention focussing on q u a l i t a t i v e aspects of Storybook reading w o u l d r e s u l t in i n c r e a s e d emergent l l t e r a c y s k i l l s äs m e a s u r e d by ocr tests (Vhltehurst, Falco, L o n i g a n , F i s c h e l , DeBarishe, V a l d e z - K e n c h a c a , & C a u l f i e l d , 1988)
S t o r y b o o k R e a d i n g 36 I J z e n d o o r n , Van der Veer, & Van VI l e t - V i s s e r , 1987, V y g o t s k y , 1978).
S e c o n d l y , we e x p l o r e d the r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n a t t a c h m e n t s e c u r i t y , emergent l i t e r a c y , a n d t h e frequency and q u a l i t y of Storybook r e a d i n g One h y p o t h e s i s is t h a t securely a t t a c h e d c h i l d r e n a r e more c u r i o u s , and h a v e nore i n t e r e s t i n Storybook r e a d i n g and, therefore, are more frequently read to and acquire more emergent literacy s k i l l s An a l t e r n a t i v e hypothesis is that in securely attached dyads
Storjbooi ?. e a d i π ς 37 a t t a c h m e n t s e c u r i t y a n d t n e q u a l i t y o f t h e i n t e r a c t i o n d u r i n g S t o r y b o o k r e a d i n g , nor d i d we f i n d a r e l i t i o n b e t w e e n s e c u r i t y a n d t h e I n t e r v e n t i o n effect i n t h e second study. Therefore, o u r p r i o r f i n d i n g t h ö t a t t a c h m e n t s e c u r i t y i s r e l a t e d t o t h e a t m o s p h e r e d u r i n g Storybook reading (Bus l Van I J z e n d o o r n , 1988b), has not been r e p l i c a t e d . Ue h y p o t h e s i z e t h a t we did not find the expected r e l a t i o n between
attachment security and atmosphere because of differences between the samples. In the studies reported on here, younger c h l l d r e n fron c o n s i d e r a b l y lower SES f a u h l i e s p a r t i c i p a t e d .
Storybook R e a d i n g 38 t h a t t h e v i r t u a l a b s e n c e o f storybook r e a d i n g i s r e l a t e d t o t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a n a n x i o u s a t t a c h m e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n eother a n d c h i l d . A n a n x i o u s a t t a c h m e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p a l s o a p p e a r s t o b l o c k t h e emergence of l l t e r a c y s k l l l s . The q u a l l t y of storybook r e a d i n g , however, can be i n f l u e n c e d e f f e c t i v e l y through a rather s h o r t - t e r m , e x t e n s i v e parent I n t e r v e n t i o n program s t i m u l a t i n g the mothers to read »ore frequently to t h e i r toddlers. As our experiiiental study Supports the Idea t h a t nothers fron Iower SES fiailies show rather u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d
i n s t r u c t i o n a l b e h a v i o r d u r i n g storybook r e a d i n g (see a l s o H e a t h , 1980; N i n i o & Bruner, 1978), U is the more s u r p r i s i n g t h a t our I n t e r v e n t i o n is e f f e c t i v e , a l t h o u g h it focussed o n l y on the frequency of storybook r e a d i n g . V e d i d n o t f i n d I n t e r v e n t i o n effects on eaergent l i t e r a c y s k i l l s äs m e a s u r e d by reading tests, but we «ay derive fron changes in maternal sopport that the children's emergent literacy s k l l l s have been positively Influenced by our
S t o r ^ b o o k R e a d i n g 40 R e f e r e n c e s A i n s w o r t h , M.D.S., B l e h a r , M . C . , H a t e r s , E., l W a l l , S. (1978). P a t t e r n s of a t t a c h m e n t . A p s y c h o l o g l c i l study o f t h e S t r a n g e S i t u a t i o n . H i l l s d a l e , N J : E r l b a u a .
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Storybook R e a d i n g 47 Table l
H e a n Scores on Background V a r i a b l e s äs a F u n c t i o n of S t o r v b o o k R e a d l n g E x p e r l e n c e s f n - 3 6 1
Freouencv of storvbook readinq Background V a r i a b l e s Frequency of r e a d i n g Sex ( * boys) Age (1n months) SES (max-6)
Storybook R e a d i n g 49
S t o r y b o o k R e a d i n g 50 T a b l e 3
S t o r y b o o k R e a d i n g 51 Table 4
Storybook R e a d i n g 53 T d b l e 6
Hean Scores on Backoround V a r i a b l e s of the C x n e r i m e n t a l and
C o n t r o l Group i n - 1 8 1 . E x p e n m e n t a l C o n t r o l G r o u p G r o u p (tt-9) ltt-9)
(Sß) tt (SU)
Frequency of R e a d i n g Sex (* boys) Age (tn oonths) SESStorybook R e a d i n g 54 Table 7
S t o r y b o o k R e i d i n g
55
F ι g u r e l
Hean Scores of M a t e r n a l B e h a v i o r Durino Storybook Reading S e s s i o n s at Home (per Week and per 5 M i n u t e T i n e - I n t e r v a l l
