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The Controversy of the trans basin water transfers of the
Ebro River Basin: The effects on the Delta and reactions by
actors
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Otto Buurma
10582517
14-08-2017
Bachelor Thesis Political Ecology
UvA
Supervisor: Andres Verzijl
Second reader: Richard Ronald
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1. Introduction ... 5
1.1 Problem Statement And Urgency ... 5
1.2 Positioning on the Research Gaps ... 6
1.3 Layout ... 7
2 Theoretical Framework ... 7
2.1 Delta Management ... 8
2.2 Hydrosocial Territories ... 9
2.3 Identity politics and social movement: ... 10
3 Research Aims and Research Questions ... 11
4 Data and Methods ... 12
4.1 Methods of data collection ... 12
4.2 Methods of data analysis ... 13
5 Results ... 14
5.1 Context of the Ebro delta and her threats ... 14
5.2 Various ways in which parties exert influence in the debate of the water transfers. ... 17
5.3 The dealing of the Plataforma with other stakeholders in order to defend the delta. ... 18
6 Conclusion & Discussion ... 21
List of sources: ... 23
Appendix 1 ... 26
Appendix 2 ... 27
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1. Introduction
1.1 Problem Statement And Urgency
'Around 50.000 people take to the streets of Amposta against the plan of the Ebro'. This was the heading in an article of the Spanish newspaper El Periódico on the seventh of February in 2016 (Berbís, S, 2016). The protest was a reaction to the plan of the government in which they planned to transfer water from the Ebro River to other parts in Spain, especially the southeast. Parts of Spain suffer from severe droughts. Climate change projections show an important decrease in water availability for all Spanish River basins, especially in southern Spain, with significant expected economic impacts. In Lorenzo-Lacruz's words: ‘'An effect of global change on environmental conditions in the western Mediterranean region is increasing uncertainty in water resource
availability'’ (2010, P.13). This triggers and enhances controversial water transfers in Spain. Southern parts in Spain have in general less rainfall and are drier than the northern parts of Spain. The focus of this thesis project will be on the possible trans basin water transfer of the Ebro River Basin, as part of the Ebro River Basin Management Plan. The emphasis lies on the effects of the water transfers in the Ebro delta and the reactions of local stakeholders.
The Ebro is the second largest river in Spain, after the Tagus, namely 930 kilometres. The Ebro source is situated in Fontibre. The river flows through the communities of Cantabria, Castile and León, La Rioja, Navarre, Aragón and Catalonia. Spain is divided in seventeen communities. A community can be seen as a limited autonomous area with their own government and legislation. There are different types of interests when it comes to the river, because it flows through several autonomous areas. Water from the river is used for different purposes, for instance: land is being irrigated, cities are facilitated with water and energy is generated with water from Ebro. The biggest city that is situated at the Ebro River banks is Zaragoza, in the community of Aragon. In 2001, the Spanish government started a plan, called the Spanish National Hydrologic Plan (NHP). It concerned the construction of approximately 120 dams, and the water transfer of 1,050 cubic hectometres per year to areas southwest and north of the Ebro River, namely Catalonia and the administrative regions of Valencia, Murcia and Almería (Rivernet, 2005). After the elections of 2004 a majority in the Spanish national parliament voted against the NHP, however in January 2016 the Spanish government agreed on the successor of the NHP, the Ebro River Basin Management Plan.
The image below shows the proposed water transfers made up in the NHP. These transfers are still under debate today.
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These water transfers have a lot of support with the public in Spain because it seems logical to transfer water from the north to the south in order to facilitate water in drier areas. A persistent point of view by the government is that water which flows into the Mediterranean without being used for other purposes such as irrigation is inefficient: a waste of water. On the opposite of this point of view, we see actors who state that the flow of water itself has an intrinsic value. The Ebro River transports sediments towards the delta. The sediment reinforces and lifts up the delta, and thereby protects the land from the sea. In addition, the fresh water contributes to the survival of wildlife and the surroundings and environment of the Ebro Delta. These two different points of view make the management of the water resources of the Ebro River a wicked problem. A wicked
problem is a problem that is extremely difficult or impossible to solve. Characteristics of wicked problems are that they are essentially unique and it is not possible to test your implemented solutions. Another aspect of a wicked problem is that if you try to solve it at one place, you will be creating another problem somewhere else (Rittel, 1973). In the case of the Ebro, if the government decides to solve the drought issue in the south, it will cause a problem in the Ebro River basin. If they decide to leave the water as it is, the problems in the south won’t be solved. One reason the
management of the Ebro River Basin problematic is that there are a lot of pros and cons of water transfers. Southern regions are suffering from droughts and benefit from water transfers, in contrast with for example environmental degradation in areas were the water is transferred from. Other difficulties arise due to the complexity of the institutional framework around water management (Global Water Forum, 2014). Another argument of opponents is the supposed underlying policy of the government, that in general supports big urban areas at the expense of rural areas, which results in an inequality in different areas (Plataforma en defensa de l'Ebre, 2016). The main problem is to facilitate areas with sufficient water where it is needed and keeps the water providing areas colloquial. Another important issue is managing the conflicting interests of different stakeholders.
1.2 Positioning on the Research Gaps
The main research gap concerning the possible water transfers of the Ebro is the fact that the flow of fresh water into the sea does not have to be a waste, but also can be a goal in itself. Water that is used for generating energy, irrigation or cities has fast results, and is easy to interpret. In the case of irrigation, food is made for consumption or for trade. Less evident are the benefits of the flow of water through rivers without using it. A possible benefit is the maintenance of ecosystems in the river delta. For people upstream, it is hard to imagine certain interventions could have big effects 800 kilometres downstream, in the river delta. Problems and interests differ between regions upstream and regions downstream, and both hold different ideas of the Ebro basin, which creates different imagines of the river.
In relation to what is said above, it is important to map different actors who have different points of view about possible interventions in the Ebro River, which in their turn have effects on the Ebro delta. An important actor in this bachelor thesis project is the Plataforma en Defensa de l'Ebre, of which not much is spoken in literature about the subject. Attention will be paid to the Plataforma in relation to other stakeholders of the Ebro River basin. The Plataforma en Defensa de l’Ebre is an organisation, situated in Tortosa that works for the protection of the river delta. The movement strives to conserve the Ebro and especially the river delta. According to this movement, the biggest threat to the Ebro delta is the lack of sediment the river carries towards the estuary. The sediment strengthens and heightens the delta, which withholds the salty water of the Mediterranean. Causes of the low frequency of sediment supply are a low flow rate and the amassment of sediment in different locations in the river. One of the main reasons for the amassment of sediment is the presence of dams in the river, which are used for water transfers and generating energy. The national government regularly comes up with new plans of transferring water to more arid areas in
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Spain, providing water for irrigation and cities. An example was the National Hydrologic Plan in 2001 (Rivernet, 2005). The Plataforma en Defensa de l'Ebre firmly opposes these plans.
1.3 Layout
In this thesis project, I will discuss the way the Plataforma en Defensa de l’Ebre mobilizes against possible water transfers from the Ebro River towards other parts in Spain in order to protect the Ebro delta. The theoretical framework will be discussed in the following chapter. Part of the theoretical framework will be the explanation of three key concepts: Delta Management,
Hydrosocial Territories and Identity Politics and Social Movements. These concepts form the basis of my analysis. Followed by the concepts will be the research questions. There will be one leading question followed by two sub questions, which are meant to contribute to the answering of the leading question. The next part of the thesis will be the methodological chapter. In this chapter I will elaborate on the methods that were used in this thesis project. The result chapter is divided into three parts. Each part deals with a different sub-question. After the result chapter, the conclusion is presented, followed by the discussion.
2 Theoretical Framework
The research of the controversy of the water transfers, and the effects on the Ebro delta, is seen from a political ecology perspective. There are some common characteristics concerning political ecological approaches that will be discussed below. When looking at the research through this lens the focus lies on power relations. There is interplay between environmental and social changes, so the environment is also seen as a social phenomenon. Economic, social, cultural and political conditions and their institutions influence the environment, making social power relations an important factor in this perspective. These power relations determine who has access to certain aspects of the environment and who is excluded. Through this lens, environmental issues are seen as political ones (Swyngedouw, 2002).
I shall apply the political ecology approach to this subject, because the water transfer controversy is in principal an environmental issue. By using a political ecological lens an attempt is made to look at the underlying political, social, economic and cultural tensions. When discussing environmental controversies, we see different stakeholders with conflicting interests and different perspectives on the environment itself. These different ideas need room for discussion and show different power relations, influencing the debate, and thereby the outcomes of certain issues (Scoville-Simonds, 2009).
Discourses are important because they show different approaches to a subject and thereby a nuanced view on an issue. In political ecology, a discourse frames a certain issue or controversy of a particular subject. The discourses of different actors can be compared with each other, with the focus on similarities of different discourses. This way it is possible to see which points of views or discourses are excluded from the debate. By looking at the leading discourses in a research, you exclude other groups, with the consequence that the research is missing depth (Scoville-Simonds, 2009). Therefore, it is important to look at a broad range of discourses and arguments that are used by different stakeholders.
In the following part of the theoretical framework, three concepts will be elaborated. These concepts are Delta Management, Hydrosocial Territories and Identity Politics & Social Movement. The reason I have chosen these concepts is that they are related to each other. Every stakeholder constructs their own Hydrosocial Territories in order to get what they want. These images influence
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the decision making process among which the Delta Management. Delta’s can be seen as vulnerable areas they are exposed to different forces, such as the sea or interventions made upstream (IADC, 2009). For some stakeholders the conservation and defence of such areas is a very important goal. This is the case in the Ebro River Delta. The Plataforma en Defensa de l’Ebre, a Social movement that is active in the lower course of the Ebro River is trying to influence the decision making process concerning the Ebro River and especially the Delta, by using among others their own Hydrosocial Territories. Identity Politics is another driver that could influence the decision making, by having an effect on the way the Social Movement portrays them. Concluding, I assume Hydrosocial Territories and Identity Politics & Social Movement influence the Delta Management. Identity politics have an effect on the Social Movement.
2.1 Delta Management
Deltas are vulnerable areas. This is caused by the fact that deltas are exposed to various forces who act upon the delta. Examples are waves that take sediments away from the sea, but also
interventions made upstream, such as the construction of dams. Reducing flow rates due to the construction of dams or water transfers have negative effects on the supply of sediments. In general river deltas are flat and situated around sea level, which makes them vulnerable to floodings. Deltas can be divided into three groups, river-dominated deltas, wave-dominated deltas, and
tide-dominated deltas (IADC, 2009). River-tide-dominated deltas do not suffer that much from the sea, because the wave and tie movements of the sea are not as strong as the flow of the river. Wave-dominated deltas are dealing with a strong sea, and some disappear due to the strong waves. Tide-dominated rivers are characterized by changing borders of the delta. The Ebro River delta is a wave-dominated delta. That the sea has a strong effect on the Ebro River and her delta shows itself in the fact that the salt and sweet water mix with each other as far as 30 kilometres up stream. (Galiana Llasat, 2012). Although deltas are vulnerable areas they are at the same time important places for local people. Deltas are important for people because of the fertile soil deltas reproduce. This has positive economic effects, because of the advantages for the agricultural sector. Deltas also make an excellent place to fish. Because of the vulnerability and importance of deltas, it is important to plan and manage river deltas so that they do not disappear (IADC, 2009). There is not one way of defining deltas. An example where this comes foreword is the PhD thesis of Arjen Zegwaard, Mud: deltas dealing with uncertainties.
Zegwaard points out in his doctoral thesis that discourses and linked practices construct certain views of objects, which is the same with how deltas are portrayed. In the Dutch delta management strategies, it is possible to see a switch in the way plans are being made. The delta governance has shifted from reacting to events and disasters such as flooding, to looking at the future (Zegwaard, 2016). Managing deltas can be seen as a combination of these two approaches. An example is the flooding in New Orleans. This event caused a switch in thinking in the minds of Dutch politicians, resulting in giving more attention to future sea level rise. This also shows the role of different scales in delta management. Events at a global scale have effects on local decision making. The role of scale also provides a dilemma. People become more aware about the effects climate change has, and that everything is intertwined at a global scale. This fact makes it extremely difficult to act on climate change on a local scale (Zegwaard, 2016).
The inter-basin water transfers are the source of conflict between different stakeholders in Spain and also pose a big threat to the Ebro delta. The water transfers are controversial because of the
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positive and negative effects bound to it. This also applies to the existence of dams in the Ebro River basin. Positive effects of the water transfers are the support of water supply for households,
agriculture, producing energy and stimulating the industrial sector (Omedas, 2011). Many of these positive effects have an economic aspect. Critique on the water transfers are mostly related to environmental related issues, such as the disruption of the eco system in the river delta. Another aspect that makes the water transfers controversial is the political point of view, which will be further elaborated in the next concept.
The environmental problems are mainly expressed by environmental problems in the river Delta. The Ebro flows into a national park. The Ebro delta also is a big food producer, especially fruits, vegetables and rice. The biggest threat to the national park is a low flow rate at the end of the river. Due to the low flow rate, the river reduces dropping down sediments in the river delta, by almost 90% (McGrath, 2016). One of the main causes for low flow rates is the presence of dams in the Ebro River and her tributaries, like the Segre River. In the Segre River 75% to 97% of the suspended sediment was being held, in a time span of three days (Ruiz-Bellet, 2011). Sediments in the delta provide protection against the salt water of the Mediterranean Sea.
2.2 Hydrosocial Territories
Water flows can be seen in different ways. Out of the Hydrosocial Territories perspective, people give physical, social, political and symbolic aspects to water flows. This makes certain areas, in this case river basins, imagined places. Political hierarchy structures, financial resources, cultural institutions and legislation play a big role in this perspective (Hommes et al, 2016). The use of Hydrosocial Territories is closely intertwined with political ecology. With a political ecological lens, people state that struggles over natural resources have underlying causes, such as identity or authority (Boelens, 2016). Different actors use different socio-natural imaginary projections on cases, in order to get what they want. This happens too in the case of the Ebro River basin.
Hydrosocial Territories are linked with processes of inclusion and exclusion. When certain places are in need of water, and when this is seen as problematic, there will be interventions at places that are seen as wet and fertile (Boelens et al, 2016). This could be in the form of placing dams and canals. From a political ecological perspective, people state that there is an interrelationship between the use of water and power relations. These power relations can be influenced by the use of Hydrosocial Territories. For example, the Ebro delta is seen as a national park. This provides the area with attention from environmental organisations but also organisations such as the European Union. Groups such as the Plataforma en Defensa de l’Ebro use this attention by making allies, and thereby getting help. This could be financial aid but it also can come in the form of legislation. Continuing on the assumption that there is an interrelationship between the use of water and power relations, the flow of water on, above and below the earth, the hydrological cycle, is seen as a combination of a social and a physical phenomenon, making a new definition, the hydrosocial cycle (Budds, 2014). Interventions made in the hydrological cycle are thereby political actions which make them
contested and contestable (Swyngedouw, 2009). This also is the case in the Ebro delta. The fact that the water flows through the Ebro River is a natural phenomenon. On the other hand, the
interventions that are being made in the river are politically loaded. The hydrosocial cycle thus is a social-natural process, in which different power relations are embedded (Budds, 2014).
At present territories are increasingly seen as multi-scalar concepts, which consist of legal,
administrative, cultural and social relations, as well as physical and environmental structures. Within these territories different actors have conflicting ideas about the way the territory should be
managed (Boelens, 2017). Water governance is an important issue when it comes to managing territories and could lead to conflict, as we see in the Ebro River basin. Another example where
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water distribution is a source for conflict is Lima. Urban growth has led to an increasing demand for water. Hydrosocial Territories play an important role in the water distribution because it is used as a tool to manage water resources. According to the article of Boelens and Hommes, Hydrosocial Territories are seen as: “The contested imaginary and socio-environmental materialization of a spatiallybound multi-scalar network in which humans, water flows, ecological relations, hydraulic infrastructure, financial means, legal-administrative arrangements and cultural institutions and practices are interactively defined, aligned and mobilized through epistemological belief systems, political hierarchies and naturalizing discourses”(Boelens, 2017, P.74). These imaginaries decide what kind of management is seen as desirable and are therefore important drivers for
implementation of policy and decisions.
2.3 Identity politics and social movement:
Identity politics is about supporting a political movement based on common features such as a shared history or culture (Olivieri, 2015). This also occurs in parts of Spain, with Catalonia as a good example. In Catalonia, there is a strong tendency of people who have a stronger emotional
connection to the local or regional authorities than to national ones, resulting in pursuing
independence from Spain. From this it can be deduced that the main political struggles come out of the tension between regionalism and nationalism. Drivers for these feelings in society are amongst others, economic factors, differences in language and culture and geographical positioning (Olivieri, 2015).
This friction between scales, driven by different factors, contributes to tensions concerning the trans basin water transfers. Water from Catalonia and Aragon is being transferred to other parts in Spain. A new movement came up with the idea of a New Water Culture. This new way of thinking
emphasized on a change of general policy. This new policy focussed on the change from bringing solutions in the form of large projects that would have permanent environmental and social impacts to solutions with the focus on demand side solutions and public participation (Hernández-Mora, 2012). The need to come up with this different approach is caused by different factors. The growing environmental awareness combined with environmental degradation caused by big infrastructural projects is one contributor. Another aspect that influenced the change of the general policy is the increasing influence of the autonomous communities. This decentralized structure has the effect that more actors started to have conflicts with each other. The coalition of parties, who tried to change the water policy system in Spain, used different tools in order to achieve this goal, such as educating the public and involving the European Union in the debate (Hernández-Mora, 2012).
Another way to exert power by a stakeholder as it comes to water management and especially the debate about possible water transfers is through social movement and mobilization. A good example is the demonstrations against water transfers from the Ebro, organized by the Plataforma en
Defensa de L'Ebre. This organisation, who by itself does not possesses any formal power, was able to bring thousands of people into the street and thereby blocking plans to transfer water. This shows that by social movement, the potential of small actors to achieve their goals can grow (Sridhar, 2010).
Social movement thus moves from bottom up informal actions, towards proactive policy formation. It influences the way democracy is applied. Democracy has different dimensions, formal and
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informal. Through social movement more people are being included in the decision making process in an informal manner. Democracy can be seen as a dynamic process. This process is triggered by governments or social actors. The involvement of social actors in the process increases the inclusiveness of the public debate and decision-making. Thereby it increases the possibility for people to participate into political practice. This results in the fact that governments and elites are more answerable to the rest of the society (Romano, 2012). Social movement thus is a way for groups in society to participate in decision-making. In the case of the controversy of the possible water transfers from the Ebro River basin, social movement gives opponents a tool with which they can oppose the proponents of the transfers such as the national government.
3 Research Aims and Research Questions
In order to shed light on the possible water transfers from the Ebro River and the effects on the Ebro delta, the objective of this research is providing an overview of the drivers of the water transfers, and the stakeholders concerning this subject. Furthermore, this research will explore the different images that are projected on the Ebro River basin, including the delta, and the discourses behind them. The main question will be:
How does the Plataforma en Defensa de l'Ebre forge allies and mobilize (socially and politically) against inter basin water transfers of the Ebro River and for protection of the delta?
In order to answer the research question the following sub questions are established:
1) Who are stakeholders in favour of inter basin transfers how would these transfers effect the Ebro delta?
This question maps out the different stakeholders and their attitudes towards the possible water transfers of the Ebro River, because these actors have the most influence and interest in making interventions in the Ebro River basin. Furthermore it is important to know what kind of pros and cons there exists about the water transfers and how this would affect the Ebro delta. I focus on the Ebro delta because of the vulnerability of the area. With the different interests in the water of the Ebro River, it is important to manage the river delta in order that it continues to exist. Different stakeholders construct their own images of rivers, deltas and water reserves (Hydrosocial Territories) in order to pursuit their own interests. This brings us to the second sub question. 2) What kind of images are projected on the Ebro River (delta) by the involved stakeholders in favour and against the water transfers?
Hydrosocial Territories play an important role in the decision making in the Ebro River basin, because it shapes the images of areas. When for example the river delta is being seen as useless, water transfers would be more favourable. All the different stakeholders use different tools and discourses in order to get what they want. This brings us by the third sub question.
3) What are the social and political actions taken by the Plataforma en Defensa de l'Ebre to protect the delta?
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The third sub question is related to the third concept, social mobilization and identity politics. The Plataforma is an important player when it comes to the river delta. In this chapter I will look at the tools that are being used by this organisation in relation to other stakeholders of the possible water transfers. Attention is also paid to the relationship among the Plataforma and the other
stakeholders. An assumption, made from news articles, is that identification with local and regional governments plays a big role in the debate about the water transfers. That is why identity politics are being discussed under this particular sub question.
4 Data and Methods
As a research design I have chosen for a case study. In this thesis project the chosen case study is the Ebro River delta. The unit of analysis in this thesis will be the drivers of the possible water transfers from the Ebro River. The population will be all the stories of people on the subject. My sample will be the stakeholders who will be interviewed. In order to answer the research question documents and articles were examined. I have looked into scientific papers but also at news documents and papers of specific stakeholders, such as the Plataforma en Defensa de l’Ebre. I also paid attention to other written literature on the subject, and anything that represents the standpoints of
stakeholders. Besides reading documents, I have conducted multiple interviews in my thesis to strengthen my point. The interviews took place in Spain. Photographs were taken and observations were made during the time I was in Spain. I'm doing a qualitative research, which means that in-depth research is conducted. To do so, conducting in-depth interviews is an efficient method, because you can get a thorough understanding of the subject.
4.1 Methods of data collection
As mentioned in the section above, numerous documents were analysed and interviews were conducted. In order to conduct the interviews, mainly snowball sampling was applied. Snowball sampling is the process of recruiting further respondents through the people that were already interviewed (Bryman, 2012). Two formal interviews have been conducted and recorded, and about five informal conversations were made concerning the subject. The first interview was established by applying theoretical sampling. The name, Plataforma en Defensa de l'Ebre came up in the debate about the possible water transfers and in the conflict of defending the Ebro delta. Contact by phone and e-mail did not succeed, which is why I tried to contact the organisation by Facebook. After two weeks I got a reaction from the Plataforma. They told me they were situated in Tortosa and were happy to meet me. In the beginning of May, I went to Spain, where I had an interview in Tortosa, with a spokesperson of the organisation. In reality, the interview was conducted with four people. The group consisted of two people that were part of the organisation since day one, the
spokesperson, and another member who joined the conversation in order to help with the translation if needed. The organisation granted me permission to record the interview, because it would be easier to remember in a later stadium of my thesis. At the end of the interview, the three people who spoke Spanish were easier to understand than the native Spanish speaker who was translating bits of the conversation into English. The interview lasted for more than one hour. They got me in touch with a group of students and scientists who were conducting an experiment
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upstream the Ebro River near the town of Benifallet, about sediment flows. Another member of the Plataforma drove me to the location. I witnessed the experiment and spoke with the leading scientist, Carles Ibáñez Mari who works for the research institute of the government of Catalonia, the IRTA and a student. Carles Ibañez is the head of the Aquatic Ecosystems Program of the IRTA and has conducted 25 years of research in the field of aquatic ecology and sustainable management of water resources. They arranged another interview with a professor at the University of Tortosa, Pau Galiana Llasat. This is an example of snowball sampling, because I got to know these people due to the interview conducted earlier.
The documents that were analysed were partly found through a search function on the UvA website. I searched for keywords which led to different results. I had a specific way of reading. At first I started with reading through the abstract and conclusions in order to find out whether the articles were useful to use in my thesis. If they were useful, I saved the hyperlinks in a word document so that I was able to read them later on. Other documents were found through looking at the
references of scientific articles. Some other documents were send to me by e-mail by people I have spoken with on my trip to Spain. An example is the fact that Galiana Llasat send me his own thesis to use in my thesis project.
4.2 Methods of data analysis
In my thesis project I am using parts of three different analytic methods in order to answer the research questions, namely a policy analysis, stakeholder analysis and a discourse analysis. A policy analysis looks at decision making, and the social and political aspects of it (Bardach, 2012). It looks at the effects of policies on among others economic, social and environmental factors. Through this kind of analysis it is possible to find out if certain policies have the desired effect. In this thesis project the policy of transferring water by the Spanish government is analyzed (Bardach, 2012). The second analysis that is partly used in the thesis project is a stakeholder analysis. The purpose of a stakeholder analysis is to create an overview of the involved actors of a certain case or project. The focus lies on actors who have an influence in the process and thus a voice in the decision-making, or on actors who are being affected by the process (Rijksdienst voor Ondernemend Nederland, 2017). Therefore you look at the amount of power and interest. Power stands for the dominant position of the actor, interest for the importance of the outcome for the concerning actor (Lean Six Sigma, 2013). In this thesis the different stakeholders concerning the possible water transfers in the Ebro River basin will be analyzed.
Besides these two ways of analyzing data, I will also look at different discourses that are being used by stakeholders in order to achieve their goals. I won’t be doing an in depth discourse analysis, but I will point out the existence and influence of these discourses. A discourse determines the way a stakeholder looks at causes and impacts, and thereby also possible solutions. Therefore, discourses influence the way plans are made and implemented. Political discourse offers possibilities to cope with social issues and leads to decision making, it looks at issues through a political lens (Van Dijk, 1997). Actors use different discourses to strengthen their positions. If we look at the water transfer controversy we see that actors mostly draw on the development discourse on the one hand, and the environmental discourse on the other. Supporters of the water transfers can use development discourses to strengthen their point. This discourse is mainly focussed on development aspects, such as economic growth. Opponents who draw upon the environmental discourse tend to focus more on environmental issues and could use environmental degradation as an argument against water transfers.
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5 Results
5.1 Context of the Ebro delta and her threats
In this chapter I will elaborate on the existing and planned water transfers in the Ebro River basin. The effects on the Ebro delta will be discussed and a brief overview of the delta will be given. Additionally I will further elaborate about the different stakeholders who are in favor of the inter basin water transfers.
The Ebro delta is the largest wet zone of Catalonia with a surface of 320 km2. It constitutes the second most important aquatic habitat in Europa after the national park la Camarga situated in France, and the most important in Spain (Galiana Llasat, 2012). The Ebro delta is a small delta when it comes to the size of the area, compared to big deltas in the world like the Nile (12.512 km2) and the Mississippi Delta (around 28.568 km2). When you look at differences between the deltas in the Netherlands, we see a big difference too. For instance, the Rhine-Meuse delta is around 7500km2. The biggest part of the Ebro delta is covered with rice fields, about 65%, and is the main economic driver in the delta. About 25% is reserved for wildlife and natural habitats. This part has a big environmental value (Ibañez, n.d). However, the Ebro delta is suffering from soil loss and coastal retreat which could endanger the existence and thereby the current functions of the Ebro delta. The biggest cause of these problems is the lack of sediments that are thrown in the delta by the river. The sediment deficit is caused by lower flow rates in the Ebro River and the stockpiling of sediments in reservoirs due to the existence of dams (Rovira, 2014). One of the functions of the dams in the Ebro River basin is the generation of energy. One of the most important kinds of power generating is the hydro power production. About 21% of Spain’s hydro power is produced in the Ebro basin, which gives the north east of Spain economic power (Broekman, 2015). There are two big reservoirs situated in the lower Ebro basin, the Mequinensa and Riba-Roja reservoir. The effect of the reservoirs is that the morphology of the river and the sediment flow is changing dramatically. Estimations point out that due to, on the one hand human interventions such as building dams and transferring water, and on the other hand natural factors such as sea level rise and subsidence of the delta will result in the disappearance of 45% of the delta (Rovira, 2014). This has resulted in a
management plan (SedMa) implemented by the autonomous community of Catalonia. The main goal of the management plan is to make the delta defensible against endogenous and exogenous powers, especially the sea. To realize this, sediments need to be transferred to the river delta. There is not a shortage of sediment in the Ebro River but the problem is that sediments are piled up at different locations in the river, because it is being held by dams or due to the low flow rate of the Ebro River, which causes it to sink to the bottom. To solve this the sediment has to be transported to the delta. One way is to flush the whole reservoir and use the water pressure to let the sediments flow downstream (Rovira, 2014). An important aspect of the management plan is the fact that intensive scientific research is needed in the Ebro River and delta to see how sediments react and besides that it is important to calculate the economic costs. This will be further elaborated in section 5.3 of this chapter.
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The image below shows existing reservoirs in the Ebro river basin and their storage capacity. The reservoirs are displayed as blue dots. The bigger the dot, the bigger the storage capacity.
Source: Biesla, 2015
Out of the management plan it can be understood that damming and water transfers from the Ebro have a negative effect on the river her delta. However, the management plan is not a binding document, which means that it should be approved by the institution with the legal power, in this case the Hydrographic Confederation of the Ebro. The Hydrographic Confederation of the Ebro is an organisation founded by the Spanish government. Different stakeholders are represented in the confederation and decisions are made by voting. Around 35% is represented by united farmers who own land (Grupos de regantes) and almost 60 % by government agencies (Plataforma en defensa de l’Ebre, 2017). This organisation makes the plans for the Ebro basin. The interests that are pursued in the confederation are mainly economic in nature, according to the Plataforma en Defensa de l'Ebre, which makes it questionable the management plan will be taken into consideration. The
confederation consists of different actors of the Ebro river basin. Implementation of legislation has direct effects on the members of the confederation, which is why the confederation has a big interest in the inter basin water transfers. The actors who are represented in the confederation are directly involved in the decision making about the future of the river basin, and for that reason we could state that this governing body has a big influence in possible water transfers (Plataforma en defensa de l’Ebre, 2017).
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This water management system has arisen due to the scientific discourse. The Regenerationism movement, which arose from the scientific discourse, had a big influence shaping the water
management in Spain. Regenerationism entails a political and intellectual movement which came up in the beginning of the 20th century. It came up with the intention to solve problems that Spain was coping with in that period. Spain was losing its geopolitical power around the world. By means of focusing on the laws of nature, the movement was trying to restore Spain's power and wealth. Imbalances in natural resources, especially the availability of water, was seen as one of the main threats and causes of Spain's decline (Swyngedouw, 2003). An attempt was made to modernize the country, and by doing so to reconstruct power relations. Spain was divided into socioenvironmental organizations, named Hydrographic Confederations. These Hydrographic Confederations were established with the aim of managing water in their domains. In doing so, the historic social administrative boundaries were not taken into account. Instead the boundaries were drawn based on orography (Swyngedouw, 2003).
Currently there are several water transfers from the Ebro River. I spoke with local people who told me that not all the water transfers were bad. Water intended for local irrigation purposes, in general were seen as good interventions. However, there are also water transfers that provide water to other regions. An example is the Ebro-Tarragona water transfer, which was authorized in 1981 and came into use in 1989 (Hernández-Mora, 2014). Tarragona is situated in the same autonomous community, Catalonia, but in a different river basin district. The transfer caused economic prosperity for the community by taking water from another community. Besides the current water transfers, there are also planned or wanted transfers. Two examples are a transfer to Valencia and a transfer to Barcelona. The community of Valencia is situated under the community of Catalonia, where the Ebro merges out. The community of Valencia is an overall dry community, with a high demand of water. Because of this, Valencia is an advocate of possible water transfer from the Ebro to the community of Valencia. The Valencian community has a big interest in when it comes to water transfers from the Ebro. Over the years there been discussions about transferring water to Valencia and surroundings, what would mean economic prosperity, and thereby a direct effect on the region. The Valencian Community has no direct influence on the plans concerning possible water transfers. The city of Barcelona has similar interests as the Valencian Community. The urban area also needs water for economic goals and to maintain the water need of the population of the city. Although it seems that these two parties are on the same page, the city of Barcelona is against water transfers that go to other parts of Catalonia or outside the community (Plataforma en Defensa de l’Ebre, 2017).
Two other stakeholders who are pro inter basin water transfers, besides the state affiliated organisations, are the united groups of farmers and the construction companies. Comparable with the Hydrologic Confederation of the Ebro, it is difficult to state that all united groups of farmers (grupos de regantes in) are in favour of the inter basin water transfers. Instead it is a general statement. In order to get a stronger position in the decision making and to improve their own situation, a lot of farmers in the basin of the Ebro have been united into several groups. As
mentioned earlier, the groups of farmers are represented in the Hydrographic Confederation of the Ebro. Farmers have the possibility to sell their water rights, which makes them important actors in the Ebro basin. The reason that groups of farmers would be in favour of possible water transfers is that money made by selling water is more profitable than farming (Plataforma en defensa de l’Ebre, 2017).
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Construction companies are seen to as important stakeholders too because water transfers have different kinds of benefits. The most obvious are providing water to dry areas for the use of irrigation and human consumption. In order to transfer big amounts of water, different kinds of infrastructure are needed, such as of canals, dams and tunnels. These infrastructural projects are expensive projects of which construction companies profit the most (Galiana Llasat, 2017). The construction companies have a big interest in possible water transfers from the Ebro River towards other parts in Spain. Big infrastructural projects are needed, in order to carry out water transfers. There has been research done about possible water transfers to southern regions. Because of the costs of the transfers and the demand of the water, the price would be much too high for farmers to buy the water. According to Pau Galiana Llasat, an economist, and professor on the University of Tortosa, desalination would be cheaper than water transfers. The only economic prosperity would go to the construction companies (Galiana Llasat, 2017)
5.2 Various ways in which parties exert influence in the debate of the water transfers.
Considering that interventions in the hydrological cycle are political actions and thereby contested and contestable (Swyngedouw, 2009), makes that there are different stakeholders involved with different opinions and interests. These stakeholders use different tools in order to get what they want. One example is the use of Hydrosocial Territories and discourses. These tools are used to give an image to certain areas or debates which will lead to a stronger position of the stakeholder. Hydrosocial Territories are projections from certain actors about hydrologic area (Boelens, 2016). Areas in Spain can be divided in different kinds of parts when it comes to hydrological areas. The general view of the Spanish National government is that there are two kinds of Spain. The first one is the north. The north of Spain is seen as rich in raw materials and more importantly, rich in water. On the other hand, we have the south, especially Andalucia and Murcia. The south of Spain is seen as poor and dry. From these imaginary constructs, the idea has risen that water in parts where it is in abundance, in this case the north, should be transferred to areas where it is needed, in this case the south. The government would strive for a hydrological balance in the country (EquilibrioHydrologico) (Plataforma en defensa de L'Ebre, 2017). This is a good example of how social constructions of areas can have an effect in the real world. Water transfers to southern parts can now be legitimized by the argument that the south is ‘poor and dry’, while this is based on a construct. Dividing Spain into ‘the north’ and ‘the south’ is too global.
At a lower level, people project images on the river itself. Actors who are against the water transfers tend to see the river as something vulnerable and the delta as weak. A good example is the
Plataforma. The delta is a national park which gives it more protection and attention by the
European Union and environmental organisations, than when it would be seen as an estuary. Actors who are in favour of the water transfers tend to see the river as more resilient, because that makes it allowable to transfer water.
Inclusion and exclusion can emerge from ways of labelling areas mentioned above. Another example is the difference that is being made between rural and urban areas. Cities are seen as important, because of the economic accumulation that takes place in such areas, and are therefore stimulated to grow (Plataforma en Defensa de l’Ebre, 2017). What is important here is the difference in
discourse. It is possible to see the tension from an economic or environmental perspective. From an economic perspective people will give attention to economic effects of possible gain or loss. The Cities of Barcelona and Valencia are not situated next to big rivers or lakes, with the consequence that water transfers from areas like the Ebro River basin are seen as favourable. In this case people
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tend to see water from an economic perspective. One liter of water somewhere can be given a certain price. For example, water that flows downstream in the river is being used for fishing and conservation of the Ebro delta. This can be given a certain price. With the water that flows down the river it is possible to fish and attract tourism, which accumulates money. In this case you look at virtual water. This means you don’t look at the physical side of water, but what the water is used for. Virtual water is the water required to produce food, goods and services that we consume daily (Greco, 2015). Cities need water in order to continue existing. Big cities are important economic drivers, which is why water transfers towards cities like Barcelona are desirable. In these big urban areas products can be transformed into products that are worth more than they would be in their primary state. This is possible due to the industry and infrastructure most big cities possess. Rural areas in Catalonia fall behind in these sectors. The lack of proper infrastructure in these rural areas causes high transport costs, which is why less economic activity is situated in these areas. An example of the lack of proper infrastructure in the rural parts of Catalonia is the train connection between Barcelona, Tarragona and Tortosa. The connection between Tarragona and Barcelona is a two-way traffic rail. The part of rail that continues from Tarragona towards Tortosa changes into a one-way traffic rail, which makes travelling less easy and more expensive due to extended travel time (Galiana Llasat, 2017). Because a lot of money goes around in cities, they are seen as important which has a positive effect on the amount of facilities that are situated in these areas. This also stimulates the quality of infrastructure. All these factors contribute to the increasing possibility of profiting from water. The transferring itself also increases the value of the water. The transportation of water is a market on its own. It can be concluded from an economic perspective that it would be smart to focus on urban areas by transferring water to these places. With less water in rural areas, job opportunities fall, for instance due to reduction of tourism meant for wildlife in the Ebro delta and less possibility for irrigation. Water transfers can have an excluding effect in this way
(Plataforma en defensa de l’Ebre, 2017). From an environmental perspective, it would seem foolish building cities at places which are poor in natural resources. From this perspective, the water itself is seen in a different way. Instead of seeing water as an instrument of accumulating money, some people, for example environmental organisations, state that the flowing of water through the river into the sea has an intrinsic value. Other uses of water are the conservation of ecosystems and the supply of sediments into the river delta.
5.3 The dealing of the Plataforma with other stakeholders in order to defend the delta.
In the sections above I have spoken about the different stakeholders who exert influence on the debate about water transfers and the threats to the river and her delta. In the following chapter I will pay attention to the way the Plataforma en Defensa de l’Ebre deals with other stakeholders of the possible water transfers. There will be more attention for concrete actions instead of the use of the projection of images or discourses.At different levels of scale there is disagreement about the possible water transfers. At a national scale, there is a tension between the national government and the Plataforma. The current government is in favor of water transfers from the Ebro River basin. We see the same tension at a regional and local scale. At a regional level the communities of Valencia and Catalonia are in favor of water transfers. However the government of Catalonia is not in favor of transfers going south towards Valencia. At a local scale, there is disagreement between irrigators.
In several news articles it is stated that the dispute over possible water transfers would have a cultural dimension. The tensions between the community of Catalonia and the Spanish government would be influencing the conflict, in the way that the Catalans are not willing to give their water away to other parts in Spain.
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I asked the Plataforma en Defensa de l'Ebre, in what way the Catalan nationalistic movement was playing a role in the conflict about the water transfers in the Ebro. Their response was that the pursuit of independence of the Catalan people was a completely different issue that had nothing to do with the conflict about the water of the Ebro. If the national government would support the Plataforma in their fight against water transfers, there would not be a tension between the national government and the Plataforma. The reason that the pursuit for independence is not an issue for the Plataforma is that the river basin goes beyond administrative borders. When Catalonia becomes independent, the problem would still exist. A big part of Catalonia is not in the catchment area of the Ebro, which is why there still will be parties who want to transfer water (Appendix 3).
In their opinion, a water transfer to Valencia is just as bad, as a water transfer to Barcelona. It does not make a difference which political party is in power, according to the Plataforma because all government agencies are focussed on economic gain (Plataforma en Defensa de l’Ebre, 2017). Throughout the last decades there have been several attempts to realize water transfers. The Plataforma en Defensa de l’Ebre has only exists as a formal organisation since September 2000, but its predecessors have been fighting against water transfers since the 1970’s. The process of the origin of the Plataforma en Defensa de l’Ebre and the fights against water transfers is clearly displayed in the image in Appendix 1. The Spanish government came up with a water transfer plan called the ‘Acueducto Prinineo Oriental’, which eventually failed because of the death of Francesco Franco. People who were fighting against the transfers that period of time were mainly anti-Franco people. This started to change in the 80’s, when different kinds of people started to unite and work together in order to stop water transfers. It was in the same period that social movement was used as a tool to counter transfer plans. The social movement expressed itself in the form of small protests. Despite the effort, these united groups were not able to stop the water transfer towards Tarragona. The decades that followed were more effective for the mobilized organisations. In 1989 and 1993, two big transfers were blocked due to organized protests with thousands of participators. Besides the use of social movement, the opposition to the water transfers started to be backed up by technical studies about the consequences of the transfers. In 2001 the Plataforma organised big protests against the Spanish National Hydrologic Plan (NHP) in association with the Fundacion Nueva Cultura del Agua (FNCA) with success. The FNCA is a non-profit organization, who strives for a more sustainable water management. The largest protest took place in 2008, in Amposta. More than 30,000 people joined the protest against a transfer from the Ebro River towards Barcelona (Plataforma en Defensa de l’Ebro, n.d).
As mentioned above, protest organisations against the water transfers were supported by scientific research. This is still the case today, which makes universities and scientists important
allies of parties contra water transfers in the Ebro river basin. The scientific community supports the Plataforma by giving them arguments to use in debates and creating awareness. An example of providing information which can be used in debates is the fact that 75% to 97% of the sediments in the Segre river are being held up by dams and a low flow rate (Ruiz-Bellet, 2011), which is one of the main causes of the disappearance of the Ebro delta. Another example which shows the support of academics in the debate against water transfers is the experiment that took place in my presence during my field trip to Spain. As mentioned in the data and methods chapter, the experiment was conducted near the town of Benifallet by students of different universities and the IRTA. The IRTA is a research institute connected to the Department of Agriculture. The experiment was carried out from a raft that was situated in the Ebro River. Sediment was put in a container and then sprayed out into the river.
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Source: Author
Different boats were positioned at different locations in the river to measure the amount of
sediment in the water, by taking samples.
The pictures above show the way the experiment was carried out. The first picture shows the raft and the supervisors of the experiment. The container in which the sediments were stacked is displayed in the second picture. The third picture shows the sediments being sprayed out into the Ebro River. In the last picture, we see boats in the distance. These boats were taking samples of the amount of sediment in the water.
The goal of the experiment was to see at what speed the sediments would travel under certain conditions. This would help to find out how much water is needed to transport enough sediments to the river delta in order for it to keep existing. The Spanish government was not willing to contribute to the experiment, but the European Union was. The European Union financing such experiments is one way of helping the Plataforma en Defensa de l’Ebre. Another way of giving support to the Plataforma is through legislation. 'Nature is our life support system, so we need to look after it', is a statement on the website of the European Union. The European Union advertises that they give a high priority to environmental issues. The Plataforma sees the European Union as an ally, but has some remarks about the role of the Union. Because the European Union is represented by national governments, among others the Spanish government, the Plataforma believes that the EU still pursues economic interests and thereby gives less attention to the environment. Other remarks about the support of the EU is the that it does not impose direct obligations and that the decision-making is extremely slow, what gives other parties time to anticipate. According to the Plataforma, organisations such as construction companies or the government tend to act before something is prohibited. An example given by the Plataforma en Defensa de l’Ebre is the construction of houses in Spain which did not prove to be necessary, and which was restricted later on. The Plataforma states that their relationship with the EU is improving because limits are set to the financial support. A mistake made in the past was the granting of subsidies in order to realize big infrastructural projects. The money was not used properly due to corruption (Plataforma en Defensa de l’Ebre, 2017).
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6 Conclusion & Discussion
In this thesis project the focus lies on the possible water transfers from the Ebro River, the effects it would have on the Ebro delta and the response from the Plataforma en Defensa de l’Ebre. In order to answer the main question: ‘How does the Plataforma en Defensa de l'Ebre forge allies and mobilize (socially and politically) against inter basin water transfers of the Ebro River and protection of the delta?’, three sub questions were established. The first sub question is: ‘Who are the
stakeholders in favour of inter basin transfers and how would these transfers effect the Ebro delta?’ The biggest threat to the Ebro delta is the lack of sediments that are being dropped. This results in the disappearance of this area due to the power of the Mediterranean Sea. The causes of the lack of sediment being brought to the river delta are the existence of dams and water transfers, which in their turn cause low flow rates and the stacking of sediments.
The governmental agencies, among which the community of Valencia, the municipality of Barcelona and the Hydrographic Confederation of the Ebro are the most important stakeholders who are in support of the water transfers from the Ebro River. Besides the governmental agencies, united farmers and construction companies are in support of the transfers too. Even between actors in the pro water transfer camp, tensions exist. This is expressed in the disagreement between Barcelona and Valencia. Both cities are in favour of the water transfer, but Barcelona does not support transfers that leave the community of Catalonia. In the second part of the result chapter I looked at the different discourses and projected images that are being used by the involved stakeholders in order to achieve their goals. It can be concluded that the stakeholders who are in favor of the water transfers tend to see the situation from an economic perspective. The economic interests of these actors are substantiated by Hydrosocial Territories that are projected on to certain areas. For instance, the north is seen as rich and fertile and the south as poor and dry. Stakeholders who are opposed to the water transfers tend to use environmental arguments to prove their point. Seen from an environmental perspective, water that flows through the river into the sea without being used for other purposes, is not seen as a waste. The argument that is being used here is the fact that the flowing water makes life possible in the Ebro delta.
The most important actor in the lower Ebro basin that is opposed to the water transfers is the Plataforma en Defensa de l’Ebre. Besides the use of discourses or projected images also other tools are used. The Plataforma uses social movements and other actors in the fight against the water transfers. The most important actors that support the Plataforma are the academics and the European Union. These actors support the Plataforma by means of creating awareness of the situation, providing evidence which could be used in debates, donating funds and protection through legislation. The Plataforma exerts power in an informal way, because they do not possess direct power. The tension between the community of Catalonia and the Spanish government, does not play a part in the conflict about the possible water transfers, according to the Plataforma. Up until now, new water transfers are being blocked by the Plataforma en Defensa de l’Ebre thanks to the support they generate by bringing different actors together.
Up until today no solutions nor comprises were concluded between the parties who support and oppose the inter basin water transfers from the Ebro River. An ideal situation would be a
combination of providing dry areas with enough water while at the same time conserving vulnerable areas such as the Ebro delta. In the interview I conducted with the people of the Plataforma en Defensa de l’Ebre, I asked the question what would be a possible alternative for the water transfers. They told me that cities spill water a lot of water. By modernizing cities and paying more attention to sustainable development instead of looking at economic aspects, water could be saved by making cities more sustainable. In relation to the sustainability of cities, the positioning of cities also came
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into question. Cities are not developed anymore with a view to their environment. Cities used to emerge at places rich of natural recourses, for instance next to rivers. Consequently the water has to be transported to the cities.
A weakness of this bachelor thesis project is the fact that interviews were conducted with actors in the Ebro basin who are opposed to the water transfers. This could give a unilateral side of the story. A strong point of this thesis project is the fact that I was able to speak with people in the field and conduct in-depth interviews.
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