i¥nf.;~=~"!W.1"a.l}"",rt~",,(,.\-,t::"Io"''''.·''''"'r~~fl'.n.~';r,:''.,.r~~~,''~~.1.~.,.\r;.fi'P.:~~"1"~~_~!,,"_,,:.
HfPRDIE EI{SEMPLAAR j-.'tt'tG
ONDE~f
'GEEN OMSTANDIQHEDE UH DIE
I
~~~~"~J
- -VIIIVCI::»lly I-ICC .;JLGLC
,-11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111
- 34300004920421 .
DEVELOPMENT
OF A WATER MANAGEMENT
DECISION
MODEL
FOR LIMPOPO
PROVINCE,
SOUTH AFRICA
DEVELOPMENT OF A WATER MANAGEMENT DECISION MODEL FOR LIMPOPO PROVINCE, SOUTH AFRICA
2
BY
KHATHUTSHELO ALFRED TSHIKOLOMO
Thesis submitted to the Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, Centre for Sustainable Agriculture,
University of the Free State
In accordance with the requirements for the degree
PHILOSOPHIAE DOCTOR
Promoter: Co- Promoters:
Professor A.E. Nesamvuni Professor S. Walker Professor A. Stroebel July 2012
DECLARATION
I declare that this thesis hereby submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Sustainable Agriculture at the University of the Free State, is my own independent work and has not been submitted for the purposes to any other university. I further cede copyright of this thesis in favour of the University of the Free State.
...
.
.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to gratefully acknowledge the following for their valuable contribution to the success of this study:
• My promoter, Professor Edward Nesamvuni, and eo-promoters, Professors: Sue Walker and Aldo Stroebel, for their invaluable supervision, guidance and encouragement throughout the study. Your constructive comments and ideas were critical for the completion of this study;
• The Department of Water and Environmental Affairs for the valuable information provided through departmental plans and reports and in interpersonal discussions;
• The South African Weather Services, the Water Research Commission, and the Agricultural Research Council for important climatic and water related information they provided;
• Staff of the Centre for Sustainable Agriculture, the Director- Prof. Izak Groenewald and his team, for the administration work and support during my consultation visits.
• Specialist staff of the Limpopo Department of Agriculture (LDA), Dr. K.A. Nephawe for assistance with data analysis and other IT expertise and Messrs James Mulaudzi and Maanda Dagada who assisted with data analysis and interpretation Dr. B.M. Petja and Mr. R.G. Lekalakala helped refine hydrological concepts, while Mr. M.S. Nevhutanda developed the maps.
• Extension Officers of the LDA who served as enumerators for collection of household data, namely: B. Maranele, M. Mmbengeni, T.S. Khabe, M.K. Nkuna, H.A. Mashimbye, K.P. Dlomu, H.E. Sambo, M.S. Mulelu, N.S. Ramakhumisa, A.D. Nengovhela, N.R. Matodzi, L.C. Netshisaulu, and N.C. Netshithuthuni .
• Municipal water managers of the 10 municipalities selected for the study and members of the 467 sampled households, who were interviewed and provided information, are gratefully acknowledged. It is sincerely hoped that the results of the study will contribute to the improvement of your situation.
DEDICATION
For the conception and completion of this study, I am thankful to the Almighty God who provided life, good health, peace and wisdom, without which there could have been no study. My father, Thomani Phanuel Tshikolomo (late) and my mother, Nkhanedzeni Tshavhungwe ignited an ever burning desire for education in my life and this inspired me to conduct this study. My wife, Humbulani was very supportive throughout the study and her encouragement made it possible for this work to reach completion. Our three children, Wavhudi, Thikho and Masana were able to go on without some of the privileges as I could not provide due to my deep commitment to this study.
It is hoped that the successful completion of this work will serve as a source of inspiration, not only to the Tshikolomo or broader Mutolo family, but to all who allow this work to ignite a desire for education in their life.
ABSTRACT
The study was conducted in the Limpopo Province with a focus on the Limpopo and Luvuvhu-Letaba Water Management Areas. The main issues investigated were (1) water resources, mainly runoff and storage capacity of the target Water Management Areas and municipalities, and the water gain and loss of the Middle Letaba Dam, (2) water management issues, mainly perceptions of municipal water managers on the water resource and its uses, and their perceptions on stakeholder participation, and (3) household water supply and requirement. A water management decision model was proposed based on the results of the investigations.
The results of the investigations revealed that: (1) The Limpopo WMA has a MAR of 611.4 million m3 for possible development of new dams compared to only 365.2 million m3 for the Luvuvhu-Letaba WMA, and related results were recorded for municipalities in these WMAs. The storage volumes of the Middle Letaba Dam were very small compared to design capacity; (2) The municipal water managers lacked knowledge on water resources and were relatively more knowledgeable on water use. Water management decisions were made by government based stakeholders while community based stakeholders had little influence on water management decisions; (3) There was a lack of access to safe water sources, only half (50.1 %) of households obtained water from street taps. The quantity of water fetched ranged from 25 to more than 200 litres per household per day and the amount fetched was more for households located near the water sources. As a result of scarcity, water was mostly used for basic activities such as drinking, preparing food and bathing. Half (51. 7%) of the households fetched less water than the 25 litres per capita per day supply standard which itself did not meet the average requirement of 37.5 litres per capita per day; and (4) A water management decision model was proposed based on the framework of the Congruence Model. The proposed model stated the main challenges faced by the water sector in the study area and assessed the capacity of the service organisations to address them by analysing the congruence between the challenges and the capacity. All assessed water service organisations only had moderate capacity to address the
challenges. The lack of filling of some posts was the most significant constraint to the effectiveness of the organisations.
It is therefore recommended that: (1) The Limpopo WMA be the focus for possible construction of new dams, especially the Mogalakwena, Lephalale and Mokoio catchments in the WMA as they showed to have more available mean annual runoff for possible development of new dams. Although the Luvuvhu-Letaba WMA was shown to be well developed in terms of storage dams, the Mutale Catchment had more available mean annual runoff for possible development of new dams. Regular investigations of runoff and dam storage capacity should be conducted as the current status will change due to changing rainfall patterns and dam siltation. Water should be transferred to the Middle Letaba Dam from other catchments in order to maintain this dam at a full level and consequently to improve the supply of the resource to planned areas; (2). Municipal water managers should be trained on water resources and to a lesser extent on resource uses for them to make relevant decisions on the management and use of the resource. Community based stakeholders should be involved in water management decisions and should be capacitated to be reliable sources of water information; (3) The Department of Water Affairs should reconsider the 25 litres per capita per day as a supply standard as it does not suffice for the average requirement of 37.5 litres per capita per day proposed in this study. (4) Guided by the proposed water management decision model, service organisations should improve their capacity to address water sector problems.
Key words: water management area, municipality, water resources, rainfall, runoff, dam storage capacity, water supply, water use, stakeholder participation, congruence model, water service organization, water management decision model.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARA TION
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
DEDICATION
II
ABSTRACT
III
1
INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND
1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Overview of national water resources
1.3 Description of the study area
1.3.1 , 1.3.2 1.3.3 Geographic description Socio-economic description Environment 2 2 5 11
1.4 Purpose of the study 15
1.5 Summary 16
1.6 Outline of the thesis 17
1.7 Publication of research work 19
2
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
21 2.1 Introduction 21 2.2 Description of knowledge 2.2.1 Kinds of knowledge 2.2.2 Scientific knowledge 21 21 23 2.3 Research approach 252.3.1 2.3.2 2.4 2.5 2.5.1 2.5.2 2.5.3 2.5.4 2.6 2.7 2.7.1 2.7.2 2.7.3 2.7.4 2.9 Main approaches
Rationale for a mixed approach 2527
Research design 28 Research methods 31 31 32 33 34 Literature review methods
Secondary data analyses Survey methods Content analyses
Elimination of error 35
Research process
Orientation and planning Design of survey questionnaires Sample frame and sampling procedure Data collection and analysis
36 37
38 38
41
Summary and conclusion 42
3
LITERA TURE REVIEW
44
3.1 Introduction 3.2 Water resources 3.2.1 3.2.2 3.3 3.3.1 3.3.2 3.4 3.4.1 3.4.2 3.5 3.5.1 3.5.2 3.5.3 3.5.4 3.5.5 3.6 44
Rainfall and runoff generation Water supply system
45
47 48
Water resource management 50
50
53
Resource knowledge and its implementation Stakeholder participation
Water supply and requirement Household water supply Household requirement of water
56 57
58
Models for water resource management 59
59
61
67
69
71
Description of the modelled world
Characterization of models
Types of models
Organisational diagnostic models
Suitability of organisational diagnostic models to guide water decisions
4
RUNOFF AND STORAGE CAPACITY OF RIVER CATCHMENTS AND
MUNICIPALITIES
79
4.1 Introduction 79 4.2 Methodology 4.2.1 Study area 4.2.2 Sampling procedure4.2.3 Data collection and analysis
80
80
82 82
4.3 Results and discussion
4.3.1 Runoff and storage capacity ofriver catchments in the study area
4.3.2 Runoff and storage capacity of municipalities in the study area
82 82
89
4.4. Summary and conclusion 92
5
RAINFALL INFLUENCE ON WATER GAIN AND LOSS FROM MIDDLE
LETABA DAM
94
5.1 Introduction 94
5.2 Methodology
5.2.1 Dam location and physical characteristics
5.2.2 Sampling procedure
5.2.3 Data collection and analysis
95 95
96 97
5.3 Results and discussion
5.3.1 5.3.2 5.3.3 5.3.4 5.3.5
Rainfall received over the surface area of the dam The influence of rainfall on inflow from source river Rainfall influence on evaporation from the dam surface The influence of rainfall on outflow from the dam Rainfall and dam water storage volume
97 97 98 100 102 104
5.4. Summary and conclusion 107
6
PERCEPTIONS OF MUNICIPAL WAT,ER MANAGERS ON WATER
RESOURCES, USES AND RESTRICTIONS
108
6.1 Introduction 108
6.2.1 Description of study area 109
6.2.2 Sampling procedure lID
6.2.3 Data collection and analysis lID
6.3 Results and discussion 111
6.3.1 Perceptions on municipal water resources III
6.3.2 Perceptions on municipal water uses 114
6.3.3 Perceptions on water restrictions 124
6.4 Summary and conclusion 127
7
MUNICIPALITY PERCEPTIONS OF STAKEHOLDER PARTICIPATION AND
INFLUENCE ON WATER MANAGEMENT DECISIONS
7.1 7.2 7.2.1 7.2.2 7.2.3 7.3 7.3.1 7.3.2 7.3.3 7.4
128
Introduction 128 Research methods 129 129 130 130 Study area Sampling procedure Data collection and analysisResults and discussions 131
131 133
139
Stakeholder organisations and their roles
Stakeholder participation in water management decisions
Stakeholder influence on water management decisions
Summary and conclusion 146
8
HOUSEHOLD WATER SUPPLY AND REQUIREMENTS
1498.1 Introduction 8.2 8.2.1 8.2.2 8.2.3 8.3 8.3.1 8.3.2 8.3.3 8.4. 149 Research methodology 150 150 151 151
Description of study area
Smpling procedure
Data collection and analysis
Results and discussion 152
152 158 164
Characterisation of households
Household water supplies Household water uses
9
CHALLENGE AND CAPACITY CONGRUENCE ANALYSIS FOR
DEVELOPMENT OF A WATER MANAGEMENT DECISION MODEL
1699.4.1 Input components and their influence on the water sector
9.4.2 Major challenges faced by the water sector
9.4.3 Organisational strategies and their congruence with water sector challenges
9.4.4 Transformation components and their congruence with strategies
9.4.5 Congruence between allocated and utilized organisational resources
9.4.6 Congruence flow analysis
9.4.7 Proposal ofa water management decision model
9.1 9.2 9.2.1 9.2.2 9.2.3 9.3 9.3.1 9.3.2 9.3.3 9.3.4 9.4 Introduction 169
Description of the Congruence Model 170
173 174 176
Congruence between units across components: Person-Environment Fit
Congruence between units within a component: The example of transformation Congruence and water sector effectiveness
Research methodology 176
176 177
178
179 Rationale for selecting the Congruence Model
Sampling procedure
Description of the study area Data collection and analysis
Results and discussion 180
180 186 187 190 194 197 198
9.5 Summary and conclusion 204
10
POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS
205
10.1 Focus of the study
10.2 Main findings 10.2.1 10.2.2 10.2.3 10.3 10.3.1 10.3.2 10.3.3 10.3.4 205 Water resources Water management
Household water supply and requirement
205 205 205 206 Policy recommendations 206 206 207 208 209 Water resources Water management
Household water supply and requirement
Water management decision model
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1 Mean monthly rainfall (mm) distribution of sampled municipalities in the study area
(SAWS, undated) 12
Table 1.2 Mean monthly evapotranspiration (ET mm) of sampled municipalities in the study area
(SAWS, undated) 14
Table 1.3 Real-life problems of the water sector in Limpopo Province and corresponding
research objectives to address them 16
Table 2.1 Comparison of quantitative and qualitative research approaches (Leedy and Ormrod,
2010) 26
Table 2.2 Research objectives and matching attributes of research approaches 27
Table 2.3 Research designs for different chapters included in the study 29
Table 2.4 Main sources of errors for the five research methods used in the study (Mouton, 2001)
and strategies used to eliminate the errors , 36
Table 3.1 Conceptualisation of four HPP framework systems (Nelson and Burns, 1984) 73 Table 3.2 Conceptualisation ofIndividual and Group Levels in DIGB model (Harrison, 1987).74 Table 3.3 Issues for describing congruence between different pairs of internal transformational
components of the Congruence Model (Nadler and Tushman, 1980) 75
Table 3.4 Evaluation of described diagnostic models based on their inclusion of aspects defining a well-functioning and responsive organisation (Gill, 2000; Mertikas, 2008) 76 Table 4.1 Storage capacity and available MAR for possible development of new dams in river catchments of the Limpopo and Luvuvhu-Letaba WMAs (DWAF, 2003; DWAF, 2004b) 86 Table 4.2 Storage capacity and available MAR for possible strategic water related projects in selected municipalities of the Limpopo and Luvuvhu-Letaba WMAs (DWAF, 2003; DWAF,
2004b) 91
Table 6.1 Perceptions of municipal water managers on number and sizes of rivers flowing
through their municipal areas 112
Table 6.2 Perceptions of municipal water managers on major uses of the resource according to
Table 6.3 Perceptions of municipal water managers on household uses of water according to
quantities consumed by activity 118
Table 6.4 Perceptions of municipal water managers on industrial uses of water according to
quantity consumed by activity 120
Table 6.5 Perceptions of municipal water managers on agricultural uses of water according to
quantity consumed by activity 122
Table 7.1 Issues discussed in water stakeholder meetings of the study municipalities in the
Limpopo and Luvuvhu-Letaba WMAs 136
Table 7.2 Perceived levels of influence of water stakeholders on broad water management
decisions in study municipalities under Limpopo and Luvuvhu-Letaba WMAs 141
Table 8.1 Distribution of heads of household in the study municipalities under the
Luvuvhu-Letaba WMA according to age 153
Table 8.2 Monthly incomes of households in the study municipalities of the Luvuvhu-Letaba
WMA 156
Table 8.3 Sizes of houses owned by households in study municipalities in the Luvuvhu-Letaba
WMA 157
Table 8.4 Sources of water for households in the study municipalities of the Luvuvhu-Letaba
WMA enlisted from unsafe (1) to safer (6) sources 159
Table 8.5 Distribution of households in the study municipalities of the Luvuvhu-Letaba WMA
according to quantity of water fetched 162
Table 8.6 Distribution of households in study municipalities of the Luvuvhu-Letaba WMA
according to uses of water for basic household and productive activities 165
Table 8.7 Distribution of households in the study municipalities of the Luvuvhu-Letaba WMA
according to their daily water requirements for different uses 167
Table 9.1 Water sector environment of the Limpopo Province 181
Table 9.2 The impact of the Water Act of 1956 and of the National Water Act of 1998 on water sector performance (RSA, 1956; RSA, 1998a; de Coning, 2006; Woodhouse, 2008) 185 Table 9.3 Congruence rating between water sector challenges and responsive organisational strategies of Limpopo Regional Office of DW A and the WSAs of MDM, VDM and PLM ... 189
Table 9.4 Analysis of congruence between strategies and tasks of water service organisations of
Limpopo Regional Office ofDWA, MDM, VDM and PLM 192
Table 9.5 Analysis of congruence between allocation and utilisation of human (posts) and financial (budget) resources of water service organisations of Limpopo DWA, MDM, VDM and
PLM (DWAF, undated; MDM, 2009; VDM, 2009 and PLM, 2009) 195
Table 9.6 Congruence flow analysis of input and transformation components of four water
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1 Map of Limpopo Province showing the Water Management Areas (brown lines) and
the main rivers (blue lines) (DWAF, 2004a) 3
Figure 1.2 Map of Limpopo Province showing the Water Management Areas (brown lines),
district (grey lines) and local municipalities (different colour shadings) 4
Figure 4.1 Map of the Limpopo Province showing the Limpopo and Luvuvhu-Letaba Water Management Areas (red border line) and the ten municipalities (hatchings) sampled for the study
(DWAF, 2004a) 81
Figure 4.2 Mean annual runoff (MAR) ofriver catchments of the Limpopo and Luvuvhu-Letaba
WMA (DWAF, 2003; DWAF, 2004b) 84
Figure 4.3 Influence of runoff on storage capacity of river catchments of Limpopo and
Luvuvhu-Letaba WMAs 88
Figure 4.4 Mean annual runoff (MAR) of municipalities of the Limpopo and Luvuvhu-Letaba
WMA (Midgley ef al., 1994) 90
Figure 5.1 Location of the Middle Letaba Dam (blue water body) in the Middle Letaba
Catchment (grey line) within the Luvuvhu-Letaba WMA (red line) 96
Figure 5.2 Mean monthly rainfall received over the surface area of the Middle Letaba Dam
during 1990- 2009 (DWAF, undated) 98
Figure 5.3 Mean monthly rainfall and inflow to the Middle Letaba Dam during 1990 - 2009
(DWAF, undated) 100
Figure 5.4 Mean monthly rainfall and evaporation from the Middle Letaba Dam during 1990
-2009 (DWAF, undated) 101
Figure 5.5 Mean monthly rainfall and outflows from the Middle Letaba Dam during 1990-2009
(DWAF, undated) 103
Figure 5.6 Mean monthly rainfall and dam storage volume of Middle Letaba Dam during
1990-2009 (DWAF, undated) 105
Figure 5.7 Correlation between mean monthly rainfall with a 2-month lag and dam storage
volume of Middle Letaba Dam during 1990-2009 (DW AF, undated) 106
Figure 6.1 Map of the Limpopo Province showing the Limpopo and the Luvuvhu- Leataba
Figure 6.2 Perceptions of municipal water managers on water restrictions across the months of
the year 124
Figure 6.3 Influence of monthly rainfall on number of municipalities imposing water restrictions ... 126 Figure 7.1 Map of Limpopo Province with Water Management Areas (red lines) and
municipalities (hatchings) comprising the study area 129
Figure 7.2 Frequency of stakeholder meetings and number of water management issues
discussed in each meeting 134
Figure 7.3 Water stakeholders and ratings of their reliability as sources of water management
information 140
Figure 7.4 Rating of different stakeholders according to their level of influence on specific topics
discussed in meetings 144
Figure 7.5 Relationship between stakeholder reliability as sources of water management
information and their level of influence on resource management decisions 146
Figure 8.1 Map of Luvuvhu-Letaba WMA showing the location of the study municipalities and
villages : 150
Figure 8.2 Distribution of households in study municipalities in the Luvuvhu-Letaba WMA
according to their sizes 154
Figure 8.3 Distribution of households in study municipalities of the Luvuvhu-Letaba WMA
according to the distance of water source from residential sites 160
Figure 8.4 Influence of distance of water source from residential site on quantity fetched ... 163
Figure 9.1 Adjusted Congruence Model ofNadler and Tushman (1980) 171
Figure 9.2 Map of Limpopo Province showing the Limpopo and the Luvuvhu-Letaba WMA (red line), Mopani and Vhembe District Municipalities and the Polokwane Local Municipality
(hatchings) 178
Figure 9.3 Assessment of water service organisations of Limpopo Province using the adjusted
CHAPTER1
1 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND
1.1 Introduction
This introduction outlines the issues discussed in the rest of the chapter, namely: (1) an overview of national water resources to provide the context in which the study area exists; (2) a description of the study area (geographic, socio-economic, and environmental description) with an analysis of the macro-environment and identification of water related problem areas that guide the focus of the research project; (3) the purpose of the study, presenting the study objectives which respond to the problems experienced by the water sector in the study area; and (4) outline of the thesis which serves as a guide to the reader.
1.2 Overview of national water resources
South Africa is located in a predominantly semi-arid part of the world. The climate varies from arid in the west to humid along the eastern coastal area. The country mean annual rainfall is about 450mm which is well below the world average of about 860mm while evaporation is comparatively high (DWAF, 2004a). As a result, the country's water resources are scarce. According to DW AF (2004a), the combined flow of all the rivers in South Africa is approximately 49 000 million m3 per annum and is less than half of that of the Zambezi River
alone.
The view that South Africa is a water scarce country was supported by CIW A (1970) who projected that the country's water requirement would exceed resource supply in 2000. According to Weaver (1990), the country's water requirement will only exceed supply in 2020 while Odendaal (1992) argued that this will occur sometime between 2020 and 2030. Muller (2002) and Inocencio et al. (2003) predicted that South Africa is likely to run out of water in 2025. It may be concluded from these projections that the water resources in our country are not inexhaustible.
It was in fact affirmed by Greeff (2010) that there is not enough water for South Africa's current and planned socio-economic development. Efficient management of the water resources is therefore crucial to sustain future water supply. According to Greeff (2010), efficient water management should consider the nexus between our scarce water resources, potential climate change impacts, and issues of long term food security. Informed by these links among the water resources, impacts of climate change and issues of food security, efficient management of water resources should promote sustainable development.
Four of South Africa's main rivers are shared with other countries. These shared rivers are the Limpopo, Inkomati, Pongola and Orange River. The four rivers together drain about 60% of the country's land area and contribute about 40% of its total surface runoff (DWAF, 2004a). As stated by DWAF (2004a), these four rivers contribute to approximately 70% of our country's gross domestic product (GDP). Judicious joint management of these rivers between South Africa and the neighbouring countries with which they are shared is of paramount importance for regional peace and stability.
It is clear from the above discussion that South Africa is a water scarce country and has to manage the available water resources efficiently. The fact that 60% of the country's land area is drained by shared rivers suggests that management of the water resources should be compliant with relevant international protocols. The national resource scarcity and the occurrence of shared rivers constitute an important context for managing water resources in the study area.
1.3 Description of the
study area
1.3.1 Geographic description
The study was conducted in the Limpopo Province of South Africa. Selection of study sites within the province was based on two geographic aspects, (1) Water Management Areas and their river catchments, and (2) district and local municipalities. The geographic description of the study area will therefore be made in terms of these aspects.
(a) Water Management Areas and their river catchments
The province has four Water Management Areas (WMAs) located in it. The Limpopo and the Luvuvhu-Letaba WMAs are fully located while the Olifants and the Crocodile West and Marico are partially located in the province (Figure 1.1). The two WMAs that are fully located within the province entirely represent the province and were the focus of the study.
Figure 1.1 Map of Limpopo Province showing the Water Management Areas (brown lines) and the main rivers (blue lines) (DWAF, 2004a)
The main river catchments within the WMAs targeted by the study are the Matlabas, MokoIo, Lephalale, Mogalakwena, Sand, Nzhelele and Nwanedi in the Limpopo WMA and the Mutale,
-t·
Luvuvhu, Klein Letaba, Middle Letaba and Groot Letaba in the Luvuvhu-Letaba WMA (Figure LI). The river catchments are discussed to different extents in the various chapters of the study.
(b) District and local municipalities
The province is politically divided into five district municipalities (referred to as districts), the Vhembe, Waterberg, Capricorn, Mopani and Sekhukhune District (Figure 1.2). The study covered four of the districts with only Sekhukhune excluded.
o.scrlCI"".r"CIO.~h ..
Prov11'IC111Boundarle.
INKOMATI
Figure 1.2 Map of Limpopo Province showing the Water Management Areas (brown lines), district (grey lines) and local municipalities (different colour shadings)
The districts are politically divided into local municipalities (referred to as municipalities) with each district having between four and six such municipalities. The number of municipalities
selected for the study is 10 with four (Makhado, Thulamela, Musina and Mutale) in Vhembe, three (Letaba, Tzaneen and Giyani) in Mopani, two (Polokwane and Aganang) in Capricorn and one (Lephalale) in Waterberg District.
Of the 10 municipalities selected for the study, five are in the Limpopo WMA, namely: Makhado and Musina in Vhembe District, Polokwane and Aganang in Capricorn and Lephalale in Waterberg District. The other five municipalities included in the study are in the Luvuvhu-Letaba WMA, the Thulamela and Mutale in Vhembe and the Luvuvhu-Letaba, Tzaneen and Giyani in Mopani District.
Investigations in the study will focus on different combinations of the geographic aspects of water management areas (with their river catchments), districts and municipalities. Some of the investigations will be limited to only one of these WMAs and only some of the catchments, districts and municipalities.
1.3.2 Socio-economic description
In order to provide a comprehensive socio-economic description of the Limpopo Province, its socio-economic environment was properly scanned. Environmental scanning is the acquisition and use of information about events, trends, and relationships in an organisation's external environment, the knowledge of which would assist management in planning the organisation's future course of action (Auster and Choo, 1993; Choo 1998). Organisations scan their socio-economic environment in order to understand external forces of change so that they may develop effective responses which secure or improve their position in the future.
Meaningful scanning of the socio-economic environment should be guided by some framework that highlights pertinent issues to be targeted by the scan. The PESTEL framework was adopted for guiding the scan of the socio-economic environment for this study. Pertinent issues highlighted in the PESTEL framework are the Political, Economic, Social, Technological,
Environmental and Legal factors (Fahey and Narayanan, 1986). Guided by the PESTEL framework, the socio-economic description of the study area follows.
(a) Political situation
In accordance with the constitution of the Republic of South Africa (RSA, 1996), the Limpopo Province has a legislature with 49 seats. In the fourth legislature of 2009, 43 seats were won by the African National Congress (ANC), 4 by the Congress of the People (COPE) and 2 by the Democratic Alliance (DA) (IEC, 2009). The legislature elects the Premier from the majority party. The Premier appoints the Members of the Executive Council from among members of the provincial legislature (RSA, 1996). The executive council runs the provincial government within the mandate of the ruling party.
In
the same way that the provincial legislature elects a premier, the municipal council elects a mayor who is referred to as executive mayor for a district municipality. The mayor appoints the mayoral committee from among the members of the municipal council, and the committee serves as the executive of the municipal government (RSA, 1996).The political leaders of these spheres of government influence strategic direction and hence the allocation of budgetary and other resources. The political system also exerts influence through the legislature and municipal councils who approve government strategic and annual plans and also play an oversight role of ensuring that the plans are properly implemented (RSA, 1996). The communities in the study area are mostly active politically and have an influence on their political parties who hold the government to account.
The water programmes run by the provincial and municipal governments include facilitation and funding infrastructure development. The building of dams is an important strategy for improving water supply in the study area. Dams are mostly funded by the national Department of Water Affairs with provincial and municipal governments leading local facilitation (RSA, 1998a). Reticulation infrastructure and water services are mostly funded by municipalities (RSA, 1997).
The availability of adequate well maintained water infrastructure has a strong influence on the supply of water (Randall, 1981; Backeberg and Groenewald, 1991).
Major dams in the study area are the Mokolo, Doorndraai, and Nzhelele in the Limpopo WMA and the Albasini, Vondo, Nandoni, Middle Letaba, Nsami, Ebenezer and Tzaneen in the Luvuvhu-Letaba WMA (DWAF, 2003; DWAF, 2004b). The dams store water in the wet season when and where the marginal value of the resource is low and reallocates it to the dry season when and where the marginal value is high (Keller et al., 2000). aPrior to building more dams in
the Limpopo Province, planners should know the quantity of water that can be stored in the existing dams and the amount of water that could remain available for future storage, and these were investigated in this study.
The extent of development of infrastructure in the Limpopo Province varies from one locality to another. The general trend is for urbanised areas to have better infrastructure than their rural counterparts although access to services provided by such infrastructure is influenced by the economic status of individuals (DANIDA, 2000). Although the issue of water reticulation infrastructure is important for water management in the study area, it is not the focus of this study and will not be further investigated.
(b) Economic condition
Limpopo is one of the poorest provinces in South Africa (RSA, 2000). The province only contributes 6.9% of the GDP (Stats SA, 2008). The poverty is affirmed by the lack of infrastructure, including water reticulation infrastructure. According to Stats SA (2009), only 18% of households had piped water inside the house compared to 47.2% nationally. The smaller number of households with piped water suggests a lack of infrastructure for water services and affirms RSA (2000) that the province is poor. As a result of poverty, most households are registered as indigents in order to qualify for social grants and free services such as water services (Stats SA, 20IIa). Up to 57.9% of households in the province receive grants compared to the national figure of 28.4% (Stats SA, 20 11b).
With this state of poverty, increased development of the water resource could make it possible for new economic development projects to be initiated. Further development of the water resource may only be possible if relevant stakeholders have adequate knowledge about the resource and its current use. It is only when the stakeholders are knowledgeable that they will be able to make informed decisions about the prospects of further development of the resource for future use. Among the critical stakeholders for the water sector are the municipal water managers. The responsibilities of the municipal water managers are to broaden as the Department of Water Affairs continues with its restructuring in which most implementation functions will be transferred to municipalities for the department to focus on policy issues (DW AF, 2007).
Although the water managers report directly to municipal managers (administrative head of district or municipality), they also report indirectly to the mayors of their municipalities. The water managers advice both the municipal managers and the majors on water issues and have a lot of influence on water management decisions. The managers' knowledge of their water resources is therefore crucial for them to ~ake informed resource management decisions. bThere is a lack of information about these managers knowledge of the water resources and hence it was necessary for this study to conduct some focussed research on this issue.
(c) Social situation
The social environment includes social services such as health and education (Barnett and Casper, 2001), communication networks and the participation of people in decision making. On the issue of health services, Limpopo Province has 40 public hospitals distributed in the five districts of Capricorn (9 hospitals), Mopani (8), Sekhukhune (7), Waterberg (8) and Vhembe (8) (OTP, 2009). In addition to the shortage of health professionals, the hospitals mostly have dilapidated infrastructure with old equipment which result in poor services.
With regards to education, the province still faces challenges of poor classroom infrastructure and shortage of educators and equipment for learning areas such as mathematics and science.
The shortage of classroom infrastructure has made the Department of Education introduce mobile classes (Nduvheni, 2007). In terms of the educational status of the population, 19.4% had no schooling compared to only 9.4% nationally. Some 5.9% of the population had primary education compared to 7% nationally, 12.5% had grade 12 compared to 18% nationally, while 6.4% had tertiary education compared to 8.8% nationally (Stats SA, 2009). The above statistics indicate that the province is educationally under-developed compared to the national situation.
Other than the written media, communication of water sector information would require access to media such as radio and television. With a population of 5.2 million, Limpopo Province has a radio listenership of 3.3 million and a television viewership of 2.7 million (MDDA, 2009). The population is therefore well exposed to information communicated through both radio and television media.
Water sector information communicated through radio and television should reach the majority of the population and may promote public participation in resource management decisions. The participation of all relevant stakeholders in water decisions is important for broader community acceptance of the decisions. The National Water Act (Act No. 36 of 1998) provides for the formation of institutions such as the Water Users Associations (WUAs) and Catchment Management Agencies (CMA), (RSA, 1998b) to allow for stakeholder participation.
Communities in the province occasionally embark on public protests against the government's performance in delivering water services. These protests may be indicative of poor participation of the communities in water management decisions. There is a lack of information on major stakeholders of the water sector in the province and their level of participation in resource decision making. eTo address the stakeholder information gap, this research project conducted a focussed investigation of the existing stakeholders and their level of participation in resource management decisions.
(d) Technological situation
Associated with poor economic development and low educational status, the province has low capacity to generate relevant technologies to respond to water challenges. The low capacity to generate technologies is also associated with lack of research capacity. Factors associated with the lack of capacity to conduct research include the scarcity of research skills and requisite infrastructure. It is important for the province to build research capacity in order to generate appropriate technologies to respond to the challenges faced by the water sector. Initiatives to develop research capacity should be focus sed at the two universities in the province, the University of Limpopo and the University of Vend a as they already have some basic resources.
Water sector problems for possible research should include those related to the hydrology of catchments and reservoirs. Reservoir problems demanding research would include that of the Middle Lataba Dam that seldom fills up. The dam is one of the large reservoirs in the province and its persistent low water levels contribute to the problem of shortage of water supply. The area planned to be supplied from this dam has experienced frequent shortages of water.
. The shortage of water supply from the Middle Letaba Dam has resulted in a situation where the limited water available is reserved only for household use. Other planned uses such as irrigation are not supplied and therefore multi-million rand worth of irrigation infrastructure installed in some farming projects is not used. Major investments in irrigation infrastructure were made at the Homu and the Middle Letaba Irrigation Schemes. These schemes have scaled down agricultural production because of shortage of water.
dIt
is not clear whether the Middle Letaba Dam will ever fill up to its capacity and allow for increased supply of water to target communities.It
was therefore necessary to conduct a focussed investigation of the hydrology of this dam. There may be more cases in the province that require research intervention and development of responsive information and technologies, and this necessitates some improvement of research capacity.(e) Legal situation
Similar to the situation in the broader South Africa, the legal environment of the Limpopo Province is characterized by having some of the undesired water decisions taken under the 1956 Water Act (RSA, 1956) continuing to apply. This results in frustration among users who would like the changes stated in the Water Act of 1998 (RSA, 1998b) to be implemented. This delay in implementing certain aspects of the Water Act of 1998 creates disgruntled water users.
Among the major problems caused by the 1956 Water Act (RSA, 1956) is the inequitable allocation of water. Such inequitable allocations results in certain areas such as most rural communities and some uses being under-supplied while other areas and uses have more water than they need. Some of these inequitable allocations continue to apply even though there is a new Water Act of 1998 in place (RSA, 1998b) and this result in some communities lacking water for household use while others have the resource for luxury consumption.
Unfortunately, there is not much information on household water supply in the study area, more so for rural households. In some cases there may be information but that is mostly outdated information as new water schemes are developed annually. Some water taps are often dry due to shortage of supply from the storage while some reticulation systems with abundant supply from storage are non-operational due to poor maintenance. Estimation of water supply to the households based on availability of infrastructure may therefore be misleading. eWith this dearth of information on water supply to households in the study area, the study included an investigation of household water supply with a focus on rural households.
1.3.3 Environment
Rainfall and evapotranspiration are the major factors of the environment that influence the availability of water resources in an area and are therefore the focus for this discussion.
(a) Rainfall
Rainfall is the fundamental driving force and pulsar input behind most hydrological processes (Schulze, 1995). The rainfall of Limpopo Province is highly variable from one place to another and this has led to a climate that is semi-arid in some parts and sub-humid in other parts of the province. The rainfall of the study area was calculated based on the rainfall figures of the ten municipalities selected for the study (Table 1.1) obtained from the South African Weather Services (SAWS, undated) for weather stations located in those municipalities.
Table 1.1 Mean monthly rainfall (mm) distribution of sampled municipalities in the study area (SA WS, undated)
Municipalities in WMAs and their mean monthly rainfall (MMR)
LimpopoWMA Luvuvhu-Letaba WMA
Month 0 ~ ~ ~ MMR "0 ~ ~
=
bJ) ~ ~=
~ ~=
~ ~~=
~ .ce
~~=
~ -; .c 'r;; .c ~=
~ ..::!=
.~
....
~=
Q, 0 ~....
~ ~=
=
~ ~ ~ bJ) .J Nc
~ .J~ "0 -0( .c Eo< ~ Eo< Jan 134 58 76 82 109 185 74 131 115 93 106 Feb 157 57 78 60 79 184 108 147 119 105 109 Mar 109 39 56 52 51 120 75 115 70 58 75 Apr 40 27 21 33 30 54 47 42 30 26 35 May 20 10 3 11 9 18 15 17 15 Il 13 Jun 11 4 8 5 3 9 17 11 2 6 8 Jul 11 1.
3 3 6 8 14 10 7 7 7 Aug 11 1 4 6 3 9 Il 11 5 8 7 Sep 28 12 10 17 12 17 39 17 25 19 20 Oct 71 24 43 43 44 53 93 66 37 33 51 Nov 93 49 53 85 88 96 76 87 76 60 76 Dec 122 57 80 81 87 150 128 109 86 91 99 MAP 807 339 435 478 519 902 697 762 588 515 604 516 693 604As shown in Table 1.1, more rainfall is received during summer months and less is received during winter months. The rainfall season begins in spring with an average across the area of 20mm in September where three municipalities recorded> 25mm. By October the rainy season has begun and all stations are receiving more than 50mm on average with Thulamela recording the highest monthly rainfall of 93mm. The mean across the area increased through November (76mm) and December (99mm) with January and February representing the peak rainy months with more than 100mm each. Thereafter the mean rainfall across the area declines through March (74mm), April (35mm), May (13mm), June (8mm), and then July and August are the months with the lowest rainfall of 7 mm each.
Considering the municipal mean annual rainfall (MAP in mm per annum), Letaba (902mm) > Makhado (807) > Tzaneen (762) > Thulamela (697mm) > Giyani (588) > Aganang (519) > Mutale (514.9) > Polokwane (478) > Lephalale (435) > Musina (339). Generally, the municipalities in the Luvuvhu-Letaba WMA have higher MAP (all> 500 mm) than those in the Limpopo WMA where three have MAP<500 mm. The average MAP for the Limpopo WMA was 516 mm while that of the Luvuvhu-Letaba WMA was 693mm. The average rainfall of the province is estimated at 500 - 600mm per annum which is low compared to the world average of 860mm per annum (DWAF, 2004a). With this rainfall pattern, the question is how much water is actually available for use in the study area?
(b) Evapotranspiration
Evapotranspiration (ET) is the major loss of water from a hydrologic system (Schulze, 1995). Methods of estimating ET include evaporation pans, monitoring soil water under controlled conditions, and applying known rates of potential ET to an area based on its land use and vegetative cover (Webb, 2005). The ET of the study area was calculated based on the ET figures of the ten study municipalities based on ET data obtained from the SAWS (undated) for weather stations located in those municipalities (Table 1.2).
Table 1.2 Mean monthly evapotranspiration (ET mm) of sampled municipalities in the study area (SAWS, undated)
Municipalities
LimpopoWMA Luvuvhu-Letaba WMA
Month 0 ~ ~c OIl Q:j~ Mean ET
"0~ ~ ~ ~ c ~ c ~ ë ~ ~ .c c ~ ~ ~ .Q ~ ~ c -; ~ .;;; .cC- e c~ ~ c ~
=
... ~=
'0 ... ~ ...=
~ ~ ...:l~ ~
<
OIl ...:l~ .cE-o E-otoolG
~Jan 175 166 155 161 157 132 158 133 150 161 155
Feb 146 144 130 153 136 112 133 112 127 136 133
Mar 141 140 129 149 133 105 132 123 124 BO 131
Apr III III 108 108 III 86 107 86 96 108 103
May 93 96 84 92 92 70 93 73 84 88 86 Jun 75 78 77 78 81 60 83 60 72 74 74 Jul 82 84 84 85 88 65 85 65 74 82 80 Aug 110 107 113 107 113 81 109 81 93 104 102 Sep 143 126 144 134 141 99 137 101 120 122 126 Oct 163 154 163 164 169 118 152 118 141 152 149 Nov 164 162 165 161 168 120 155 120 143 153 151 Dec 171 167 166 161 171 129 160 129 147 166 157 1572 1534 1517 1552 1559 1176 1501 1199 1372 1475 1446 Annual ET 1547 1345
As shown in Table 1.2, ET is generally lower during the winter months of May to July where the mean monthly ET ranged between 74mm and 86mm. The ET is higher during summer months of November to January with mean monthly ET ranging between 151mm and 157mm. The study area losses more water through ET during summer months despite this being the season in which more rainfall is received.
Considering municipal ET (mm per annum), Makhado (1572.3mm) > Aganang (1559.1) > Polokwane (1551.8) > Musina (1534.2) > Lephalale (1516.5) > Thulamela (1501.2) > Mutale (1475.3) > Giyani (1371.7) > Tzaneen (1198.8) > Letaba (1175.6). The five municipalities with higher ET are from Limpopo WMA while those with lower ET are from Luvuvhu-Letaba WMA.
As a result, the Limpopo WMA has a higher average annual ET (1546.8) than the Luvuvhu-Letaba WMA (1344.5mm). The ET for the Limpopo Province is generally high having a negative influence on water resource availability; the question remains how much water is actually available for use in the study area.
(c) Water supply situation
Despite all the river catchments and the rainfall and ET patterns as described above, Limpopo is a water scarce province. As alluded to by Molden et al. (2002) the shortage of water in the province is a result of physical scarcity of the resource. The scarcity was affirmed by RSA (2003) statement that the province is one of those depending on other areas for water supplies and by OTP (2009) who revealed that the scarcity of the resource is a major constraint for development. The scarcity of water in the province has constrained supplies to different users and is a major problem.
The scarce supply of water in the Limpopo Province has necessitated this study. The rest of ;;:South Africa experiences a physical scarcity of the water resource to some extent, but little can be done to change this type of scarcity in the province. The water supply of the province may be improved through management interventions that promote resource storage and efficient use, and such interventions require water service organisations with relevant capacity.
'n
was therefore necessary for the study to identify water service organisations and to assess their capacity to address water sector challenges.1.4 Purpose of the study
The above description of the Limpopo Province was based on 'real-life' issues that prevail in the area with some highlights of information gaps (a - f) that may be influencing the water sector negatively. These information gaps constitute 'real-life' problems of the water sector in the area and were used to inform the definition of the purpose of the study (Mouton, 2001).
As guided by Mouton (2001), reflection about the macro-environment of the study area and its 'real-life' problems was done in a non-scientific manner, and therefore a more rigorous and systematic reflection was necessary to formulate the research objectives. It was subsequent to this rigorous and systemic reflection that the research objectives were presented alongside the real-life problems identified when describing the macro-environment of the study area (Table
1.3).
Table 1.3 Real-life problems of the water sector in Limpopo Province and corresponding research objectives to address them
Level Real-life problem Research objective
Specific
•
... planners should know the quantity of water that To determine the prospects for developing1 can be stored in existing dams and the amount that water storage through analysis of runoff and
could remain available for future storage ... storage capacity of river catchments and
municipalities
Specific D There is a lack of information about water To conduct an inquiry on the perceptions of
2 managers knowledge of the water resources ... municipal water managers on water resources,
uses and restrictions
Specific C Need focussed investigation of the existing To investigate municipal water managers
3 stakeholders and their level of participation In perceptions of stakeholder participation and
resource management decisions. influence on water management decisions
Specific oIt is not clear whether the Middle Letaba Dam will To investigate the influence of rainfall on
4
ever fill up to its capacity and allow for increased water gain and loss from the Middle Letabasupply of water ... Dam
Specific e ... lack of information on water supply to rural To investigate the water supply and
5 households in the study area ... requirements of rural households in the study
area
Ultimate f ...It was necessary to identify water service To develop a water management decision
organisations and to assess their capacity to address model informed by the challenges and
water sector challenges. opportunities revealed by focussed
investigations listed above.
1.5 Summary
This chapter presented the study foundation focusing on the overview of the national water resources, description of the study area (geographic, socio-economic and environmental), and the purpose of the study. The study posits that there are 'real-life' issues that prevail in the area with some highlight of information gaps that may be influencing the water sector rather negatively. These information gaps constitute 'real-life' problems of the water sector in the area and informed the definition of the purpose of the study. The research objectives were presented
alongside the real-life problems identified when describing the macro-environment of the study area.
1.6 Outline of the thesis
The study objectives cover thematic issues of water resource, resource management, household water supply and requirement, and finally the development of a water management decision model (Table 1.3). The outline of the thesis inclusive of specific chapters based on the research objectives is as follows:
Chapter One (which is this chapter) is introductory and presents: (1) chapter introduction; (2)
overview of national water resources; (3) description of the study area (geographic, socio-economic and environmental); (4) purpose of the study; and (5) summary and (6) outline of the thesis.
Chapter Two discusses the design and methods used in conducting the research. The discussion
includes: (1) orientation and planning of the study; (2) the design of survey questionnaires; (3) sample frame and sampling procedure; (4) collection of data; (5) data analysis; (6) restrictions of the study; (7) time schedule; (8) description of the study area.
Chapter Three discusses the literature review with a focus on: (1) mathematical models; (2)
social models; and (3) experiences of using the congruence model.
Chapter Four discusses runoff and storage capacity of catchment and municipalities in the study area. The discussion focuses on: (1) introduction of the concepts runoff and storage capacity; (2) study methods with special attention given to (a) description of the study area, (b) sample frame and sampling procedure and (c) data collection and analysis; and (3) results and their discussion with a focus on (a) runoff and storage capacity of river catchments and (b) runoff and storage capacity of municipalities; and (4) conclusions.
Chapter Five discusses rainfall influence on water gain and loss from Middle Letaba Darn with
major topics discussed being: (1) introduction of concepts of water gain and loss by reservoirs; (2) research methods with a focus on (a) darn location and physical characteristics, (b) sampling procedure and (c) data collection and analysis; and (3) results and their discussion under major topics on (a) rainfall received over the surface area of the dam, (b) the influence of rainfall on inflow from source river, (c) rainfall influence on evaporation from the dam surface, (d) the influence of rainfall on outflow from the dam and (e) rainfall and dam water storage volume; and (4) conclusions.
Chapter Six discusses the perceptions of municipal water managers on water resources, uses and
restrictions. The specific topics covered by the discussions were: (1) introductions of the concepts water resources, uses and restrictions; (2) study methods with a focus on: (a) area covered by the study, (b) sample frame and sampling procedure and (c) data collection and analysis; (3) results and discussion with particular attention on: (a) perceptions on municipal water resources, (b) perceptions on water uses, (c) perceptions on water restrictions; and (4) conclusions.
Chapter Seven discusses stakeholder participation and their influence in water management decisions as perceived by local municipal water managers. Specific issues discussed included: (1) introduction of the concepts stakeholders and stakeholder participation; (2) research methods with a focus on (a) description of the area covered by the study, (b) sample frame and sampling procedure and (c) data collection and analysis; (3) results and their discussion under the sub-headings: (a) stakeholder organisations and their roles, (b) stakeholder participation in water management decisions and (c) stakeholder influence on water management decisions; and (4) conclusions.
Chapter Eight discusses water supplies and uses by households in the study area. The topics
covered by the discussions were: (1) introduction of household water supply and uses; (2) research methods focusing on (a) description of the area covered by the study (b) sample frame
and sampling procedure and (c) data collection and analysis; (3) results and discussion with a focus on (a) characterization of the households, (b) household water supplies, (c) household water uses and (d) household rating of the water services; and (4) conclusions.
Chapter Nine analyses the water sector challenges and research conclusions of chapter three to
eight and accordingly proposes a water management decision model to address these challenges. The discussions of this chapter focussed on: (1) introduction highlighting the water sector challenges; (2) study methods with special attention on (a) description of the Congruence Model as a framework of a proposed water management decision model, (b) sample frame and sampling procedure, (c) description of study area and (d) data collection and analysis; (3) results and their discussion with special attention on (a) input components and their influence on water sector, (b) major challenges faced by the water sector, (b) organisational strategies and their congruence with water sector challenges, (c) transformation components and their congruence with water sector challenges, (d) congruence flow analysis and proposed capacity improvement and (e) proposed water management decision model adapted from the Congruence Model.
Chapter Ten provides a highlight of the main findings and their implications for policy. These
were followed by policy recommendations for (1) catchment runoff and storage capacity, (2) dam hydrology, (3) water managers' knowledge of the resource and its uses, (4) stakeholder participation in water decision making, (5) household water supply and requirement, and (6) water management decision model.
1.7 Publication of research work
It must be noted that several of the chapters of this study were written in the form of self-contained published scientific articles (chapters 4 to 9). The scientific publications that arise from this study are as follows:
Chapter 4: Runoff and storage capacity of municipalities and rivers of Limpopo and Luvuvhu-Letaba WMA of South Africa - Abstract was published in Proceedings of the 10th
WaterNet/WARFSA/GWP Symposium in Entebbe, Uganda, in 2009.
Chapter 5: Rainfall influence on water gain and loss from Middle Letaba Dam in Luvuvhu-Letaba WMA - Abstract was published in Proceedings of the 11th WaterNet/WARFSA/GWP
Symposium in Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe, in 2010. Full text was published in the International
Journalof Applied Science and Technology, 2(3): 24-33.
Chapter 6: Perceptions of rural municipal water managers on water resources, uses and restrictions - Abstract was published in Proceedings of the
io'
WaterNet/WARFSA/G WP Symposium in Entebbe, Uganda in 2009. Full text was published in the International Journal of Business and Social Science, 3(5): 8-20.Chapter 7: Perceptions of rural municipal water managers on stakeholder participation in water issues in Limpopo and Luvuvhu-Letaba WMAs - Abstract was published in Proceedings
of the 10th WaterNet/WARFSA/GWP Symposium in Entebbe, Uganda in 2009. Full text was
published in the American International Journal of Contemporary Research, 2(9):26-37
Chapter 8: Household water supply and uses by rural households in the Limpopo Province of South Africa - Abstract was published in Proceedings of the CTA Annual Seminar in
Johannesburg, South Africa in 2010. Full text was published in the International Journal of
Business and Social Science, 3(3): 37-49.
Chapter 9: Challenge and capacity congruence analysis for development of a water management decision model - Accepted for full text publication in the American International
Journal of Contemporary Research, Vol. 2 No. 10 (scheduled to be published on 10 December 2012).
CHAPTER2
2 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
2.1 Introduction
This chapter discusses the research methods followed in conducting the study to achieve the objectives outlined in Chapter 1. The choice of the methods was determined by the commitment to generate truthful knowledge as this is the overriding goal of science (Mouton, 1996). The quest for truth in this research has made choice of the correct methodology very important.
The study used available knowledge from various disciplines to produce relevant scientific knowledge to address water sector problems in the Limpopo Province. It was therefore regarded important to provide some description of 'knowledge' in general and 'scientific knowledge' in particular. The different types of knowledge obtainable in the study area define the context of the study and hence their proper description provides guidance for selection of the most suitable research methods.
2.2 Description of knowledge
The description of knowledge focused on the kinds of knowledge and some highlights of scientific knowledge.
2.2.1 Kinds of knowledge
There are three kinds of knowledge, namely: (1) folk or lay knowledge, (2) scientific knowledge and (3) meta-scientific knowledge (Mouton, 1996; Mouton, 2001). Lay knowledge is obtained from sources such as authority, opinions of peers, traditions, debating, and accidental observations (Welman et al., 2005) and is acquired through learning, experience and self-reflection and enables us to live a human life (Mouton, 1996).
In order to generate scientific knowledge, scientists make phenomena (politics, economics, etc.) of folk knowledge objects of systematic and rigorous inquiry and investigation with the goal of searching for truth (Mouton, 1996; Leedy and Ormrod, 2010). The essence of research methodology in searching for truth was highlighted by Welman et al. (2005) who argued that the scientific approach is concerned with the way in which findings are acquired.
Meta-scientific knowledge on the other hand covers reflections on the nature and dynamics of scientific knowledge, and this has led to the development of disciplines such as philosophy of science and research methodology. Meta-science makes scientific knowledge an object of critical inquiry and reflection with the purpose of dissecting, deconstructing or analysing what scientists do toward the ultimate improvement of science (Mouton, 1996).
From the above discussion, folk knowledge serves as data (objects) for analysis and interpretation to generate scientific knowledge. At a different level, scientific knowledge also serves as data for higher level analysis and interpretation referred to as 'reflection' to generate updated scientific knowledge. Through their different levels of data analysis and interpretation, both the scientific and the meta-scientific processes generate scientific knowledge with the scientific process using folk knowledge as its data while the meta-scientific process uses scientific knowledge as its data.
This study used all the three kinds of knowledge. Folk knowledge included the secondary data mostly on climate and hydrological issues obtained from reports of the Department of Water Affairs (DWA) (chapters 4 and 5) and those of different water service organisations (Chapter 9). The folk knowledge was also in the form of perceptions of respondents to interview questions. The respondent perceptions were recorded in chapters where information was collected through interviews (chapters 6 to 8).
Also, folk knowledge was recorded from meetings with officers of different institutions involved in the water sector, and those included the Department of Water Affairs (DWA), Limpopo
Department of Agriculture (LDA) and different municipalities (chapters 4 to 9). Discussions
were conducted with peer researchers at water conferences where some of the chapters were presented as research articles and some folk knowledge was recorded. Scientific knowledge was mainly collected through literature study where relevant scientific documents served as sources of the information.
The study subjected the collected folk knowledge to a systematic and rigorous inquiry (scientific process) to generate new scientific knowledge (Mouton, 1996; Leedy and ,Ormrod, 2010). In addition to folk knowledge, the research also collected existing scientific knowledge and this was mainly through literature. The existing scientific knowledge was subjected to critical inquiry and reflection (meta-scientific process) to generate updated (meta-) scientific knowledge. The updated scientific knowledge consisted of scientific statements that were upheld after the critical inquiry and reflection as well as those amended after rejection of the original statement. The use of all the three types of knowledge in this research project was necessary to have appropriate information for development of a water management decision model.
2.2.2 Scientific knowledge
The rationale for this study was to subject both folk knowledge and existing scientific knowledge to systematic and rigorous inquiry and reflection to generate new valid scientific knowledge relevant to address the water challenges in the study area. In-depth understanding of the nature of scientific knowledge was necessary for correct methodology to be used to generate the knowledge and for it to be properly used to solve problems.
Scientific knowledge was described as a 'house of science' with the foundation built of factual statements that are easily verifiable and seemingly irrefutable and the walls built of statements that are difficult to verify (Mouton, 1996). The easily verifiable statements are those that are objective and are often quantitative while those that are difficult to verify are subjective and are often qualitative. These different types of statements (quantitative and qualitative) informed the research approaches used and were discussed more under section 2.3.
In the same way that a house needs both the foundation and walls, scientific knowledge requires both the easily verifiable statements and those that are difficult to verify. As stated by Mouton (1996), the description of scientific knowledge as the house of science regards science as a phenomenon that progresses slowly but surely as additional bricks become more cemented. These additional bricks would be the new statements that are easily verifiable for the foundation and those that are difficult to verify for the walls of the house of science.
In addition to being described as a house (of science), scientific knowledge was also described as something that evolves, suggesting that it changes over time. In the cause of evolution, the scientific statements that withstand attempts at rejection emerge stronger and are accepted as part of the body of knowledge. The acceptance is always provisional until attempts at falsification succeed (Mouton, 1996; Terre Blanche et al., 2009). The upholding and rejection of scientific statements occur as a result of the critical inquiry and reflection on existing scientific knowledge which in this study was mostly collected through literature survey.
The fact that scientific knowledge is only accepted provisionally results in the history of science being comprised of a period of normal science where a particular research paradigm (or tradition) dominates followed by a scientific revolution when the dominant paradigm is rejected, and this results in scientific knowledge consisting of sets of paradigms (Mouton, 1996). While this study made reference to knowledge from previous research work, it never regarded such knowledge to be the final truth (Walsham, 1995) as this would uphold the knowledge even when it should be rejected. Regarding existing scientific knowledge as the final truth limits the possibility of such knowledge being subjected to meta-scientific activities of analyses, dissection and deconstruction (Mouton, 1996) and the opportunity for ushering in new paradigms.
The two components of scientific knowledge (verifiable vs non-verifiable) are mutually inclusive and complementary and hence this study adopted both of them in its attempt to contribute to the generation of knowledge for addressing water sector challenges in the Limpopo Province. By subjecting existing folk and scientific knowledge to (meta-) scientific processes of systematic
and rigorous inquiry and reflection, the study aimed to generate new scientific knowledge that will introduce new thinking in the water sector. The new knowledge should remain relevant not only spatially for the areas with similar socio-economic and hydrologic environment, but also temporally for the times when such hydrologic and socio-economic environment occurs. When such spatial or temporal relevance is lost, application of the knowledge and the subsequent water management decision model will inevitably also be lost to the historic sets of paradigms of scientific knowledge.
2.3 Research approach
The description of knowledge and the focussed description of scientific knowledge provided the context for selection of relevant research methods used in this study. Selection of relevant research methods was critical to produce credible knowledge to solve water sector problems in the Limpopo Province. Before considering specific research methods, it was considered necessary to select appropriate research approaches for the context described by the different kinds of available knowledge in order to generate truthful knowledge worthy to fulfil the epistemie interest of this scientific study.
2.3.1 Main approaches
There are two main approaches to research, the positivist and the anti-positivist approach (Welman et al., 2005). The positivist is also known as the quantitative approach and underlies the natural-scientific method in human behavioural research. According to the positivist approach, research must be limited to what we can observe and measure objectively, i.e. that which exists independently of the feelings and opinions of individuals (Welman et al., 2005). Anti-positivists are also known as qualitative researchers and share a resistance to upholding the natural-scientific method as the norm in human behavioural research (Welman et al., 2005). For the purpose of simplicity, the two approaches were referred to in this study as the quantitative and qualitative approaches.
