Performance behaviour in elite sports
Blijlevens, Suzan
DOI:
10.33612/diss.109492160
IMPORTANT NOTE: You are advised to consult the publisher's version (publisher's PDF) if you wish to cite from it. Please check the document version below.
Document Version
Publisher's PDF, also known as Version of record
Publication date: 2019
Link to publication in University of Groningen/UMCG research database
Citation for published version (APA):
Blijlevens, S. (2019). Performance behaviour in elite sports. Rijksuniversiteit Groningen. https://doi.org/10.33612/diss.109492160
Copyright
Other than for strictly personal use, it is not permitted to download or to forward/distribute the text or part of it without the consent of the author(s) and/or copyright holder(s), unless the work is under an open content license (like Creative Commons).
Take-down policy
If you believe that this document breaches copyright please contact us providing details, and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim.
Downloaded from the University of Groningen/UMCG research database (Pure): http://www.rug.nl/research/portal. For technical reasons the number of authors shown on this cover page is limited to 10 maximum.
Chapter 5
Psychological competencies of world-class
and competitive elite beach volleyball
players: a qualitative approach
Suzan J.E. Blijlevens, Paul Wylleman, Salina Maasdam,
Kayan Bool, Chris Visscher & Marije T. Elferink-Gemser
Manuscript submitted for publication
Abstract
Although studies have shown that psychological factors play an important role in athletes’ performance, questions of how these factors are reflected in athletes’ behaviour during training, competition and in their daily lives remain
underexplored in literature. Therefore, the aim of the present study is to understand differences and similarities between world-class and competitive elite beach volleyball players in their behaviour in terms of their competencies. Data were gathered from in-depth interviews among eight world-class (n = 8, M = 28.3, SD = 5.1) and seven competitive elite beach volleyball players (n = 7, M = 30.4, SD = 4.1) and were interpreted using thematic analysis. World-class elite players differentiated themselves on ten self-reported behaviours clustered within four psychological competencies: the ability to (1) focus on your own development, (2) take responsibility for your actions to achieve your goals, (3) handle challenges proactive with a hands-on attitude and (4) do what it takes to become a better player. The results direct coaches’ attention to the
psychological competencies that need to be developed to achieve world-class level of performance and methods for accomplishing this.
Keywords: psychological competencies; self-reported behaviour; high
Introduction
World-class athletes’ performances appeal to the imagination of many. Their greatness in sport is the result of the combination of multiple personal
performance characteristics related to the task at hand (Elferink-Gemser, Jordet, Coelho-E-Silva, Visscher, 2011). It seems inevitable that, to excel in any of the Olympic sports, they need superb anthropometrics, physiological, technical, tactical and psychological skills (Elferink-Gemser, Te Wierike & Visscher, 2018). Considering the latter, early research evidence already supported an association between psychological characteristics and sports performance (Mahoney, Gabriel & Perkins, 1989; May, Veach, Reed & Griffey, 1985; Morgan, 1979; Morgan & Pollock, 1977). Orlick and Partington (1988) reported that among physical, technical, and psychological characteristics, mental readiness provided the only statistically significant link with final Olympic ranking of Canadian Olympians. Nowadays, a growing body of research has identified those psychological factors that distinguish successful athletes from their less successful counterparts. For instance, a high level of commitment, focus, self-confidence and motivation as well as the use of goal-setting, imagery, self-talk and strategies for mental preparation are considered as discriminative psychological factors that separate the best athletes from their less successful counterparts (Collins, Macnamara & McCarthy, 2016; Durand-Bush & Salmela, 2002; Gould, Dieffenbach, & Moffet, 2002; Hiemstra & Van Yperen, 2015; Orlick & Partington, 1998; Van Yperen, 2009). Although studies have shown that psychological factors play an important role in athletes’ behaviours and performances, questions of how these psychological factors are reflected in their behaviour during training, competition and in their daily lives, and how these factors drive what athletes actually do when
confronted with challenges, remain underexplored in the literature.
There are different ways of defining the psychological factors that play a key role in athletic performance (Dohme, Backhouse, Piggott & Morgan, 2017). One way of defining these psychological factors is in terms of competencies.
Psychological competencies are internal resources that are based on action in order to respond successfully to a demand or purpose, linked to a specific context, can be learned and evaluated and mobilize and integrate different
elements: knowledge, skills and attitudes (Villa, 2008). Within studies on sport psychology, a competency perspective has been applied to describe the ability to perform well or to achieve a desired outcome (Harwood, 2008; Holt & Dunn, 2004; Larsen, Alfermann, & Christensen, 2012; Mills, Butt, Maynard, & Harwood, 2012). Considering the important role of athletes’ behaviour when confronted with challenges, a competency perspective is appropriate for describing the discriminative psychological factors that may separate the most successful athletes from their less successful counterparts.
To further understand which competencies are distinctive for those elite athletes who perform at the world-class level, a thorough understanding of the
requirements of their task is requisite (Elferink-Gemser & Visscher, 2012). In the current study, beach volleyball players are subject of scrutiny. Beach volleyball is an inherently demanding, difficult and challenging sport (Zetou, Kouresis, Getsiou, Michalopoulou, & Kioumourtzoglou, 2008). Worldwide, it is a popular sport with growing numbers of participants, at all performance levels. It is played by opposing pairs of players on a court measuring 8 x 16 meters. Beach volleyball players, unlike indoor volleyball players, have to deal with weather conditions. The presence of reserve players and coaching is not permitted during a competition. Further, competitions are held in the form of tournaments, entailing repeated performance in several matches within a time frame of a few days. At the highest level, tournaments that are officially ranked by the
Fédération Internationale de Volleyball (FIVB) are played worldwide. This means that world-class elite players are away from home for long periods of time, which may result in challenges relating to their psychosocial lives and relations. Understanding differences and similarities between world-class and competitive elite beach volleyball players in their behaviour in terms of their competencies may help in defining the content of training programs targeting an increase in performance level. With so many hours spend in training at the elite level preparing for competition (i.e., deliberate practice; Ericsson et al., 1993), a relevant outcome of this study could be that training time may be spent more efficiently. In addition, the results of this study provide valuable input for talent
development programs by providing a template of psychological competencies characterizing world-class players. Therefore, the aim of the present study is to understand differences and similarities between world-class and competitive elite beach volleyball players in their behaviour in terms of their competencies.
Methods
Participants
Given the aim of the present study, we purposefully applied criterion sampling (Sparkes & Smith, 2014) to select 8 world-class elite beach volleyball players (n = 8, M = 28.3, SD = 5.1, 3 males/5 females) and 7 competitive elite beach volleyball players (n = 7, M = 30.4, SD = 4.1; 3 males/4 females). Labelling of the players in ‘world-class elite’ and ‘competitive elite’ players was according to the
recommendations of defining expertise by Swann et al. (2015). Although the age for peak performance in beach volleyball differs for male (M = 30.5) and female players (M = 28,3) (Longo, Siffredi, Cardey, Aquilino & Lentini, 2016), in
accordance with the standards of the Volleyball Federation of the Netherlands (NEVOBO), we chose to set the age limit at 23 years old for both sexes as Dutch beach volleyball players generally achieve world-class level at the age of 24 years.
The following inclusion criteria for world-class elite players were applied: (a) participants were part of Beach Team Netherlands, which implies that they were members of the Dutch national team and trained at national training centres and (b) they had recently achieved high-level performances at the international level (FIVB tournaments, the World Championship and the European
Championship). To ensure that the beach volleyball players that we had selected were of world-class status, we added a further criterion: they had to belong to teams that were ranked among the top 30, globally, by the FIVB.
The selection criteria for the competitive elite players identified those players who did not meet NEVOBO’s selection criteria for world-class elite players, but were included in one of the three highest divisions in the Netherlands. All of the players had trained at local clubs across the Netherlands.
Procedure and data collection
Ethical approval was obtained from the ethical committee of the University of Groningen. Participants were fully informed of the voluntary nature of the study and of its objectives. They were informed of the confidentiality of the data and that they could withdraw from the study at any time without specifying the reason. Written informed consent was obtained from all of the participants. All of the interviews were audiotaped for subsequent transcription with the
participants’ permission. To ensure the confidentiality of the data, both the audios and transcribed interviews were registered with a participant number. Only the first author had access to the original audios and coding key, which were saved separately from the other data.
Interviews
The conducting of interviews in studies on sport and exercise psychology enables researchers to examine the multiple meanings that individuals attach to their subjective experiences and behaviours (Meredith, Dicks, Noel, & Wagstaff, 2018; Smith & Caddick, 2012). The use of interviews in studies also responds to calls for researchers to focus on in-depth examinations of individual differences (e.g., Barlow & Nock, 2009; Martens, 2007). Therefore, in-depth interviews were chosen to compare the psychological competencies of world-class with
competitive elite beach volleyball players. Further, the use of in-depth
interviews yielded insights and explanatory information relating to the players’ knowledge, skills and attitudes underlying their reported behaviour. We acknowledge that no conclusions can be drawn regarding players’ actual behaviour based on the use of interviews. For this reason, from this point on, we will refer to players’ perceived or self-reported behaviours.
In order to keep the interviews flexible, interactive and responsive, we only formulated key questions about broad topics. These topics (training,
competition and daily life) and key questions were derived from a comparative study of talented and elite Dutch gymnasts (Blijlevens, Elferink-Gemser, Wylleman, Bool & Visscher, 2018). Although the interview format for the study was designed to be used for female gymnasts, we considered it generalizable in
terms of transferability to the context of elite beach volleyball played by both men and women in the Netherlands (Smith, 2018), and therefore adopted the topics and key questions. Table 5.1 presents a checklist of the key questions formulated prior to the interviews.
As shown in Table 5.1, we used a concurrent perspective meaning that beach volleyball players were interviewed about how they recently handled
challenging situations. When using retrospective recall, respondents are likely to recall only a small number of vivid experiences that may, but also may not, be genuinely representative of their developmental trajectory (Brown & Kulik, 1977). The recall of these vivid memories is also liable to be influenced by implicitly aggregating many years of accumulated experience as well as an integration of current attitudes and behaviours (Côte, Ericsson & Law, 2005). As such, the athlete’s eventual success will undoubtedly colour his or her
perception of the pathway, and this impression management and bias might be even more of a factor for athletes still involved in the sport (Collins, MacNamara, Cruickshank, 2019). As such, we asked beach volleyball players to reflect on how they recently handled challenging situations.
Table 5.1. Overview of the key questions
Training
Q1 Walk me through a training session. What do you do just before, during and after
the training session?
Q2 Can you describe two or more challenging situations that you recently
experienced during your training sessions?
Q3 Can you describe how you handled these situations? What did you do? What did
you need in order to handle these situations at that moment?
Competition
Q4 Walk me through a general match day from the moment you arrive at the
location until you are finished. What do you do just before, during and after your performance at a match?
The interviews were conducted by two different individuals. The first interviewer (i.e., the first author), who is a 26-year-old woman, has a professional
background as a sport psychologist. She has experience in conducting interviews, having previously conducted qualitative research. The second interviewer is a 25-year-old woman with an educational background in the human movement sciences and in psychology. She had limited experience in conducting interviews; consequently, she was trained in this area prior to becoming a researcher in this study. We both attempted to build rapport with the athletes, which was more easily accomplished with world-class than with competitive elite players. In the former case, the coach introduced us to the players, whom we met in an informal and casual setting before commencing the study. By contrast, the competitive elite players were recruited by email and the coach was not involved in this process. However, as the competitive elite players signed up for interviews on their own initiative, we believe that they were highly motivated to engage honestly and openly with us during the interview.
Moreover, we spent some more time being approachable and getting to know the players to create a setting wherein the players could speak openly and freely about their feelings and thoughts.
Q5 Can you describe two or more challenging situations that you recently
experienced during matches?
Q6 Can you describe how you handled these situations? What did you do? What did
you need in order to handle these situations at that moment?
Daily life
Q7 Can you describe your living situation and daily life activities? What does your
week normally looks like?
Q8 Can you describe two or more challenging situations that you recently
experienced in your daily life?
Q9 Can you describe how you handled these situations? What did you do? What did
Data analysis
All of the interviews were audio-recorded and subsequently transcribed verbatim. Thematic data analysis was performed in the study. Given its theoretical freedom, thematic analysis provides a flexible and useful research tool that can potentially yield a rich and detailed yet complex account of the data (Braun & Clarke, 2006), which was required in the present study. Accordingly, we used a data-driven approach to identify themes instead of attempting to fit the data into a predesigned coding frame. Consequently, the identified codes and themes were strongly linked to the data (Patton, 1990). As qualitative researchers, we aimed to be clear about what we did, why we did it and how we did it, as opposed to adopting an ‘anything goes’ approach for the thematic analysis. Therefore, we followed the six-phase guidelines suggested by Braun and Clarke (2006) and described the choices that we made during the process of the data analysis.
In the first phase, both researchers familiarized themselves with the data by reading and re-reading the interviews to get a feeling for the data content. In the second phase, all self-reported behaviours were depicted from the interviews and were assigned initial codes (e.g., ‘concerned about other people’s behaviour instead of personal goals and performance’ and ‘things happen to them’). In the third phase, we searched for broader themes and patterns relating to the initial codes that reflected similarities and/or differences between world-class and elite competitive athletes (e.g., active versus passive behaviour when confronted with challenges). As a result, all self-reported behaviours were clustered into ten categories (i.e. ten general self-reported behaviours that characterize world-class and competitive elite players) and four major themes (i.e. four
psychological competencies). The self-reported behaviours and psychological competencies were reported in various contexts and situations during training, competition and daily life activities. We therefore had let go these three
interview topics in this phase of the data analysis. During the fourth phase, we conducted two separate checks relating to the identified themes and categories and reviewed and refined them. First, we checked whether the quotes still pertained to the themes. Second, we checked the validity of individual themes in
relation to the entire data set. A key question that we attempted to address during this analytical phase was whether the thematic map that was created in the third phase accurately reflected the meanings within the data set as a whole. After concluding that the thematic map was appropriate, we refined the names of themes and codes during the fifth phase. During the sixth and final phase, we produced an accurate description of the data analysis, as shown in Table 5.2. Rigor
We complied with current standards pertaining to rigor in qualitative research (e.g., Smith, 2018 and Smith & McGannon, 2018). While acknowledging that validity and reliability in qualitative research cannot be addressed in the same way as in quantitative studies, here we provide a clear account of what we did, why and how, to confirm the rigor of the present study.
We attempted to build rapport, encouraging the beach volleyball players to feel comfortable enough to speak openly and frankly, thereby enabling us to understand their experiences and the meanings that these held for them. We believe that we succeeded in this endeavour, which elicited the maximum amount of information about the significance attached by the players to their perceived behaviours. Further, despite the appeal of inter-rater reliability and its widespread application, we believe that this method does not ensure reliable qualitative research because the researcher’s theories, hypotheses, frameworks, or background knowledge inevitably influence coding and are inextricably linked with the research process. Because we can never achieve theory-free
knowledge, inter-rater reliability will always be influenced by the theoretical proclivities of individual researchers, thus tying the method (and results) to their subjectivities (Smith & McGannon, 2018). Consequently, rather than calculating inter-rater reliability, we chose to rely on the critical reflections of colleagues regarding the choices we made in the coding process, thereby creating an opportunity for dialogue about the multiple truths, perspectives and results entailed in the research process. For example, we discussed several opinions and perspectives regarding discriminative and non-discriminative behaviours reported by world-class and elite competitive athletes. We subsequently
organized a follow-up meeting with world-class elite players to elicit their reflections about the findings. This session enabled us to acquire additional insights into their beliefs and to explore any gaps in the results or similarities in their interpretations of the findings. We did not have the opportunity to conduct such a meeting with the competitive elite players. A final point relating to rigor is that we have provided as much information as possible about the participants, the methodology and the researchers’ interpretations, in order to present a clear picture of how we obtained the results.
Results
As shown in Table 5.2, world-class elite players differentiated themselves on 10 self-reported behaviours clustered within four psychological competencies: the ability to (1) focus on your own development, (2) take responsibility for your actions to achieve your goals, (3) handle challenges proactive with a hands-on attitude and (4) do what it takes to become a better player. The ten self-reported behaviours reveal the differences between world-class and competitive elite beach volleyball players.
Table 5.2. Overview of ten self-reported behaviours and four overarching psychological competencies characterizing world-class and competitive elite beach volleyball players (N=15).
Psychological
competencies Self-reported behaviours
The ability to.. World-class elite players Competitive elite players
Focus on your own
development 1. Doing things because of your own beliefs Doing things because you’re expected to 2. Being satisfied when you
achieve your own goals or show improvement
Being satisfied when you have a good feeling 3. Doing things because of the
long-term benefits
Doing things because you like them
4. Making decisions aiming to improve your athletic performance
Procrastinating to make decisions and/or letting others taking decisions for you
5. Reflecting on what you need to become a better player
Reflecting on yourself, other things and other people Take responsibility
for your actions to achieve your goals
6. Holding yourself
responsible for you desired outcomes and
achievements
Holding themselves and others also responsible for achieving your goals Handle challenges
proactive with a hands-on attitude
7. Acting proactively when confronted with challenges
Acting reactively when confronted with challenges 8. Showing a hands-on attitude Showing a wait-and-see attitude 9. Feeling challenged by pressure Feeling threatened by pressure Do what it takes to become a better player
10. Doing what it takes to
The ability to focus on your own development
We began by identifying differences in the reasons why players do what they do. World-class elite players focus strongly on their own development. Everything they do is driven by their desire and beliefs to improve their performances and become better players (self-reported behaviour 1). Their reported training and competition goals, their creation of a balance in their daily lives, their
statements relating to their awareness about setting and protecting their boundaries as well as their reported social activities are all functions of their athletic development and performance. They conveyed an attitude of getting something out of every day, as the following statement made by a world-class elite player reveals:
I don’t believe it when somebody says “It won’t work out today”. I don’t think that ‘off-days’ exist anyway. Of course, there are always things that don’t work out, but then there is the next ball and you can make that one work. It doesn’t make sense to tell yourself, “today isn’t working out for me”. It sounds like giving up to me: “today it won’t, but we’ll see tomorrow”. (WC-2) By contrast, competitive elite athletes seem to do things because they are expected to do them and because other people tell them that doing so will contribute to their development and performance. For example, most of the competitive elite players also reported having a goal in mind that they wanted to achieve during their training. However, this goal was mostly driven by what someone else had told them to do, as reflected in the following statement made by a competitive elite player:
The coach tells us what we need to focus on, set up, for example. Of course, you work on specific points in the training as and when your coach tells you to focus on them. But it’s not like “I think this went wrong last week, I need to focus on that during the training today”. (C-20)
One area in which differences in players’ focus on their own development was apparent concerned players’ feelings of satisfaction with a training session (self-reported behaviour 2). World-class elite players (self-reported being satisfied with a
training session when they had the feeling that they had made small steps towards their goals and when they perceived improvements in their
performance. For example, a world-class elite player said: ‘We’re working on specific training goals. If we are to succeed in achieving our goals, I am satisfied with a training’ (W-3). Conversely, although most of the competitive elite athletes reported having a training goal for each session, they said that they were
satisfied with a training session when they had a good feeling, enjoyed the training and had fun with their teammates, as illustrated in the following quote:
When you walk away from the training with a good feeling [because] the training made you happy and gave you energy … and everybody in your team had the same feeling that they had a good training session and it did go well. (C-22)
This perception is also reflected in the role of fun in these competitive elite players’ athletic careers (self-reported behaviour 3). They mentioned ‘having fun’ as one of the reasons why they engage in sport and as an important aspect of the satisfaction that their sport gives them. For them, fun entails a good vibe existing among teammates, who laugh together and help each other. They also said that they did things because they liked them, with some stating that they rejected things that they did not like: ‘There are a lot of tournaments that I don’t take part in, because I don’t like them … You need to engage in activities you like as much as possible; then your performance will improve automatically’ (C-22). While world-class elite players did not explicitly mention the importance of having fun, this omission did not imply that they do not have fun in the course of their athletic careers. They stated that developing themselves and achieving their personal goals constituted enjoyable moments. They further projected the long-term benefits of doing things that they do not like in the first place.
The focus among players on their own personal development was also reflected in their choices (self-reported behaviour 4). World-class elite players said that they made decisions that contributed to their becoming better players. For example, all players recognized situations in which switching their playing partners could be advantageous, or, conversely, staying with their teammates,
regardless of difficulties, would be beneficial for their mutual athletic development. Competitive elite athletes continually referred to the ‘ifs’ and ‘buts’ and reported procrastinating with regard to such decisions. In contrast, world-class elite players reported being actively involved in these types of decisions and reported their acceptance of the consequences (e.g., not being very popular because of their decisions. This point is illustrated by a world-class elite player:
One of my former partners started asking if we would play together again. He saw that it wasn’t working out with my [current] partner at that moment … It was difficult sometimes, but I decided very consciously to continue playing with that partner. My goal was to go to the Olympics. I found it a challenge to overcome these difficulties and to show the world that we are the best. The easy way would have been to quit at that moment: we had a bad season together, so let’s continue with another partner. I didn’t see that as a long-term solution. (WC-8)
The focus among players on their own personal development is also evident in the decision made by them to continue to play only beach volleyball to foster their athletic development or, instead, to play both indoor and beach volleyball. This can be a tough decision for volleyball players. The reported vision of world-class elite players was ‘if I want to become the best, I need to continue with only one sport’. Competitive elite players found this decision too difficult to make. Consequently, they avoided making it, and continued to engage in both sports or allowed the choice to be made for them (e.g., waiting for their coach to deselect them). One competitive elite player said: ‘I don’t want to make the choice, although my trainers want that’ (C-20).
In line with this observation, world-class elite players reported having a strong focus on themselves and what they do, whereas competitive elite players also seem to focus on other people and other things during training sessions and competitions (self-reported behaviour 5). World-class elite players reported asking themselves questions like: ‘How did that go?’ ‘What do I need in order to get better?’ and ‘What can I do to get better?’ They stated that they looked for
ways to improve everything that they did, including areas in which they were already proficient. Conversely, competitive elite athletes reported evaluating their performances, but did not formulate concrete points for improvement: ‘I briefly think about what went wrong. I do that, but not like: “I need to change this and do that better”; not that approach at all’ (C-18). They further reported behaviour concerned with the development of others and how they could help teammates to improve. For instance, they were occupied with questions like: ‘How can I help my teammate to get better?’ or ‘How can I help the coach to get the most out of this training session?” This is reflected in the response of a competitive elite player to the question: ‘How do you behave during training?”
I’m trying my best. And when I see my teammates doing something wrong, then I’ll tell them how they can do it better … So, I try to give them tips and instructions. Because when they become better, it lifts our training to a higher level … and given we’re with a training group of 12, the coach can’t help them all at the same time, you know. (C-16)
Players’ attitudes were also reflected in their word choices. World-class elite players used terms like ‘I need’, ‘my goal is’ and ‘I am’, whereas competitive elite players used terms, such as ‘we need’, ‘our goal is’ and ‘we are’. When talking to world-class elite players, we almost had the feeling that we were talking to athletes engaged in an individual sport, whereas when we talked to competitive elite players, it became much more apparent that beach volleyball is a team sport.
The ability to take responsibility for your actions to achieve your goals Additionally, players demonstrated differences in their attributions of their performances (self-reported behaviour 6). World-class elite players held themselves responsible for their desired outcomes and achievements. They stated that their performances were outcomes of what they themselves focused on and what they did to achieve those performances. By contrast, competitive elite beach volleyball players observed that whether or not they achieved their desired performances also depended on their teammates, opponents, the circumstances and the vibe during a training or match. Thus, their attributions
appeared to relate more to external and less stable circumstances, as revealed in the following quote:
I want to play at a higher level, and I think I’m able to do that. But I need to grow. Eventually you become a better player because of the level of your training mates. I think I’m ready for new training mates now. (C-17)
Moreover, in their daily lives, competitive elite players reported that they were dependent on their coaches, parents, schoolteachers and teammates to achieve their desired outcomes.
The ability to handle challenges proactive with a hands-on attitude Following from the statements above, world-class and competitive elite players differed in their approaches to challenging situations and setbacks. In general, world-class elite players adopted a proactive and hands-on attitude regarding challenges and setbacks (self-reported behaviour 7 and 8), which is illustrated in the following statement:
I have an injured ankle at the moment, but I feel confident. It happened and I can’t control that. But I can control how I deal with it right now. So, I use a lot of visualization techniques, which give me the feeling [that] I have trained. (WC-7)
These players further reported that they sought ways to proactively handle or change the situation, anticipating how to tackle challenges. Conversely, competitive elite players seemed to be more reactive or passive when
confronted with challenges and setbacks. They tended to adopt a wait-and-see attitude, reacting to things that happened rather than anticipating situations that could arise.
Another point that we discovered is that world-class elite players more frequently reported feeling challenged by pressure (self-reported behaviour 9). They mentioned that they thrived under conditions with some degree of pressure. They further reported deploying skills to handle a high degree of
pressure which enabled them to create an optimal level of pressure for themselves, as illustrated in the following statement:
Recently at a tournament, we lost two matches in our pool. So, on the second day, we needed to win “big” against the number one [players] in our pool. We were doing our warming up and it didn’t feel right at all. I thought: “I can play 20 more balls now, hoping to get a good feeling”, but instead I decided to sit down next to the court and do some breathing exercises with some relaxing music in my ears. This made it possible to ‘zoom out’ and I thought: “we are at the tournament right now; this is how we are going to play”. After that, I suddenly felt ready for the game and we played well. (WC-4)
Conversely, competitive elite players expressed feeling threatened by pressure. They reported that they thrived in an environment where expectations and pressure were absent, as illustrated by the following statement:
The relaxed environment of the competition at this level makes my
performance go well. Then I’m really enjoying what I’m doing. At that point, I don’t feel pressure and then I’m free to play, which lets me play my best volleyball. (C-18)
The ability to do what it takes to become a better player
World-class as well as competitive elite athletes mentioned behaviours relating to what they should do. Therefore, at first sight, it appeared that all players, regardless of their performance level, were reporting the same psychological competencies. For example, they talked about setting training goals, persevering in the face of challenges, effective communication with their partners during the game and problem solving when their tactical play was ineffective. They further reported knowing what they should do in specific situations and which
behaviours would be more effective for dealing with challenges. However, the descriptions of their behaviour relating to how they actually handled the situation differed. World-class elite players described the behaviours that they themselves acknowledged were effective for handling difficult situations, whereas competitive elite players described behaviours that did not match with
what they had reported earlier in the interview as being effective behaviours for handling difficult situations. In other words, there appeared to be a discrepancy between the competitive elite players’ knowledge about the required behaviour for performing well and their actual behaviour (self-reported behaviour 10). This discrepancy is reflected in the following statement. When asked about her goal for this year, a competitive elite player provided the following response: ‘I want to deliver a steady performance at the Eredivisie [highest national
competition]’ (C-16). When asked what she needed to do to achieve her goal, her response was as follows:
You need to focus on the next ball. You need to focus on things you can take into your own hands, focus on things you can control. So, the moment that you’re thinking about things you can’t change, such as the opponent, how the federation threats you, the referee, how the wind blows … when you focus on those kinds of things, you can’t win a match. (C-16)
Later in the interview, when she was asked what she does to achieve her goal, she answered as follows: ‘If my teammate becomes a better player and gets more points, and she develops her mental skills, [then] we can achieve steady
performance in the Eredivisie’. Therefore, whereas she had stated earlier that it was better for her to focus on things that she herself could control, when asked what she did to achieve her goal, she mentioned things beyond her own control. This discrepancy was reported by the competitive elite players in the contexts of their training, competitions as well as daily lives. For example, both world-class and competitive elite players noted that dealing with weather conditions (e.g., too warm or too cold conditions, strong headwinds, heavy rainfall and glare) was challenging. They felt that they should clear their minds and adapt to these circumstances, focusing on their own tactics and game plans, while considering the impacts of the weather on their performance and telling themselves that their opponents were also disadvantaged by these impacts. In response to questions of how they handled the situation and what they actually did, world-class elite players mostly described focusing on how to win the next point, changing their tactics and telling themselves that their opponents were also
disadvantaged by the weather conditions and so forth, as illustrated in the following quote:
You throw some sand in the air and then you know which way the wind blows. Then you know, when you’re passing [the ball] to your teammate, [in] which direction you need to pass the ball because otherwise they can’t reach the ball. These are just little adjustments. (WC-5)
By contrast, competitive elite players reported behaviours such as thinking about how they could not achieve their desired performance levels because of the weather, which they felt had a stronger impact on them than on their opponents. They tended to dwell on these thoughts and apparently found it difficult to clear their minds, as illustrated in the following statement:
We had a game, one of the last ones, in which we were facing a defeat, and we needed to serve with the wind at our backs. We preferred to go against the wind. I think we both had in mind: all or nothing. We are going to lose this anyway. (C-19)
Thus, whereas competitive elite athletes reported knowing what they should do in challenging situations, they did not refer to that behaviour when asked how they handled the situation.
Discussion
Applying a qualitative design in combination with a competency perspective to understand differences and similarities between world-class and competitive elite beach volleyball players, we identified that world-class elite players differentiated themselves on ten self-reported behaviours clustered within four psychological competencies. Whereas world-class as well as competitive elite players deployed several similar self-reported behaviours, the analysis revealed that, though possessing knowledge of what they should do, competitive elite players report a lack of the skills and/or attitudes to actually demonstrate the behaviour that is regarded by themselves as most optimal. This finding seems to
relate to studies focusing on the distinction between declarative (“knowing what to do”) and procedural (“doing it”) knowledge (e.g., Anderson, 1982; McPherson & Kernodle, 2003; Thomas & Thomas, 1994; Turner & Martinek, 1999).
Declarative knowledge includes knowledge of the rules and goals of the game (French & Thomas, 1987; Williams & Davids, 1995), whereas procedural
knowledge involves the selection of an appropriate action within the context of the game (McPherson, 1994). Already at younger ages, this distinction in ‘knowing what to do and doing it’ between athletes of varying performance levels is present. Examples are studies comparing elite and sub-elite talented soccer and field hockey players (e.g., Elferink-Gemser et al., 2010; Kannekens et al., 2009, 2011). A practical implication of this finding is the advice to pay sufficient attention to the athletes’ actual behaviour. Explaining, asking and showing what optimal behaviour might look like, seems not sufficient. Rather, confronting athletes with their behaviour and comparing that with their own perceptions of optimal behaviour may proof a promising venue to further explore, for example in the context of talent development programs.
Intervention studies in this area are a next step to take. Building on the results of the current study, the content of an intervention can be designed in such way that it improves competencies related to ‘focus on personal development’, ‘taking responsibility for your actions and achievements’, and ‘pro-active behaviour and a hands-on attitude’ (see Table 5.2).
Differing from most studies (e.g. Gould et al., 2002; Harwood, Cumming & Fletcher, 2004; Holland, Woodcock, Cumming & Duda, 2010; MacNamara et al., 2010), we chose a competency perspective focusing on psychological factors in high performance. Adopting a pragmatic view, we considered a competency perspective particularly appropriate because it yields deeper insights into the underlying features that determine athletes’ behaviour, thereby providing more information about how athletes can be stimulated and supported in their psychological and psychosocial development. As indicated in the present study, whether or not a particular behaviour is demonstrated depends on a
combination of specific knowledge, skills and attitudes. Approaching psychological factors as competencies as opposed to psychological
characteristics entails the belief that psychological factors can be developed throughout a player’s athletic career. Moreover, we believe that it is possible to enhance players’ psychological competencies by imparting and stimulating specific types of knowledge, skills and attitudes. There is a need for studies to investigate the most effective methods of teaching and fostering psychological competencies in talented athletes and to determine whether these methods should be applied at a specific stage of athletic development, while considering developmental challenges. The need for and importance of psychological competencies change throughout athletes’ careers as they progress through the stages of athletic development (Blijlevens et al., 2018). As such, a follow-up research phase would entail a longitudinal and possibly using mixed methods that focuses on the interplay of developmental challenges, environmental influences (e.g., those of coaches, parents, peers and the prevalent culture), the role of training and the characteristics of the task at hand in relation to the development of psychological competencies (Collins et al., 2019; Elferink-Gemser et al., 2011).
Concurring with contemporary views pertaining to rigor and generalizability in qualitative research, we believe that it is important to share our reflections about the generalizability of the present study. Although it is not possible to generalize qualitative research in the same way as quantitative research in terms of statistical probabilistic generalizability (Smith, 2018), in our view, assessments of the generalizability of qualitative studies should focus on the extent to which results are generalizable and not on whether or not they are generalizable to another context or in relation to another concept. That said, we consider the results of the present study to be potentially generalizable in terms of transferability and analytical generalization. Specifically, they could be
generalizable to high-potential and world-class elite athletes in the development programs implemented by other sports federations in the Netherlands that share the same characteristics of the Dutch elite sport context, for example, in terms of their structure, central training locations, facilities and vision. A comparison of the results of the present study with those of recent studies focusing on the demands and resources of elite athletes in the Netherlands (e.g.
Balk, 2018; Blijlevens et al., 2018; Blijlevens, Wylleman, Bool, Elferink-Gemser & Visscher, 2019) reveals similarities in characteristics of the elite sport context. Further, although the terminology that we applied for psychological factors differed from that used in previous studies, there was a large overlap regarding concepts related to psychological factors that influence talent development and high-performance levels (e.g., Blijlevens et al., 2019; Gould et al., 2002;
MacNamara et al., 2010). Accordingly, the results of the present study could also be generalizable in terms of analytical generalization. From a broader
perspective, these results show considerable overlap with those of high performers in other contexts, such as elite musicians, artists, dancers, medical practitioners or business persons (e.g., Jones, 2012). To support the claim regarding the generalizability of our findings, we have provided as much information as possible along with our interpretations, so that readers can discern similarities and differences relating to their own contexts and assess whether our results are applicable to them.
From a practical standpoint, we believe that our results could be used as guiding inputs for coaches and sport psychologists, as they provide insights into the behaviours that differentiate the best athletes from their less successful counterparts. The identified competencies are useful and effective for world-class elite volleyball players. We therefore recommend that coaches strive to develop these competencies among the players with whom they work. For example, to maximize the chances of high-potential players achieving world-class status, coaches should encourage them to view pressure as challenging rather than threatening. Furthermore, by conceptualizing competencies as psychological factors, the present study can assist coaches to reflect on and select appropriate strategies or methods aimed at stimulating the desired behaviour among players. An approach proposed by Harwood (2015) is currently being applied in the Netherlands, whereby coaches are facilitated in designing exercises that foster athletes’ competencies in sports through their stimulation and training. The assessment of competencies is a complex task because it entails the integrated application of various components (knowledge, skills and attitudes). Therefore, an observational tool is currently being developed for
observing and assessing athletes’ behaviour in real-life situations within the context of sports (Ledoux et al., 2013).
Conclusion
The findings of the present study revealed that the following self-reported competencies differentiate world-class elite beach volleyball players from competitive elite players: (1) they know what to do and report actually doing this, (2) they focus on their own personal development, (3) they demonstrate internal attribution of their actions and (4) they report proactive behaviour and a hands-on attitude. The combination of a qualitative design with a competency perspective provides valuable insights for those working with high-potential and elite athletes. It directs attention to the psychological competencies that need to be developed and methods for accomplishing this. In short, trainers should focus not only on imparting declarative knowledge about how something should be done but rather on helping their athletes to acquire competencies in order to improve performance.
Acknowledgement
We extend special thanks to all of the beach volleyball players who candidly and openly participated in this study. We would also like to thank the Volleyball Federation of the Netherlands, especially Margo Wiltens, Bert Korteling and Bram Ronnes, for their efforts that made this study possible.
References
Balk, Y. A. (2018). Faster, higher, stronger: demands, resources, and recovery as
determinants of elite athletes' well-being. Eindhoven: Technische Universiteit
Eindhoven
Barlow, D. H., & Nock, M. K. (2009). Why can't we be more idiographic in our research?
Perspectives on Psychological Science, 4, 19–21.
Blijlevens, S. J. E., Elferink-Gemser, M. T., Wylleman, P., Bool, K., & Visscher, C. (2018). Psychological characteristics and skills of top-level Dutch gymnasts in the initiation, development and mastery stages of the athletic career. Psychology of Sport and
Exercise, 38, 202-210.
Blijlevens, S. J. E., Wylleman, P., Bool, K., Elferink-Gemser, M. T., & Visscher, C. (2019). Acquisition and maintenance of excellence: The challenges faced by Dutch top-level gymnasts throughout different stages of athletic development. Sport in Society, 1 – 20.
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research
in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101.
Brown, R., & Kulik, J. (1977). Flashbulb memories. Cognition, 5(1), 73–99.
Collins, D., MacNamara, A., & Cruickshank, A. (2019). Research and Practice in Talent Identification and Development – Some Thoughts on the State of Play. Journal of
Applied Sport Psychology, 31(3), 340-351.
Collins, D. J., Macnamara, A., & McCarthy, N. (2016). Super champions, champions, and almosts: Important differences and commonalities on the rocky road. Frontiers in
Psychology, 6.
Côte, J., Ericsson, K., & Law, M. (2005). Tracing the development of elite athletes using retrospective interview methods: A proposed interview and validation procedure for reported information. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 17, 1–19.
Dohme, L. C., Backhouse, S., Piggott, D., & Morgan, G. (2017). Categorising and defining popular psychological terms used within the youth athlete talent development lit- erature: A systematic review. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology,
10(1), 134–163.
Durand – Bush, N., & Salmela, J. H. (2002). The development and maintenance of expert athletic performance: Perceptions of world and Olympic champions. Journal of
Eccles, J. S., & Midgley, C. (1989). Stage-environment fit: Developmentally appropriate classrooms for young adolescents. Research on Motivation in Education, 3, 139–186. Elferink-Gemser, M. T., Kannekens, R., Lyons, J., Tromp, Y., & Visscher, C. (2010). Knowing
what to do and doing it: Differences in self-assessed tactical skills of regional, sub-elite, and elite youth field hockey players. Journal of sports sciences, 28(5), 521-528. Elferink-Gemser, M.T., Jordet, G., Coelho-E-Silva, M.J., Visscher, C. (2011). The marvels of
elite sports: how to get there? British Journal of Sports Medicine, 45, 683-684. Elferink-Gemser, M., Te Wierike, S., & Visscher, C. (2018). Multidisciplinary Longitudinal
Studies: A Perspective from the Field of Sports. In K. Ericsson, R. Hoffman, A. Kozbelt, & A. Williams (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Expertise and Expert
Performance (pp. 271-290). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Elferink-Gemser, M. T., & Visscher, C. (2012). Who are the superstars of tomorrow? Talent development in Dutch Soccer. In: J. Baker, S. Cobley & J. Schrorer (Eds.) Talent
identification and development in sport. International perspectives (pp. 95-105).
London: Routledge.
Ericsson, K.A., Krampe, R.T., & Tesch-Römer, C. (1993). The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. Psychological Review, 100, 363-406.
Gernigon, C., & Delloye, J. B. (2003). Self-efficacy, causal attribution, and track athletic performance following unexpected success or failure among elite sprinters. The Sport
Psychologist, 17(1), 55-76.
Gordon, R. A. (2008). Attributional style and athletic performance: Strategic optimism and defensive pessimism. Psychology of sport and exercise, 9(3), 336-350.
Gould, D., Diffenbach, K., & Moffett, A. (2002). Psychological characteristics and their development in Olympic champions. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 14, 172– 204.
Hardy, L., Jones, J. G., & Gould, D. (1996). Understanding psychological preparation for sport: Theory and practice of elite performers (pp. 88). John Wiley & Sons Inc. Harwood, C. (2008). Developmental consulting in a professional football academy: The
5Cs coaching efficacy program. The Sport Psychologist, 22(1), 109–133.
Harwood, C., & Anderson, R. (2015). Coaching psychological skills in youth football: Developing the 5Cs. Bennion Kearny.
Harwood, C., Cumming, J., & Fletcher, D. (2004). Motivational profiles and psychological skills use within elite youth sport. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 16, 318-332.
Hiemstra, D. & Van Yperen, N. W. (2015). The effects of strength-based versus deficit-based self-regulated learning strategies on students' effort intentions. Motivation and
Emotion, 39(5), 656-668.
Holland, M. J. G., Woodcock, C., Cumming, J., & Duda, J. L. (2010). Mental qualities and employed mental techniques of young elite team sport athletes. Journal of Clinical
Sport Psychology, 4, 19–38.
Holt, N. L., & Dunn, J. G. H. (2004). Toward a grounded theory of the psychological competencies and environmental conditions associated with soccer success. Journal
of Applied Sport Psychology, 16, 199–219.
Jones, G. (2012). The role of superior performance intelligence in sustained success. In: S.M. Murphy (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of sport and performance psychology (pp. 62-80). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Jonker, L., Elferink-Gemser, M. T., de Roos, I. M., & Visscher, C. (2012). The role of reflection in sport expertise. The Sport Psychologist, 26(2), 224-242.
Kannekens, R., Elferink-Gemser, M.T., Visscher, C. (2011). Positioning and deciding: key factors for talent development in soccer. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and
Science in Sports, 21(6), 846-852.
Kannekens, R., Elferink-Gemser, M.T., Visscher, C. (2009). Tactical skills of world-class youth soccer teams. Journal of Sports Sciences, 27(8), 807-812.
Larsen, C., Alfermann, D., & Christensen, M. K. (2012). Psychological skills in a youth soccer academy: A holistic ecological perspective. Sport Science Review, 11, 51–74. Ledoux, G., Meijer, J., Van der Veen, I., Breetvelt, I., Ten Dam, G., & Volman, M. (2013).
Meetinstrumenten voor sociale competenties, metacognitie en advanced skills. Een Inventarisatie. Amsterdam: Kohnstamm Instituut.
Longo, A. F., Siffredi, C. R., Cardey, M. L., Aquilino, G. D., & Lentini, N. A. (2016). Age of peak performance in Olympic sports: A comparative research among
disciplines. Journal of Human Sport and Exercise, 11(1), 31-41.
Martens, R. (2007). Science, knowledge, and sport psychology. In D. Smith & M. Bar-Eli (Eds.), Essential readings in sport and exercise psychology (pp. 457–470). Champaign: Human Kinetics.
MacNamara, Á., Button, A., & Collins, D. (2010). The role of psychological characteristics in facilitating the pathway to elite performance part 1: Identifying mental skills and behaviors. The Sport Psychologist, 24(1), 52-73.
May, J.R., Veach, T.L., Reed, M.W., & Griffey, M.S. (1985). A psychological study of health, injury and performance in athletes on the US alpine ski team. Physician and
Sportsmedicine, 13, 111-115.
Mahoney, M.J., Gabriel, T.J., & Perkins, T.S. (1987). Psychological skills and exceptional athletic performance. The Sport Psychologist, 1, 181-199.
McAuley, E., & Gross, J. B. (1983). Perceptions of causality in sport: An application of the Causal Dimension Scale. Journal of Sport Psychology, 5, 72–76.
Meredith, S. J., Dicks, M., Noel, B., & Wagstaff, C. R. (2018). A review of behavioural measures and research methodology in sport and exercise psychology. International
Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 11(1), 25-46.
Mills, A., Butt, J., Maynard, I., & Harwood, C. (2012). Identifying factors perceived to influence the development of elite youth football players. Journal of Sport Sciences,
30, 1593–1604.
Morgan, W.P. (1979). Prediction of performance in athletics. In P. Klavora and J.V. Daniel (Eds.), Coach, athlete and the sport psychologist (pp. 172-186). Champaign: Human Kinetics.
Morgan, W.P., & Pollock, M.L. (1977). Psychologic characterization of the elite distance runner. Annals of the New York Academy Sciences, 301, 382-403.
Morris, T. (2000). Psychological characteristics and talent identification in soccer. Journal
of Sports Sciences, 18, 715-726.
Orlick, T., & Partington, J. (1998). Mental links to excellence. The Sport Psychologist, 2, 105–130.
Patton, M. Q. (1990). Qualitative evaluation and research methods. Newbury Park: Sage Publications.
Smith, B. (2018). Generalizability in qualitative research: Misunderstandings,
opportunities and recommendations for the sport and exercise sciences. Qualitative
Research in Sport, Exercise and Health, 10(1), 137–149.
Smith, B., & Caddick, N. (2012). Qualitative methods in sport: A concise overview for guiding social scientific sport research. Asia Pacific Journal of Sport and Social
Science, 1, 60–73.
Smith, B., & McGannon, K. R. (2018). Developing rigor in qualitative research: Problems and opportunities within sport and exercise psychology. International Review of Sport
Toering, T. T., Elferink-Gemser, M. T., Jordet, G., & Visscher, C. (2009). Self-regulation and performance level of elite and non-elite youth soccer players. Journal of sports
sciences, 27(14), 1509-1517.
Van Yperen, N. W. (2009). Why some make it and others do not: Identifying psychological factors that predict career success in professional adult soccer. The Sport
Psychologist, 23(3), 317-329.
Villa, A. (2008). Competence Based Learning. A Proposal for the assessment of generic competences. Bilbao: University of Deusto.
Weiner, B., Frieze, I. H., Kukla, A., Reed, L., Rest, S., & Rosenbaum, R. M. (1971). Perceiving
the causes of success and failure. Morristown, NJ: General Learning Press.
Wylleman, P. (2019). A developmental and holistic perspective on transitioning out of elite sport. In M. H. Anshel (Editor-in-Chief), APA Handbook of Sport and Exercise
Psychology: Vol. 1. Sport Psychology (pp. 201-216). Washington, DC: American
Psychological Association.
Zetou, E., Kourtesis, T., Getsiou, K., Michalopoulou, M., & Kioumourtzoglou, E. (2008). The effect of self-modeling on skill learning and self-efficacy of novice female beach-volleyball players. Athletic Insight: The Online Journal of Sport Psychology, 10(3).
