A
NEW ERA AND PERSPECTIVE
:
T
HE EDUCATIONAL
VALUE OF DIGITAL MEDIA IN MUSEUM EXHIBITIONS
2
A NEW ERA AND PERSPECTIVE:
The educational value of digital media in Museum exhibitions.
Anna Pantazi s2157284
MA thesis Archaeology (4ARX-0910ARCH) Supervisor: Dr Llanes Ortiz
Co-supervisor: Dr Piccoli Museum Studies
University of Leiden, Faculty of Archaeology Leiden, 30/04/2019 Final Version
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Table of Contents
Acknowledgements...5-6 Part I...7-40 I. Introduction...7-9 1.1. Aims and research questions...9-11 1.2. Methodology...11-13 1.3. Thesis structure...13-15 II. The Educational Value and Digital Media...16-28 2.1. Museums and education...16-20 2.2. Museums, Digital Media and learning...20-25 2.3. Education and Digital Heritage...25-29 III. The value of Aesthetics...30-40 3.1. The concept of aesthetics in archaeology and museum exhibitions...30-33 3.2. Aesthetics and Digital Media...33-40 Part II...41-90 IV Introduction...41-42 4.1. The case study of Tomb of Christ...43-66 4.1.1. Introduction to the Tomb of Christ...43-49 4.1.2. The exhibition Tomb of Christ: the monument and the project ...50-53 4.1.3. Discussion...53-66 V. The case study of Nasca...67-90 5.1. Introduction to the Nasca culture...67-71 5.2. The exhibition Nazca. Divine drawings, Archaeological Discoveries from the Peruvian Desert...71-79 5.3. Discussion...79-86 5.4. Visitors’ responses...87-90 V.I. Conclusion...91-94 6.1. Evaluation of the thesis...94-95 Abstract...96 Bibliography...97-106 Online Sources...107 Figures...108-110
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Tables...111 Graphs...112 Appendices...113-123
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Acknowledgements
First of all, I would like to express my deep gratitude to my Professor and thesis supervisor Dr Genner Llanes Ortiz for embracing my ideas, guiding and supporting me unwaveringly throughout this research. Admittedly, there were times that this research hit stumbling blocks of one kind or another, but with his positive energy and clear directions, he inspired me and taught me how to think out of the box as well as the importance of tenacity.
Furthermore, I would like to thank my thesis co-supervisor, Dr Chiara Piccoli, for her invaluable assistance and guidance throughout this research. Her original notions and endless support, not only on the digital aspects and paradigms of this thesis such as the Pottery Goes Public but with others as well, such as the Walter Benjamin’s work, have been a source of great enlightenment to me and have significantly contributed to the research.
Gratitude is also due to my professor and supervisor of the Museum Studies department of Leiden University Dr Mariana De Campos Francozo, who was the first person I turned to, to discuss my ideas. More specifically, I would like to thank her for making my ideas fruitful including the topic of this thesis, as well as, for the suggestion of the Nasca exhibition, which became the primary case study of this research.
I would also like to acknowledge my professor and supervisor of the Digital Archaeology department of Leiden University Dr Karsten Lambers who contributed to this thesis in multiple ways; firstly, by donating his publication: «The geoglyphs of Palpa, Peru: Documentation, analysis, and interpretation». Secondly, he contributed immensely with sound advice as he is the primary researcher of the Nasca geoglyphs, and last but not least by offering his valuable assistance concerning the digital part of this thesis.
Moreover, I would like to thank all the interviewers for their time and participation as without them this research could not have been possible. Special thanks to the interviewers:
- From the exhibition Nasca. Divine drawings, Archaeological Discoveries from the Peruvian Desert, in Bundeskunsthalle, Bonn:
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o Mrs Cecilia Pardo Grau, Curator of the Pre-Columbian art, in Museo de Arte de Lima – MALI, Peru.
o Mrs Susanne Annen Exhibition Curator, in Kunst-und Ausstellungshalle der Bundesrepublik Deutschland GmbH, in Bonn.
o Moreover, to Mr Peter Fux, Curator of America and Exhibition Manager, in Museum Rietberg Zürich for filling out the questionnaire.
- From the Nineveh exhibition, in the National Museum of Antiquities Leiden:
o Mr Lucas Petit, Curator Department Ancient Near East, in the National Museum of Antiquities Leiden.
o Mrs Anna de Wit, Project Curator, in the National Museum of Antiquities Leiden.
- Special thanks to Bundeskunsthalle in Bonn, for permitting me to conduct the visitors’ questionnaire.
- Moreover, to Grande Exhibitions creators of Van Gogh Alive - The Experience, for sharing basic information regarding the exhibition.
Last but not least, I would like to thank my family for supporting my dream, for their unceasing support, for listening to my ideas, putting up with my frustrations and for motivating me to continue with my research.
Without the contribution of each and everyone, this thesis would have never been realised. I would like to thank them all from the bottom of my heart for their patience and for the faith they have placed in me.
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PART I
I. INTRODUCTION
With the advent of technology in people’s everyday life, our perception of the world has changed dramatically. Technology has improved our lives in various fields, as an increasing number of transactions and communications now occur in a digital form. Contemporary museums cannot be an exception to this revolutionary digital era. As the world evolves, demands, needs and exchanges transform, resulting in a radical new way for the dissemination of knowledge and information. Nowadays, the use of computer-based media by museums is indispensable to their exhibitions, both permanent and temporary, as it offers new ways of presenting art collections and archaeological sites (Macdonald 2006, 302). Other forms of media such as dioramas or video installations had already made their impact a long time ago. In contrast, the ‘new media’ which are computer-based media such as 3D reconstructions, multimedia installations or mobile applications have rapidly developed over the last few years (Stogner 2009, 392; Widmann 2016, 17; Were 2015, 154; Medić and Pavlović 2014, 166-167).
One of the main purposes of digital media in exhibitions is to illustrate artefacts and archaeological sites effectively and comprehensively. The archaeological context of the exhibits should be adapted accordingly, in order to attract and stimulate the public’s interest. Due to this rapid evolution, the educational value is an issue that museums as institutions are now called upon to fulfil. Numerous educational programmes and workshops have already taken place in museums, designed by museum educators which aimed principally at children but also with adults in mind. Education and digital media are now inextricably linked, since the primary aim of the use of digital media in exhibitions is to create meaningful exhibitions in order to construct a ‘‘bridge of mutual communication’’ and to create an interactive environment between the audience and the respective exhibition (Awayda 2018, 1-2; Davis and Trant 1996, 9-10;vom Lehn and Heath 2005, 4). In this spirit, the use of digital media has succeeded in intriguing, attracting and engaging the public with the
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concepts of archaeology, heritage and culture. Through the combination of visual and audio, the fog of the past has been cleared, at least up to a point (Macdonald 2006, 309).
In this thesis research, the main goal is to investigate the educational value of digital media and its impact, as part of archaeological exhibitions. The criteria of the case studies that have been chosen were the use of digital media, the educational value of them in relation to the archaeological interest. The two case studies, the Nasca Divine drawings, Archaeological Discoveries from the Peruvian Desert exhibition in Bonn, Germany and the virtual exhibition, Tomb of Christ: the monument and the project, in Athens, Greece are archaeological exhibitions that contain digital media. Furthermore, both exhibitions are not blockbusters. On the contrary, they are smaller presentations. Due to this nature of the exhibitions, it is common to see less visitor participation. The two case studies were selected to support the primary argument of this research, which is that museums and exhibitions are at the cusp of a new era, where digital media are ubiquitous and the rapid dissemination of information and knowledge transformed what is called heritage’s perception. In other words, since museums are an integral part of heritage, as institutions and ‘keepers’ of this heritage they must include and illustrate equally, civilisations from all around the world. Digital media in museum exhibitions are significantly contributing to the aforementioned factors.
Nowadays there is a plethora of applications, multimedia installations and other forms of technology such as augmented reality, as part of museum exhibitions. In this research, the focus is in the most common means of technology used by museums. The purpose of this was to concentrate on the technology that visitors are most familiar with as they can find at least one of them, such as video installations, even in the smallest, local museum. Thus, this fact was another criterion for the selection of the case studies.
Many studies have taken place about the use of digital media and new technologies in museums, but most of them are either at a theoretical level, or they merely concentrate on the technical components of digital media in terms of digital archaeology (Widmann 2016; Ballarin et al. 2018; Myrczik 2014; Stogner 2009; Agostino 2013). One of the main purposes of utilising media in
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exhibitions is to create a learning environment, a ‘meaningful’ process through the use of digital resources such as animations or video installations (Kise 2013, 1-2). However, the question which arises is, does the use of media succeed in creating the appropriate environment for the public which will make their visit to the museum worthwhile? Are digital media another trend that museums have become preoccupied with but without delivering an appropriate return? In order to answer this, we must initially start with theory and subsequently continue with praxis. Therefore, the division of this thesis is into two parts. The first part concentrates on the theoretical aspect and the second on the empirical. The chosen case studies will enlighten these aspects.
1.1.Aims and research questions
Nowadays, digital technology has become an integral part of our lives, and museums all over the world are adjusting to these new changes. Technology and media are ubiquitous in museums. From local museums such as the National Museum of Antiquities in Leiden to international museums such as the British Museum, there are numerous examples of the use of media in their exhibitions, both temporary and permanent. In addition, as the presence of virtual and digital exhibitions is increasing day by day, with examples that derive from both archaeology and art history such as the virtual exhibitions like Tomb of Christ and Van Gogh Alive-The Experience respectively, a new era for museums has arrived.
Having visited numerous museums and exhibitions, that included at least one technological component, such as interactive screens, and been fascinated by the opportunities that technology can provide to curators (such as the creation of a robust archaeological context for the visitors), the interest in investigating further the use of media in exhibitions became stronger. This thesis research focuses on the educational value that is offered by the use of digital media in museums. To put it differently, there are various investigations and publications regarding the technological part of digital media such as the creation process or the influence of them but only limited ones about the purpose they serve such as the educational (Widmann 2016; Stogner 2009;
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vom Lehn and Heath 2005). Thus, the case studies of this thesis were selected due to the archaeological focus (which is different since the Nasca exhibition is a civilisation and the Tomb of Christ a monument), and to the use of technology. The primary focus was on the meaning, the educational value of the digital media and what they contributed to the exhibitions and consequently their value to the public. Similarly, one of the methods that were followed was to see the use of digital media and their educational value in action by visiting the exhibitions and discussing them further with their creators. In order to achieve that, the method that was applied was firstly to perceive the use of digital media and technology as a visitor and secondly as a museology student, to define their educational purpose.
The research question that organises this thesis is to investigate the educational value and thus the impact and the benefits of the technological use in museums (archaeological exhibitions), such as digital media (Graph 1). One of the initial assumptions of this thesis research was that through the use of technology we can expand the knowledge, broaden the horizons and construct a different approach for museum audience, as learning and entertainment can combine. One of the central research questions is if the above are achieved in the exhibitions in question. Other research questions are:
o How does digital media contribute to the ‘reconstruction’ of the archaeological context regarding the exhibits.
o How does digital media achieve an educational purpose?
o How does digital media contribute to digital heritage and education?
o What are the other benefits that can be gained through the use of digital media in museums?
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Graph 1. Graphic of the thesis structure and research question.
1.2. Methodology
The research for this thesis was conducted from May to November 2018, and the methodology followed consisted of four aspects: the literature review, the interviews with the museum staff, the visitors’ survey and the participant observation.
The initial approach of this thesis, was to compare exhibitions of art such as the Van Gogh Alive-The Experience with archaeological exhibitions such as the case study of Nasca, Divine drawings, Archaeological Discoveries from the Peruvian Desert (since digital media were included in both exhibitions), to identify similar processes and challenges. To these end, intensive efforts to contact the respective museums and private companies via emails were made. Unfortunately, owing to the fact that the gathered data were not sufficient (as most of them could not provide more than basic information), the core theme of the thesis had to be slightly shifted. However, the case study of Nasca culture was kept due to the relevance that this exhibition has for the topic of this thesis given the presence of digital media and several multimedia installations, as well as the fact that this is an archaeological exhibition.
Since the establishment of the topic, the first step was to visit the two of three exhibitions on research, as the third exhibition of the National Museum of Antiquities in Leiden, Nineveh, had unfortunately come to an end (25 March 2018), before the beginning of this research. Notwithstanding the fact of not
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visiting the exhibition, the innovative character of the Nineveh exhibition, its topic and the embodiment of digital, such as the 3D reconstructions of the artefacts of Mosul Museum, destroyed by the terrorist attacks in 2015, led to the decision to include this exhibition in this research. In contrast, the Nasca exhibition, in Bundeskunsthalle, Bonn, in Germany, was visited by the author of the thesis on three occasions (Appendix 9). The first and third visits were dedicated to the exhibition itself. Through touring the exhibition and from personal observations of the artefacts, the museographic structure and naturally the main topic of the thesis, digital media, it was possible to understand in depth the Nasca culture. As far as digital media are concerned, the first aim was to identify what they were depicting and secondly why. Inevitably, questions did emerge such as what purpose they serve, how can the public benefit from them, where their educational value lies and many more, which are examined and discussed in the respective chapter.
Furthermore, in all three visits, the method of participant observation was applied, in order to observe and document their reactions (chapter 5.3.). In the second visit, another method regarding visitors was carried out, that of the questionnaires (Appendix 7). The questionnaire was approved by the supervisor of this thesis Mr Genner Llanes Ortiz and the Bundeskunsthalle administrative department. The first section of the questionnaire concentrated on general questions such as the reason for the visit. The next questions were all about the multimedia installations and the public’s perception about them, such as if they consider the multimedia installations to have an educational context and if so, what that it was. The questionnaire had two forms, the first was a multiple choice and the second was open questions. However, the fact that the participants in the questionnaires were of different age groups helped enormously to achieve a result regarding all target groups. Some visitors did not want to fill out the questionnaire, but they contributed to this thesis through a short discussion regarding the topic and their insight.
Likewise, with the exception of questionnaires, the case study Tomb of Christ was visited by the author of this thesis on September 2018 (Appendix 9), in the Byzantine and Christian Museum of Athens, in Greece. Due to the fact that the museum never replied to my request to conduct visitor
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questionnaires, it was not possible to carry out any research with questionnaires, but once again the visitors were followed, and their reactions and discussions were documented, along with the observation and interpretation of the exhibition. Endeavours were made to contact the creators of the exhibition, which unfortunately once again did not bear fruit.
For all the reasons above, it was not possible to interview every participant during the creation of the exhibitions. However, in the Nasca case, the exhibition manager, Mrs Susanne Annen, and one of the two curators of the exhibition, Mrs Cecilia Pardo, were interviewed (Appendix 8). Furthermore, both of the curators (Mrs Cecilia Pardo and Mr Peter Fux) filled out an additional questionnaire (Appendix 6), with five fundamental questions about the choice and the use of technology such as multimedia installations, which is included in the Nasca discussion chapter. The third case study, the exhibition of Nineveh could not be visited, although the curator, Mr Lucas Petit, and the exhibition manager, Mrs Anna de Wit, agreed to be interviewed (Appendix 8). These interviews once more were focused on the digital media as well as the 3D parts of it.
All the interviews started from a general description, such as the institution or the museum, and why they decided to create the respective exhibition to specific questions about the use of digital media, the creation of them such as who designed them, what was the purpose of them, if and how they achieve an educational purpose and what was the public’s reaction. In addition, questions about the economic costs of digital media were asked, as economics play a crucial role in order to understand in depth the intentions behind their creation. In other words, the design and creation of most of the digital media are expensive. Therefore, digital media and their use must be accurate and serve to elucidate when it comes to archaeological exhibitions.
1.3. Thesis structure
This thesis is divided into parts, where the first part focuses on the theoretical background and the second one on the empirical. The second chapter of part one investigates the educational value of digital media in
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museum exhibitions. Since digital media have been added to the arsenal of museum display techniques, and the educative function of museums has always been a major concern, these two factors are nowadays interlinked. Thus, a flashback in the history of education in museums and the past display techniques used is mandatory. While in the same chapter the role of digital media regarding the learning processes is researched. Moreover, the role of digital heritage as part of museums, and its educative value are explored, with the Nineveh exhibition lightening up this examination. Since, aesthetics play a pivotal role in exhibitions and especially to the display of artefacts, chapter three which is dedicated to this explores aesthetics and their relation to archaeology as well as the concept of digital aesthetics.
Part two focuses on the case studies of the Tomb of Christ and the civilisation of Nasca. In order for the reader to understand in depth the use of digital media, and the description of the exhibitions in the researched case studies, first of all, it is essential to include a short introduction of the history, the position in time and place and the evolution of the archaeological case studies in question (particularly for the Nasca culture, known for its complexity due to its society structure or geoglyphs). Subsequently, the exhibitions are presented and the arguments, observations and results of the aforementioned gathered data are discussed last.
Last but not least, online or digital collections have been deliberately left out. The reason is to enable scrutiny of museums’ display techniques, where various media are nowadays the star attractions. Not all visitors are familiar or have access to the websites of the museums or the online digital collections (Were 2015, 154). Furthermore, this research aims to investigate what digital media in exhibitions offer and if they achieve their purpose of disseminating information when they are isolated from all the complementary media, such as websites. In this way, what is gained from the exhibition itself for a visitor will be more apparent. Only the category of computer-based media known as ‘new media’ (Chun and Keenan 2006), that exist as an integral part of exhibitions is taken into consideration, and the reason for doing so is the fact that not all people have access to the internet, and consequently, they may not
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know how to use a smartphone or an application. An example is the target group of the elderly.
In a nutshell, all the data was gathered and studied in comparison with each other and with the educational background of the author of the thesis. For instance, the Nasca literature was combined with the interviews and personal observations and perceptions in order to understand first and foremost, the civilisation itself, and then the purpose of creating the multimedia installations and the digital means and the role they play in the exhibitions, as well as the context of the civilisation. To make this possible, it had to be identified who the Nasca were, what they had achieved, why they are still important and what the main components of their culture are. Otherwise, the exhibition and its museographic structure would not make any sense. Then the question arose, of how the public reacts and what they personally think of the examined topic.
Regarding the Nineveh, the research was based on the interviews and the literature review such as the catalogue of the exhibition. Afterwards, online research took place on social media sites such as Facebook in order to seek photographs and comments by the people who had visited the exhibition, not only to better understand the structure of the exhibition but to seek through such comments what people thought about it as well. However, as there were not many posts available that could be accessed a sample was taken.
CASES DESCRIPTIVE RECONSTRUCTION DIRECT OBSERVATIONS INTERVIEW WITH CURATORS OBSERVATIONS AND INTERFERING WITH AUDIENCE NASCA TOMB OF CHRIST X NINEVEH X X
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II. The Educational Value and Digital Media
In this chapter, the focus is on the educational value that the presence of digital media adds to the display techniques in archaeological museum exhibitions. Education has many facets and dynamics since knowledge can be disseminated by various methods. Foremost, the educational process regarding the museum experience is related to create exhibitions that are ‘meaningful’ to the public, in other words, that can be easily understood and to the primary notion that visitors should develop their own thinking and comprehension. This is made possible in combination with the learning experience museums have established along with all the information. Technology and digital media used in exhibitions are designed to provide visitors with these two elements: experience and information. Hence, a detailed overview and examples will be used as guidelines to understand in depth the main research question, which is to determine the educational value of the use of technology in museum exhibitions; technology which now occupies a dominant place in museums and which has become the primary means of educating the public together with the display of artefacts. The museographic structure of an exhibition and its artefacts is the arbitrator between the culture in question and the public (Swain 2007, 7). Thus, the curation of an exhibition is dependent on all these, setting as a priority, the ‘message’ that needs to be imparted. Digital media are a powerful tool and can be used with accuracy and completeness. Given this, and with the aid of particular examples, the concept of digital heritage and its correlation with education will be thoroughly examined.
2.1. Museums and education
The educational aspect clearly plays a pivotal part for museums. Over the past decades, as the strategies of museums have shifted, sometimes quite dramatically, so the focus on the educational component has increased in significance (Macdonald 2006, 340). This can be further explained by the definition regarding the function of museums by the International Council of Museums (ICOM):
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“A museum is a non-profit, permanent institution in the service of society and its development, open to the public, which acquires, conserves, researches communicates and exhibits the tangible and intangible heritage of humanity and its environment for the purposes of education, study and enjoyment’’ (https://icom.museum/en/).
ICOM’s definition concentrates principally on the social aspect of museums concerning the public, one of which is correlated with the educational value, and which will be further explored throughout this chapter.
In addition, the second definition that must be explored is what precisely museum education and its purpose are. According to ICOM: ‘‘Museum education can be defined as a set of values, concepts, knowledge and practices aimed at ensuring the visitor’s development; it is a process of acculturation which relies on pedagogical methods, development, fulfilment, and the acquisition of new knowledge’’ (Desvallées and Mairesse 2010, 31).
While in the same edition the definition of a museum’s educative purpose ‘‘[…] It is connected with the notion of awakening, which aims to arouse curiosity, to lead to questioning and develop the capacity to think. The purpose of informal education is thus to develop the senses and awareness; it is a development process which presupposes change and transformation rather than conditioning and inculcation, notions it tends to oppose’’ (Desvallées and Mairesse 2010, 31).
To put it another way, since it is in human nature to show curiosity about the past, so a museum’s chief educational principle, using a variety of display techniques and educational approaches, is to stimulate visitors, to aid them in seeing the world from other perspectives, to develop their critical thinking, to make connections between the past and present, insomuch as the past is an integral part of our history, which defines us and gives us a sense of belonging (Anderson 1989, 357; Trofanenko and Segall 2014, 1).
Museums are ‘children’ of the Enlightenment and the West (Hein 1998, 3; Swain 2007, 18). The first collections were started by the upper or aristocratic classes but there has been considerable development since the studiolo and the cabinet of curiosities or Wunderkammer and Kunstkammer
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and the division of the artefacts by artificialia (made by man), such as coins or sculptures and naturalia (made by nature), such as shells or plants, in the 16th
and 17th century (Lidchi 2013, 122-123), all the way to the first public
museums of Europe in the 18th century, such as the British Museum, many of
which owed their foundations to the bequests of wealthy collectors1 (Swain
2007, 20-23; 93; Macdonald 2006, 341; Ames 1992, 18). In the early years of public museums’ existence, the museographic structure of the collections was primitive or completely lacking along with there being only limited access to the public (Ames 1992, 18-19). Nonetheless, the educational objective has always been a key purpose of museums, but in different terms and approaches (Hein 1998, 3). With the historical events of the time such as the industrial revolution or the foundation of the first independent nations, education started to play a crucial role in the 19th century (Hein1998, 4). Museums of the era were influenced by the political and social changes as well, and the first educative efforts took place. Nevertheless, it must be pointed out that these efforts were addressed only to a limited public audience and exhibited vast differences from today’s methods and approaches (Hein 1998, 5-6). Since then a great deal has changed, with the advent in the 20th century of the concepts of new museology and critical museology, along with the democratisation of museums and the equal rights of people in education (Álvarez et al. 2017, 833).
Cultural, political and economic aspects also played their role in the evolution and transformation of museums (Ames 1992, 18-21). One of these transformations, as referred above, is the educational function taken by museums, where nowadays that approach is reinforced by the presence and use of digital media, in order for the exhibitions to provide visitors with a strong archaeological context, in-depth knowledge and ‘meaningful’ exhibited cultures (Macdonald 2006, 309-315). The educational aspect in museums is not a novelty as indicated above. The notion has dominated museums’ thinking since its beginning (Swain 2007, 20-21), and has been equally associated with the aim of the exhibitions, where the latter is the ultimate form of communication and expression. Nonetheless, the point of transformation is that
1 For example Sir Hans Sloane bequeathed his collections to the British Nation in the 18th century
(Ames 1992, 18), and this became one of the principal reasons for the creation of the British Museum (www.britishmuseum.org).
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education has become today one of the principal aims and objectives of museums (Barcelos et al. 2015, 8; Hooper-Greenhill 2007, 1), and this has also had a significant impact on the arsenal of techniques at their disposal (Holdgaard and Simonsen 2011, 108). The use of digital media and applications are some of the most contemporary techniques used by museums (Neamţu et al. 2014, 56). The principal objective that museums endeavour to achieve in terms of education is to create an open discourse through the dissemination of knowledge, influencing through this process the perception of the audience, and resulting in an impact (Barcelos et al. 2015, 8-9).
The learning process today has become a ‘‘highly personal process’’ (Macdonald 2006, 325). This fact has been underpinned by the tremendous potential that technology has provided humanity with, since all kinds of information and knowledge can be accessed with significant ease, leading to the result of self-education. Essentially, the process of learning is personal and timeless. It can occur anytime, at any place, out of curiosity, interest or even quite haphazardly by discourses. Whatever the case is, learning is not always related to new knowledge, but it is the established corpus of knowledge that can also be enhanced in various ways; for instance through experiences (Hooper-Greenhill 2007, 34-35; Hein 1998, 6).
Experience plays a pivotal role to learning; apropos to the museum experience, the focus of museums always remains to create exhibitions with a particular emphasis on learning, but the acquired knowledge when leaving a museum depends on diverse aspects such as the aesthetical, the awe, the memory or interest.
Last but not least, education is inextricably linked to social changes and cohesion (Hooper-Grenhill 2007, 1). Consequently, the learning experience is not only correlated with the past but with the present as well, as waves of change continuously influence humankind. Since we live in a tumultuous, multi-dimensional epoch of technological advances and history keeps repeating itself; it is now imperative for the educational value to be further expanded. Museums act as the middleman between the audience and the exhibited culture, in other words, the knowledge. Ergo, the question which arises at this point is if education in museums should only focus on the past or whether they should
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also include the present as well. In addition, should contemporary events such as terrorist attacks and particularly those associated to the destruction of cultural heritage also be taken into account and be included in the exhibitions, as contemporary society has to cope with this issue and since these facts are part of humanity’s history? (Barcelos et al. 2015, 24).
Archaeology and history are two deeply intertwined disciplines, as one cannot exist without the other. Museums display history through the illustration of the artefacts. Since such artefacts were an integral part of people’s lives associated and created for a diversity of reasons such as daily use or religious practices, they are endowed with historical attributes that have been further developed through the times. In any case, artefacts radiate their power upon humans.
An example is the ‘‘Multaka’’ project, launched by the state museums of Berlin. In this project, refugees are trained and employed as museum guides in the Arabic language, for the communities of refugees established in Germany as well as for newcomers (www.dw.com). The project aims to familiarise and welcome them through the artefacts of the museums, which is part of their culture. This example illustrates the combination of the past and presents making us realise our interconnection. By using the past and the present, illustrating examples, the first can promote a deep understanding of the latter, and enhance the educational value by comparing and demonstrating past with the present and by bringing objects and people together. In this way, critical thinking is stimulated and the trigger of emotion or awareness follows naturally. Needless to say that museums’ main content has been created by humans for humans, and the museums themselves are addressed to humans. After all, and using Nelson Mandela’s own wise words: ``Education is the most powerful weapon which you can use to change the world``.
2.2. Museums, Digital Media and learning
Digital media are today ubiquitous in the majority of museums’ exhibitions worldwide. Their presence and use have periodically been a source of contention, particularly when it comes to digital media’s ‘‘absence of
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materiality’’ (Cameron and Kenderdine 2007, 35-37). Nonetheless, digital media are further museums display techniques, which have been dramatically expanded over recent years.
Visitors come across hundreds of educational programmes and workshops which museums offer, but it is the exhibition itself that counts the most. They are the core of museums, as they build a ‘bridge’ that connects the audience and cultures (Hooper-Greenhill 1995, 37). However what seals this connection is the use of digital media, since it enhances the understanding (Awayda 2018, 1-2). Evidently, learning coincides with experience reinforced by the use of digital media and new technologies (Davis and Trant 1996, 9-10). The versatility and expanded use of digital media such as animations, 3D reconstructions or 3D printing, reinforce the museum experience. This occurs by creating a visitor’s experience fundamentally with the dissemination of information, through the combination of image, text, sound, and the sense of ‘reality’ digital media can provide visitors with. All these result in triggering the emotions, the memory, the participation, the imagination, the curiosity and the aesthetical value, thus learning is achieved through visitor’s stimulation (as will be further discussed in the aesthetics chapter) through a new perspective and approach with the advent of ‘new media2’ (Jewitt 2012, 74; Cameron and
Kenderdine 2007, 36-37; Hooper-Greenhill 1995, 36-37; vom Lehn and Heath 2005, 12). Furthermore, the primary role of digital media as a means of communication is that it acts as a catalyst between the provided information of the exhibited objects and the impact they have on the audience since they reinforce and transform the learning experience (vom Lehn and Heath 2005, 4).
In order to deepen our understanding of past civilizations, the combination of sound and imagery can help to add a multi-dimensional aspect to our learning experience. To put it differently, by unravelling the history of museums display techniques, it is noticeable that digital media are, in a way, the contemporary version of dioramas or models, with the exception the advanced use of technology and the computer-based owing to the development of the world (Geismar 2018, xvii). However, the point which is underlined here
2 The term new media is used to distinguish the computer-based media such as the 3D
reconstructions from the old or traditional media such as the radio (Tribe et al. 2009, 6; Moser 2013, 188).
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is that the display techniques of museums change with the passage of time but the original notion and scope remain the same. That is none other than to reinforce the educational character of the objects and the respective culture in question. Nonetheless, we are far away from the era of the ‘static’ dioramas or models, since new media alter the perspectives, they are multifarious and can trigger and stimulate through the combination of visual and sound, different ‘reactions’ such as imagination or emotions (Holdgaard and Simonsen 2011, 102; vom Lehn and Heath 2005, 12).
As new media are a compelling feature of our era, and as museums endeavour to keep pace with new opportunities provided through technology (Myrczik 2014, 178), it should be taken into account that new media have their audience, which often consists of digital communities (vom Lehn and Heath 2005, 10). This happens, particularly when new generations are concerned and are created primarily for leisure and personal interest, but the learning value is not excluded. For example, online collections of artefacts, sculptures or paintings are ubiquitous in social media, such as Pinterest, where a user can create a profile and upload a collection of personal interest with the respective commentary. Obviously, these communities continue to develop and represent a form of self-learning and interaction with other users, while museums with their digital collections are attracting new visitors but (re)introduce to the old. Furthermore, except the online collections of museums other online platforms such as Google Art Project or Europeana, where the digital representation of masterpieces takes place, have also emerged and have their own impact on the public (Agostino 2013, 99). These platforms work as complementary to the exhibitions, thus to the museum experience but concurrent as independent as well (since they can be accessed even without having visited the museum). Through the free access they provide to the public, the latter can explore, learn and observe in detail numerous masterpieces (Agostino 2013, 146). As for Social Media, I firmly believe that they are worth an investigation of their own. Nonetheless, the impact of them is ubiquitous and of utmost importance, since they have turned into a powerful communication tool between museums and the public.
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At this point, however, the issue which arises is the absence of materiality and authenticity through the digital representation of the exhibits and its impact in the learning experience. Materiality is of the utmost importance, as it is the core of museums (Dallas 2007, 35) but the point which is underlined here is that first of all, media have their material hypostasis themselves, as they are tangible and they acquire their position and interpretation in the exhibitions (Cameron and Kenderdine 2007, 38).
Secondly, if we take into account that they are used to reinforce the museum experience and the meaningful value, if used correctly then they do not differ from the original artefacts’ presentation. To put it simply, artefacts are enclosed in showcases for security reasons, and the information is usually accompanied by texts which consist of no more than a few lines of information. In contrast, digital media can provide visitors with more information than a few lines, and the ability to observe artefacts in great detail, whose extent depends on each visitor’s capacity and eagerness of learning (Stogner 2009, 389).
Thirdly, the experience is reinforced by physically walking through the exhibition (Bruno 2014, 158). Senses are triggered through the combination of the physical presence of the artefacts and the digital representation of them, where visitors can observe artefacts in great detail and thus the learning experience is enhanced (Dumitrescu et al. 2014, 102; Agus et al. 2017, 18).
Fourthly, according to the aforesaid, digital media have their own method of communication with the public and ways of contributing to knowledge construction (Biedermann 2017, 282).
Fifthly, as it will be illustrated in the next chapters and particularly to the case studies of this dissertation, digital media can reinforce the educational aspect, by reconstructing more effectively the archaeological context of the artefacts, through their unique ability to combine multiple sources of the exhibited culture such as the visualisation of the geographical location of them or of the techniques used for their creation (in case of a ceramic for example).
To exemplify this, I would like to discuss one of the most paradigmatic exhibitions of the use of technology for educational purposes; the project, ‘Pottery goes public’ organised by the University of Amsterdam. The project took place in Allard Pierson Museum in 2015, and its chief aim was to identify
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the manufacturing techniques of ancient pottery through 3D analysis, visualisation and printing, while its second aim was to engage the public throughout the research process (Opgenhaffen et al. 2018, 62; Revello-Lami 2016, 421-422). The notion behind this innovative project was on the one hand to build a bridge between archaeologists and non-relative audience and on the other hand, to provide them with a complete context based on experience, making this possible through the participation of the public (Opgenhaffen et al. 2018, 62). This project was a multidimensional one, owing to the fact that it combines a virtual museum with a physical experience (Opgenhaffen et al. 2018, 64). Archaeologists used Italian black gloss ceramics and endeavoured to figure out the method used for the stamps in the ceramics. Noteworthy at this point is that the choice of this particular kind of ceramics was not made randomly. On the contrary, these ceramics are rarely displayed in museums (Opgenhaffen et al. 2018, 67). The public’s participation concentrated on the experience of creating the stamps (fig.1) on clay sheets (Opgenhaffen et al. 2018, 71). In this way, the museum’s visitors were able through this process not only to engage with the ceramics’ art but to understand in-depth their construction and decoration.
Figure 1. The 3D printed sheets of clay with stamp imprints of museum visitors. Photo: L. Opgenhaffen (Opgenhaffen et al. 2018, 71 figure 3).
Furthermore, in order to reinforce knowledge multimedia installations also took place including the use of videos displaying ceramics manufactures from contemporary life and in this way it was possible to shed light on further techniques. In addition, visitors had the chance to interact with the artefacts and observe them from different angles by means of a touch screen where 3D models of the ceramics were illustrated as well as through the 3D printing, where through reconstruction of the artefacts the unique chance of physical
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contact was provided (Opgenhaffen et al. 2018, 73-74). Therefore, through the use of technology and the combination of the senses, visitors experienced multilateral aspects of gaining knowledge.
Through the in-depth understanding of the exhibition, with the aid of digital media, uncharted territories can also be discovered in terms of information and collections (King et al. 2016, 85). For example, maritime archaeology has successfully reached an audience through the virtual experience. Except for the underwater archaeological sites, the public has the ability to explore and learn about marine life as well. (Bruno et al. 2018, 92).
Regarding the use of digital media in museum exhibitions, however, it is of the utmost importance that an interdisciplinary team makes the design and the content of the digital media as it is a very complicated procedure when it comes to the educational approach (Economou 1998, 182-183). As Economou points out:
‘‘Before making the decision to use multimedia interactives, museums need to consider carefully whether this medium is the one best suited to the task in hand, taking into account the technical, financial, aesthetic, and pedagogical implications’’ (Economou 1998, 185).
In other words, using Economou’s point, there is a diversity of factors that must be taken into account regarding digital media as part of exhibitions. Nonetheless, what is underlined in this point is that the use of digital media as part of exhibitions must be considered with care; they should primarily be designed based on learning theories and approaches (Duncan et al. 2012, 952-954), following the artefacts of the exhibition (Hooper-Greenhill 1995, 92). Since they act in a complementary fashion, they should follow the aim and the scope of the exhibitions, in order to fulfil their purpose that is the learning experience (Davis and Trant 1996, 13). All these will be further illustrated in the case studies of this dissertation.
2.3.Education and Digital Heritage
To explore the concept of Digital Heritage, UNESCO’S statement can further aid us: ‘‘Digital heritage is made up of computer-based materials of enduring value that should be kept for future generations. Digital heritage
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emanates from different communities, industries, sectors and regions. Not all digital materials are of enduring value, but those that require active preservation approaches if continuity of digital heritage is to be maintained’’, (www.unesco.org).
Nowadays, the concept of digital heritage is widely-shared. In this transitional era, the urge to preserve and protect cultural and natural heritage has become more intense than ever. Digital heritage is an indispensable component of education, since through the digital form of artefacts and sites, especially when the originals no longer exist, manages to sustain their ‘presence’ and ensure their educative value (Karvonen 2010, 215). Archaeological sites and artefacts are particularly vulnerable as they are threatened by a variety of unpredictable situations such as climate destructions or terrorist attacks (Munshi et al. 2011, 156). Digital heritage and its methods offer solutions which help preserve and secure archaeological sites and artefacts for future generations (Munshi et al. 2011, 156).
An example of this derives from the Nineveh exhibition, in the National Museum of Antiquities in Leiden, which took place in 2017 in cooperation with UNESCO (in particular parts of the exhibition such as the ‘image’ of Iraq today). Nineveh is a significant Assyrian city of antiquity (Petit and Morandi-Bonacossi 2017a, 8), which today has suffered immensely from vandalism and terrorist attacks. Part of this exhibition was made with the use of digital media such as 3D reconstruction, 3D printings or animations of the palace. It deliberately focused on the aesthetic value of the landscape in order to provide visitors with the visuality of the city in the past (fig.2). Through the scientific reconstructions, however, the exhibition enables visitors to comprehend further and explore, while simultaneously managing to inspire and educate them (Personal communication with Mr Petit and Mrs de Wit).
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Figure 2. Part of the exhibition Nineveh, in the National Museum of Antiquities, Leiden. Photo: (https://kunst-hart.nl).
Part of this exhibition was the 3D reconstruction of the artefacts that were held in Mosul Cultural Museum (Personal communication with Mr Petit and Mrs de Wit). In 2015 Mosul Cultural Museum came under attack by a terrorist organisation commonly known as Islamic State of Iraq and al-Sham or ISIS. The majority of the museum’s artefacts were destroyed and these images were broadcast to the world (Petit and Morandi-Bonacossi 2017a, 132; www.theguardian.com). The artefacts that were easily movable had already been transferred to the National Museum of Iraq in Bagdad after the looting during the Iraq war in 2003. Artefacts that were larger and heavier had remained in the Mosul Museum, until their destruction in 2015. These artefacts would have been lost forever, if the Mosul project3 (also known as Rekrei), funded by the European Union had not been established (Petit and Morandi-Bonacossi 2017b, 275). The principal aim of the project was to create a digital representation of the artefacts in order to ensure their ‘existence’ for present and future generations. The researchers managed to collect Mosul Cultural Museum visitors’ old photographs of the artefacts, in order to create the 3D reconstruction of the artefacts (Petit and Morandi-Bonacossi 2017b, 277). The next aim of this project is to create 3D printings of the artefacts, in order for the public to be further engaged (https://ec.europa.eu/programmes). The 3D reconstructions of the artefacts were part of the Nineveh exhibition, in order to
3 Founded by Matthew Vincent and Chance Coughenour, both PhD candidates (Petit and
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create a meaningful experience for the audience and to inspire them (Personal communication with Mr Petit and Mrs de Wit, Appendix 8).
Similarly, there are several other projects where the principal aim is to protect and promote Iraq’s culture. For instance, the Iraq project which was created in order to ensure access for the public to the artefacts due to the armed conflict of 2004 when the museum was looted and closed. The result was the creation of a virtual museum for present and future generations (Chiodi 2007, 101-104).
Albeit, at this point, the issue of authenticity arises, along with the high costs of digital media (Karvonen 2010, 215), examining the digital representation of the artefacts is not this research’s primary focus. Nonetheless, this example was put forward to illustrate the importance of Digital Heritage, as well as to indicate the future of digital archaeology, and its educative significance. The memory of the destruction of the artefacts of Rio de Janeiro’s National Museum in Brazil caused by fire, on the 2nd of September of 2018 (www.theguardian.com), serves as a further example to support this argument. The collections of the museum were available in the online platform of Google Art Project before the destructive fire took place. The visitors can navigate to the collections of the museum through a virtual tour on both the website and the mobile application of the project, ensuring this way the preservation of the
collections for present and future generations
(https://artsandculture.google.com). Unfortunately, unpredictable factors make it impossible to prevent cultural heritage from destructions or looting. However, Digital heritage is a contemporary method which contributes to the safekeeping of the digital form of the artefacts and sites, and thus to the education of society.
In a nutshell, in this chapter the main focus was on the educative experience, digital media can provide museum visitors with. Firstly a brief insight into the history of education in museums was explored in order to understand the beginning of the acquisition of collections or the first educative attempts in museums. Secondly, digital media and their educational value as part of museums’ display techniques were investigated through different
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examples and perspectives. In addition, the impact of digital media and the lack of materiality, are also discussed.
Last but not least, since digital heritage is a rising field, it is inextricably correlated with education and digital preservation of not only artefacts or archaeological sites but of heritage under threat as well, as it is illustrated in the case study of the Nineveh exhibition.
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III. The value of Aesthetics
In this chapter, the concept of aesthetics will be explored and discussed. Since aesthetics play a pivotal role not only to archaeology, digital archaeology or museum exhibitions but to education as well, it was not possible, not to include a chapter in this dissertation. Furthermore, it must be taken into account that aesthetics are an inextricable part of daily life and therefore are of utmost importance in the museums’ world.
To put it differently, when it comes to museum exhibitions, and from the visitors’ perspective, artefacts are associated with personal aesthetics. For instance, some artefacts do not appeal to visitors’ aesthetics (always depending on personal preferences). Hence a tendency of ignorance and indifference is often created. On the contrary, when an artefact captures the visitor’s imagination, then extended observation and more intense desire to acquire more knowledge on the specific artefact is noticed. On account of aesthetics, visitors who may have visited a museum out of curiosity only will indisputably memorise an artefact of their preference and its details through observation. Nevertheless, in order to speak about aesthetics, we must first examine it as a term, then its correlation with archaeology and finally make the connection with the main topic of this dissertation, the digital media in the exhibitions.
3.1. The concept of aesthetics in archaeology and museum exhibitions
The initial concept, as well as the etymology of Aesthetics, derives from Ancient Greece, mainly from Philosophers such as Plato’s or Aristotle’s theories and the word ‘‘αἰσθητικός (aisthētikós, the perception of the senses)’’, which for Ancient Greeks was also associated with the perception of the beauty (Wilson 2006, 20 -21; Hausken 2016, 85).
Nevertheless, it was the German philosopher Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten, who established and included the term in Philosophy in the 18th century (Wilson 2006, 20; Noordegraaf et al. 2013, 81). Ever since, the philosophy of Aesthetics has been a field of interest for a plethora of scientists and authors, evidenced by innumerable publications, in which the term has
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been analysed in depth. Aesthetics have been correlated above all with the discipline of art history and art in general (Taylor et al. 1994, 265). Moreover, nowadays aesthetics are an integral part of human’s daily lives and this becomes evident to a large extent through an individual’s personal preferences (Skeates 2017, 611). However, it is remarkable that the divergent aspects of aesthetics depend not only on personal preferences but mainly on what the eyes of the individual come across (without eliminating the other senses like hearing). In other words, the experience of senses depends on what we see (or feel), (Zettl 1998, 86). As an illustration, there is a different perception of aesthetics when a visitor beholds a picturesque landscape, then when this same person observes a museum artefact. There is a variety of emotions that are triggered as well as senses that are stimulated (Irvin 2008, 29-31). Hereupon, in respect to museum exhibitions, we must consider that it is the personal aesthetic that a visitor brings with them to the museum. One of the principal aims of the museum should be to stimulate visitors by creating other aspects of the aesthetic and trigger the emotions. Consequently, in most exhibitions, the aesthetical result of the museographic structure plays a pivotal role, and it is not possible not to include this significant part.
Aesthetics and archaeology were first related by Johann Joachim Winckelmann in his famous publication, “Geschichte der Kunst des Alterthums”4 in the 18th century, where he classified and dated ancient
artworks, underlined the significance of them, and at the same time endorsed the idea that the aesthetical understanding and interpretation has a leading role regarding the analysis of the artworks observations (Skeates 2017, 607-608). As a result of this, the market value of the era for a part of archaeological objects was influenced by his observations (Skeates 2017, 607-608). For instance, it was Winkelman who pointed out that vases considered to be Etruscan were in truth Greek (fig.3), and through his reassessment, he boosted the demand of the ‘Etruscan vases’ as well as their worth and their aesthetic value (http://slll.cass.anu.edu.au). What followed was a significant increase in the demand of Etruscan vases by private collectors, in the respective period (Smith 2017, 5; Burn 1997, 248).
4 History of Ancient Art.
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Figure 3. Red-figured kylix with the scene of Music lesson, c.465-460 BC, manufactured in Attica, found in Vulci. Photo: (Halbertsma et al. 1989, 72).
Nevertheless, it was private museum collectors and the intrinsic aesthetic value of their collections among other factors such as curiosity that enabled the ‘birth’ of museums (Swain 2007, 20-23). Since the era of the Renaissance, collections of artefacts were held in what was known as cabinets of curiosities until the 18th century and collections were exhibited with the consent and understanding of the respective collector (Lidchi 2013, 122-123). The establishment of public museums was based on the bequests or donations of the aforementioned private collectors (Swain 2007, 20-23; Macdonald 2006, 341). However, it should be pointed out that the motive for the acquisition of artefacts or masterpieces, aside from factors such as the value of the objects, the historical or archaeological (e.g. Greek, Egyptian), was based on the aesthetic value as well (Letowski 2010, 6).
Furthermore, aesthetics in archaeology are correlated with the factor of materiality, as artefacts are the key components of the discipline of archaeology and thus of museum exhibitions. However, concerning materiality combined with aesthetics, the belief that seeing artefacts as ‘objects’, either in the discipline of archaeology or in museum exhibitions and the isolation of aesthetic value, over other aspects (Taylor et al. 1994, 252- 255), does not correspond with the central beliefs of this research’s argument. Chiefly, all objects were created by manufacturers in a particular period of time and by specific cultures (Taylor et al. 1994, 265). For instance, there are notable differences between the cultures and their artefacts such as the ceramics of daily use in Pre-historical Greece and the Pre-Columbian ritual purpose ceramics. Noticeably, there are divergences in material, in technique, in the era, and even more, on the basis of their respective uses. Hence, in order to
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examine an artefact, all aspects must be combined, and factors such as the aesthetic should not be isolated, nor should their archaeological or their technical values. By presenting one aspect, it confuses not only the scientific staff but visitors’ perception as well, since there is not a complete understanding (Gosden 2001, 163). Therefore, we must take into account under which circumstances, and where each artefact was created as well as which period it concerns (Taylor et al. 1994, 259).
3.2. Aesthetics and Digital Media
With the advent of new technologies and the rise of New Media, a new term for aesthetics was introduced namely ‘‘New aesthetic’’ (Moser 2013, 190). Another term that is widely used is Digital Aesthetics, to define the new perception of the senses in relation to the digital context. Old and new media are distinguished by new media’s digital and computational relation (Moser 2013, 187; Tribe et al. 2009, 6). For this reason, in this discussion, two principal issues will be developed. The first is the digital copies of the artworks or artefacts and the ‘‘absence of aura’’, while the second is the use of media in museum exhibitions regarding the aesthetical value.
One of the most significant issues now is that through the use of technology such as social media or digital photography, the majority of museum acquisitions are easily accessible. In order to discuss this issue, reference will be made to the publication of Walter Benjamin "The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction".
Walter Benjamin is a key figure when aesthetics, perception and use of technology intertwine with art. Numerous authors of having devoted time regarding analyse Benjamin’s work through a variety of perspectives (Conty 2013; Dini 2017; Haxthausen 2004;). However, even though this book was published in 1936, and apparently the technological progress which has been achieved today, is unequivocally vast, it has been considered heretofore a work of utmost importance, owing to the prevailing notion that analyses art and the ‘‘reproduction’’ of it through technological means. Furthermore, the book is a
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valued critique of the rise of Fascism and that particular political credo’s manipulation of the public through art (Eiland and Jennings 2002).
One specific idea Walter Benjamin refers to is that through the reproduction of artworks the public could gain access to art that hitherto was out of bounds and that through the process of reproduction the artworks lose their ‘‘aura’’ (Eiland and Jennings 2002). To support this argument, a contemporary example will be used that derives from the ancient Greek sculptures, widely known as Kore (Greek: Κόρη). Korai (plural) common in the Archaic period (700-480 BC) as offerings or grave markers, for the goddesses or wealthy young girls that lost their lives before marriage. In ancient Greek sculpture, and particularly in the statues of Korai, colour and especially polychromy played a crucial role (fig.4) since its principal use was to illustrate the clothes, jewellery and even the hairstyle of the statues (Plantzos 2011, 110-111). Thus, statues through the use of polychromy obtained a narrative and emblematic character, (Plantzos 2011, 110-111). In the present day, the majority of the museums worldwide with Greek exhibits, not only of Korai but sculpture in general, do not illustrate this significant colourful part of the sculptures. Nevertheless, as it is impossible to restore today's faded white marble statues with their original colours, for a multitude of reasons not least of an ethical nature, and so the use of technology has been a welcome solution, in order to show to the public the original appearance of Korai.
Figure 4. 3D model of the "Peplos Kore" with its original colour. Photo: (www.theacropolismuseum.gr). This can be effected either through digital reproduction, using social media for example or through supplementary media in situ, in juxtaposition
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with the original sculptures in the museums that they are exhibited. In this way, the lost archaeological context can be reconstructed and the statues can be made ‘meaningful’ to the viewing public. Furthermore, the aesthetical perspective can dramatically change as there is a notable difference between the perception that is created by a white marble statue and that with its ‘original’ colour. Through the attribute above of the colours of the statues which combine all the principal aspects of beauty, materiality and taste of aesthetics, the public can better understand the statues and the purpose they serve.
Notwithstanding all this, the essential core of the work of Walter Benjamin is concentrated on the absence of ‘‘aura’’ in reproductions of artworks. What he describes is that every artwork has an individual ‘‘aura’’, which is closely related to the authentic artwork (Eiland and Jennings 2002). Therefore, by copying them and making them familiar to the public, they lose their ‘‘aura’’, and thus their aesthetic perception. Similarly, Berger pointed out that artworks ‘‘lose their power’’ (Berger 1974, 32-33) or in other words their influence.
Nevertheless, in the Kore example can be noticed that the ‘‘aura’’ is ‘restored’ through the digital reproduction of the statues. Since the original colours have faded away with the passage of time, it is through the digital display of the original colours of statues, that the sense of ‘‘aura’’ can be transmitted to the public.
The belief that through technology masterpieces can become part of our daily lives, and thus alter our aesthetic perception, does not coincide with this research argument. On the contrary, even though prior to visiting a museum there are artefacts or artworks that might be familiar to the visitors (Berger 1974, 19-21), the perception and the experience change, as they depend on the museographic structure, museum environment, and the artworks or artefacts themselves. For instance, the Mona Lisa5 (fig.5), perhaps the most famous painting of Leonardo da Vinci, and one of the principal reasons for visiting the Louvre Museum (Sassoon 2001, 2) is an artwork that has permeated the fabric of people’s existence by many means; from wallpaper on a computer screen to
5 Mona Lisa is part of the permanent exhibition Department of Paintings: Italian painting, in
