Environmental CSR : addressing, reflecting and affecting community needs

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Photo credit: Marc Aberdeen Original available at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/42755617@N06/8517823182/in/photostream/

Graduate School of Social Sciences

MSc International Development Studies Master Thesis

Environmental CSR: Addressing, Reflecting and Affecting

Community Needs

Sophie Mendes | 10701052

1

st

July 2015

Supervisor | Dr. Hebe J.L.M. Verrest

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Over the past half a century, the concept of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) has developed, since Bowen introduced ‘social responsibility’ in 1953. CSR has taken hold practically as well as theoretically and at least in some countries forms an important part of the governance structure. At the same time, the need to deal with environmental issues and pressure for more environmental responsibility has grown. This thesis explores the point where these two issues intersect, focusing on local level environmental CSR by oil and gas companies within Trinidad and Tobago. Using semi-structured interviews, participant observations and document analysis, this study sought to discover how these CSR policies address, reflect and affect community concerns on environmental issues. Energy company staff, NGO workers, community members, government officials and CSR program beneficiaries formed the study sample.

This study assesses how environmental CSR addresses environmental issues in the areas of fisheries, agriculture, awareness raising and waste. Associated issues are highlighted, such as the ways people view the idea of environmental sustainability, which is mostly from a livelihood perspective; the drivers of the CSR projects, such as reputation, issue management or ethics and the issue of scale. The study shows that nationally, environmental consciousness is relatively low, meaning that there is a greater focus, within communities, in government and in CSR programmes on addressing social and economic issues. The historical and structural reasons behind the low levels of environmental awareness and action are also explored. The thesis argues that environmental CSR could be

improved through better collection and use of data in conceiving, monitoring and assessing projects; through a more concrete and long-term CSR strategy; and through a move from philanthropy towards meaningful partnerships. Government also needs to create an enabling environment which supports the growth of environmental CSR. Finally, findings show that addressing ‘community needs’ is difficult as there are many different conceptions of what defines a community, whether it is geographically defined, interest-led or based on the economy.

This study reflects specifically on environmental CSR and the perspectives of a wide variety of stakeholders. The issues raised can provide a basis for further improvement of environmental CSR within Trinidad and Tobago.

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List of Acronyms

CAQDAS – Computer Assisted Qualitative Data AnalysiS CEC – Certificate of Environmental Clearance

CED - Committee for Economic Development CSR – Corporate Social Responsibility EIA – Environmental Impact Assessment EMA – Environmental Management Authority EPI – Environmental Performance Index GDP – Gross Domestic Product

HSE – Health, Safety and Environment

MGGA – Mayaro Greenhouse Growers Association NGO – Non-government Organisation

SIA – Social Impact Assessment SIDS – Small Island Developing State

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1. Introduction

There has been growing concern in recent times on need to address environmental issues and live sustainably. A recent study argues we have exceeded the safe levels on four out of nine vital life support systems1_{and another that globally, a third of oil reserves, half of gas reserves and over 80} per cent of current coal reserves should remain unused if we are to limit global warming to 2°C2_. These developments put oil and gas companies under pressure to be seen to be tackling climate change, which asides from putting themselves out of business, could include moving away from fossil fuels towards renewable energy or climate change adaptation and mitigation in the form of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) projects. Whilst E.ON, the German utility firm, announced in December it’s shift towards renewable sources3_{, it is unlikely that any major oil and gas company will} make the change soon, due to short-term pressure from shareholders. So, alongside environmental regulations such as those developed by the International Organisation for Standardization, CSR can play a role in showing energy companies taking action on environmental issues. The question is whether it is enough to prevent major environmental chaos. It is beyond the scope of this study to tackle global issues but it will explore the ways CSR policies of energy companies can tackle local environmental issues and if it is effective at this level. Related to this is whether transnational companies can really help to address issues on a scale much smaller than its system scale and this leads to exploring community values and participation.

As will be discussed in the theoretical framework, systems of governance are changing. Advances in technology, communication, transnational businesses and increasingly global challenges like climate change and international terrorism have shifted the scale on which governance takes place. There has also been a shift downwards towards decentralisation and community participation, which is important for environmental governance as the scale of governance needs to fit the scale of the environmental problem4_{. As transnational companies become more powerful, some having higher} revenues than some countries’ Gross Domestic Product (GDP), and play a larger role in governance, there is an argument that companies need to adopt some of the democratic characteristics that have become more common in systems of government. So whilst companies are under pressure to deal with environmental issues they should also include citizens in their environmental decisions.

1_{Steffen et al. 2015} 2_{McGlade and Ekins, 2015} 3_{Nelsen, 2014}

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Trinidad and Tobago is quite dependent on oil and gas as 45% of GDP is generated in the energy sector5_{, however it also has a lot to lose from environmental change, some of which caused by oil} and gas companies but also because of its geography as two small islands vulnerable to impacts of climate change, the reliance of some people for their livelihoods on fishing and agriculture, the wide biodiversity and the considerable amount of natural resources it contains. This makes it an

interesting context to explore how the tension between economic wealth and environmental sustainability is resolved, in this case by CSR projects. This study will explore how the environmental issues important to communities are tackled by the environmental CSR policies of oil and gas companies.

1.1. Research objectives

The initial aim of the research was to study how environmental CSR projects of oil and gas

companies addressed the environmental sustainability issues important to local communities. This was based on assumptions that people in Trinidad and Tobago would care about environmental issues due to the nation’s status as a small island developing state (SIDS)6_{, which are recognised as} some of the most vulnerable states to climate change7_{, the assumption that oil and gas companies} would be carrying out plenty of environmental CSR as they would need to mitigate harmful impacts of their operations or see importance in branding themselves as ‘green businesses’ more than in other industries and the assumption that community was a simple concept based on locality. These assumptions were challenged in the field, therefore the research questions were adapted to explore how and why what had been expected wasn’t reflected in reality. The final research

questions investigate: the different conceptions of community and how CSR projects related to them differently; the level of environmental CSR activity from the energy companies and what factors determine this and levels of environmental awareness and concern amongst the population and what accounts for varying levels. The central research question was to discover how local level environmental CSR projects address, reflect and affect the environmental sustainability issues important to different communities. The ‘reflect’ aspect of the question explores who participates in shaping CSR and whose ‘issues’ are reflected in the projects and the ‘affect’ aspect of the question studies how certain CSR projects, education for example, can shape people’s environmental awareness.

So the main research question is:

5_{Ministry of Energy and Energy Affairs, 2015}

6_{For a discussion on the characteristics of a ‘SIDS’, see Kellman and West, 2009, pgs 1-2} 7_{See IPCC paper, 2007 and UNFCC, 2005}

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How do local level environmental CSR projects of oil and gas companies in Trinidad and Tobago address, reflect and affect the environmental sustainability issues important to different types of communities?

And the sub questions are:

1. What are the environmental sustainability issues in communities? How much of a priority are these issues and to which communities?

2. What are the environmental CSR projects taking place and how are they conceived and implemented?

3. To what extent and how do the environmental CSR policies address the environmental issues that are important to the various identified communities?

4. What accounts for the short comings of environmental CSR in Trinidad and Tobago? Does this reflect the wishes of communities or does it reflect policy and framework gaps?

1.2. Thesis outline

The thesis is split into seven chapters, Chapter Two will outline the theoretical framework that has informed this study, looking at CSR, community and environmental sustainability theories. Chapter Three outlines the conceptual scheme showing the dynamics between actors, concepts and external factors within the focus of the study. Chapter Four introduces the study areas and the economic and environmental situation, then Chapter Five discusses the methodologies used and the reasons for using them and the ethical considerations and limitations of the study. Chapter Six analyses the issues that came out of the study including discussions on: the conception of community in the national and environmental context; the environmental focus of CSR projects; levels of

environmental awareness within communities; challenges to be met in the field of environmental CSR, the role of government in relation to CSR and how the needs of various communities are being met. In Chapter Seven, the findings of the study are summarised, implications for further research and suggestions for practical recommendations are discussed.

2. Theoretical Framework

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All major companies have some CSR but few explicitly define what it means or why they implement it. We will look at the origins of the concept, commonalities in definitions, where conceptions diverge and feed into other concepts and why companies develop CSR policies.

2.1.1. Definition and evolution of CSR

Dahlsrud’s literature review provides a comprehensive overview of common dimensions in definitions of CSR8_{. He identifies five key dimensions which are; environmental, social, economic,} stakeholder and voluntariness, all of which are included in over 80% of definitions, apart from ‘environmental’ which is only mentioned in 59% of definitions9_{. The voluntariness dimension shows} that CSR should go beyond any legal requirements and the stakeholder dimension demonstrates the need to affect not only shareholders but all those who are impacted by the company’s operations. The environmental, social and economic dimensions show the need of CSR to address a wide range of issues.

Carroll’s literature review of the concept illustrates the evolution of CSR since Bowen defined ‘social responsibility’ in ‘The Social Responsibilities of the Businessman’10_{as “the obligations of}

businessmen to pursue those policies, to make those decisions or to follow those lines of action which are desirable in terms of the objectives and values of our society”11_{. Bowen’s definition places} emphasis on the individual but since the 1960s, the ‘corporate’ has become more important in addressing social responsibility, from the justification of CSR as “having a good chance of bringing long-run economic gain to the firm”12_{to the idea that “social responsibilities of businessmen need to} be commensurate with their social power”13_{, to Johnson’s stakeholder approach in the 1970s}14_and the publication by the Committee for Economic Development (CED) of the ‘three concentric circles of CSR’15_{paving the way for the idea of corporate citizenship. Whilst competing conceptions of CSR} have appeared simultaneously, general trend is the changing relationship between business and society and increasing power of corporations which, in the political approach to CSR translates into a responsibility to use this power in a way that benefits society. From this, we can place CSR within the wider context of changing systems of governance.

8_{Dahlsrud, 2008} 9_{Dahlsrud, 2008, p5} 10_{Bowen, 1953} 11_{Bowen, 1953, p6} 12_{Davis, 1960, p70} 13_{Davis, 1960, p71} 14_{Johnson, 1971} 15_{CED, 1971}

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2.1.2. CSR in the wider governance context

Moon outlines the four main drivers of CSR as market, social, governmental and globalization16_{. He} sees CSR at present as related to consumer awareness and demand for ethical products, pressure from non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and the media for responsible business, government encouragement to deal with social and environmental issues and lastly globalization raising “new imperatives for business legitimacy across borders”17_{. In regards to globalization, he states that both} within nations and especially at the international level there are big gaps in governance that need to be filled and as companies become more powerful, they may be able to fill these gaps. There are three issues we can relate this to; the difference between national and transnational companies, the voluntary nature of CSR and the place within this new governance structure for participation. Moon argues that “companies that cross borders are more attentive to CSR than companies that only operate in one country”18_{and it’s interesting to see if this is the case when studying national} and transnational oil and gas companies within Trinidad and Tobago. Transnational companies are subject to more social pressure than national companies, the norms and values differ between the two types of company and they have more resources available to implement CSR. An alternative view is that national companies actually have more interest in socially responsible practices as, unlike transnational companies, if they don’t manage their risks well, there isn’t the option to relocate operations elsewhere. There is also the issue of CSR agendas varying “according to national social, economic, governance and environmental systems”19_{so we will explore Trinidad and}

Tobago’s system of government, how reliant the economy is on oil and gas, environmental issues specific to the country and the lack of international limelight of national operations amongst other factors.

Secondly, what happens to the voluntary nature of CSR as companies become more involved in and relied on for governance? Moon discusses the idea of “soft regulation” from governments 20_but what if this moves further along the regulation spectrum – will we still be able to call it CSR?

2.1.3. Approaches to CSR

Implicit in the discussions above are reasons companies implement CSR and whilst this study does not look in depth at the ‘why’, it is important to have a basic framework to understand how this effects the design and aims of certain CSR policies and projects. Garriga and Mele outline four 16_{Moon, 2007} 17_{Moon, 2007, p301} 18_{Moon, 2007, p301} 19_{Moon, 2007, p298} 20_{Moon, 2007, p301}

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groups of approaches to CSR; instrumental, political, integrative and ethical21_{. The instrumental} approach sees corporations “as an instrument for wealth creation and that this is its sole social responsibility”,22_{whilst the political approach focuses on the power of business within society thus} its need to use this power in a politically responsible way. The integrative approach sees business as depending on society for its “existence, continuity and growth”,23_{thus the need to integrate social} demands within the business and the ethical approach “understands that the relationship between business and society is embedded with ethical values”24_{meaning firms have an ethical obligation to} society. Whilst different CSR projects will be able to fulfill objectives of more than one of these approaches, they are useful in understanding how committed a company is to their CSR projects and what the underlying aims of the project are. Another view put forth by Fitch is that “CSR is a serious attempt to solve the social problems caused wholly or in part by the corporation”25_{. Whilst this likely} plays a part in many formulations of CSR, it is unlikely companies will admit this, but this could be an interesting element especially when studying energy companies’ environmental CSR policies as they have a big impact on the environment in which they operate and the wider environment.

2.1.4. Corporate Sustainability

This study focuses on environmental CSR policies and as is clear from Dahlsrud’s literature review, this aspect of CSR is often neglected so it is useful to look at the connected theory of Corporate Sustainability (CS). According to Montiel26_{CS can be defined either as ecological sustainability or} more broadly and relating to the Brundtland report definition of sustainable development which incorporates social and economic dimensions as well27_{.Whilst this study will be focusing on} environment issues, social and economic priorities are considered as well, which will be explored further in the third theoretical concept of environmental sustainability. Dyllick and Hockerts define ecologically and socially sustainable companies as companies that consume natural resources below the rate of natural reproduction, do not cause more emissions than can be absorbed, do not

degrade the eco-system and add value to the communities in which they operate28_.

There are many interpretations of how CS and CSR are related. Garriga and Mele describe CS as a subset of CSR theory29_{whilst Van Marrewijk sees CS as the ultimate goal with CSR as an}

21_{Garriga and Mele, 2004} 22_{Garriga and Mele, 2004, p52} 23_{Garriga and Mele, 2004, p57} 24_{Garriga and Mele, 2004, p53} 25_{Fitch, 1976, p38}

26_{Montiel, 2008, p254}

27_{World Commission on Environment and Development}_{, 1987} 28_{Dyllick and Hockerts, 2002, p133-134}

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intermediate stage30_{. There are also material differences in the two theories; Van Marrewijk sees} CSR as process driven relating to transparency, stakeholder dialogue and reporting and CS as results driven focusing on value creation, environmental management and environmentally friendly production31_{. I will look at both sets of values but it is useful to have a distinction.}

2.2. The Concept of Community

In the field of international development, community is rarely defined when discussing community needs and participation. The assumption is usually that ‘community’ is about locality and is a political rather than social unit32_{, but these assumptions should be challenged; one study listed 94} definitions of community and whilst all concerned human beings, “beyond this commonality, no agreement emerged”33_{. It is important to understand different conceptions of community in order} to explore community relationships with energy companies and their CSR programmes. The discipline of sociology provides theory on the definition of ‘community’, many of which are from healthcare related studies but provide a useful basis in this context.

The main distinction in conceptions of communities is between geographical and relational definitions, as far back as Toennis in 1887 who defined community as a group sharing a common space or a group sharing common traits34_{. This has been expanded on by Patrick and Wickizer to be} about place, social interaction or social and political responsibility35_{, adding a political element to} possible definitions of community.

In relation to participation in environmental decision making, Meadowcroft distinguishes between citizenship, community centred and stakeholder orientations, with community centered approach emphasising “local communities, their distinctive character and mode of being and entitlement to participate in decisions that affect their development”, whilst the stakeholder strand focuses on “the common-interest of groups bound together through social interaction and the participation of all social partners in determining the best way forward”36_{. Meadowcroft makes a distinction between} communities as local entities and other groups, therefore narrowing the definition of community back to its most limited definition. Others also have a narrow definition of ‘community’ but take the opposite approach to Meadowcroft by arguing that community based on location is decreasing in

30_{Van Marrewijk, 2003, p101} 31_{Van Marrewijk, 2003, p102} 32_{Meadowcroft, 2004, p170}

33_{Hillery, 1955 cited in Patrick and Wickizer, 1995, pg27} 34_{Toennis, 1887 cited in Patrick and Wickizer, 1995, pg48} 35_{Patrick and Wickizer, 1995, pg 48}

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importance or no longer relevant in the modern world due to “the mobility of households”37_{and the} “global village that has emerged with the advent of new media”38_{. These theories and definitions of} community need to be taken in context, both in the context of Trinidad and Tobago and in the context of environmental issues. Firstly, whilst 80.1% of the population in Trinidad and Tobago are internet users, only 44.6% of households have access to the internet, there is a discrepancy between rural and urban access39_{and in-country observations demonstrated strong local ties among people,} thus showing locality is still a strong element of community in this context. Secondly, when studying environmental issues, in this context, “locality is crucial; it is local landscape, traffic and litter that make ‘the environment’ real for most people”40_{. This further supports the focus, at least in part, on} local communities, but not at the expense of definitions based on issue led communities.

Whilst most conceptions of community include a discussion of locality, the geographical scale of this can vary. The difficulty of defining community scale lies in the national and international nature of social communication in contemporary society41_{and also in the “nature of the need” which leads to} community being defined in terms of political boundaries42_{. Environmental issues range from local} level waste problems to global problems of climate change, but can we really term the whole world a ‘community’ because of a shared issue to be solved? Williams described ‘community’ as being ‘more immediate than society’43_{, which suggests groups above a certain scale cannot be considered} ‘communities’, however this can be contested.

The reality is, “everyone experiences community with their own lens and purpose”44_{, so this study} focuses on the definitions and perspectives participants have on what defines a community, what communities they belong to and consequently which communities’ needs are addressed by energy company CSR programmes. McMillian and Chavis have devised a proposed definition which has four main elements to identify a community, whilst leaving it open for interpretation. These four

elements are: membership, which is a feeling of belonging or of sharing a sense of personal relatedness; influence, which is a sense of mattering and of making a difference; integration and fulfillment of needs, which is feeling needs will be met be group resources and a shared emotional

37_{Nisbet, 1970 cited in Patrick and Wickizer, 1995, pg 49} 38_{Scherer, 1972 cited in Patrick and Wickizer, 1995, pg 49}

39_{Telecommunications Authority of Trinidad and Tobago, 2013, pp 4 and 19-20} 40_{Christie, 1996 cited in Warburton, 2013, pg16}

41_{Patrick and Wickizer, 1995, pg49} 42_{Patrick and Wickizer, 1995, pp 50-51}

43_{Williams, 1988 cited in Warburton, 2013, pg14} 44_{Patrick and Wickizer, 1995, pg 47}

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connection, whether that is shared history, common places, time together and/or similar experiences45_{. This will guide the definition of community in this thesis.}

2.3. Environmental Sustainability

The most widely accepted and utilized definition of sustainable development is from the Brundtland report which is "development which meets the needs of current generations without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs"46_{. This study explores how far community} conceptions of sustainability are being met, in the context of environmental concerns and problems, with the distinction between sustainable development and sustainability being “sustainability is often thought of as a long-term goal ... while sustainable development refers to the many processes and pathways to achieve it”47_{. We will be concentrating on the goal of sustainability rather than the} process, in the context of the three pillars of sustainability; economic, social and environmental. Whilst concentrating on the environmental issues of the communities, it is important to take into consideration the other two pillars as they will inevitably affect the way people think about and prioritise the environment. Sustainability is a very wide and complex concept so we are unable to fully explore it in the theoretical framework but the importance of the concept for the study is to be able to map community conceptions of sustainability and what it means to them, so various ways of mapping will be explored as well as outlining the main approaches that are adopted.

2.3.1. Ways of Mapping

To establish how communities perceive sustainability, it is important to understand the various systems of mapping the concept. For instance Hopwood, Mellor and O’Brien place viewpoints on a graph between two axes (Appendix 1); a socio-economic axis covering human wellbeing from inequality to equality and an environmental axis which covers environmental concerns from virtually none, through techno-centred to eco-centred48_{. This method is simple and easy to understand and} various viewpoints fit within this framework. Related is the idea that competing conceptions of sustainability arise from the weighting of the economic, social and environmental pillars of

sustainability. This can be defined either in terms of “trade-offs between societal development and nature conservation”49_{or as compensation used as a tool to make operations acceptable, for} instance by feeding economic benefits “into domestic welfare and environmental sustainability

45_{McMillan and Chavis, 1986, p9}

46_{World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987} 47_{UNESCO, 2015}

48_{Hopwood, Mellor and O’Brien, 2005, p41} 49_{Quental et al. 2011, p258}

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initiatives”50_{. These approaches are valuable as they highlight the importance of determining} whether the environmental, social or economic aspects are most important, and therefore how people approach sustainability. However, as shown by the two-axis approach, there doesn’t have to be a complete trade-off between the different pillars, for instance, the values of social equality and environmental concern can be closely linked in a value system and there are many actions which address more than one of the pillars at once.

There are more scientific ways of assessing sustainability, such as the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, the Environmental Performance Index (EPI), Material Flow Analysis and Ecological Footprint Indicator as detailed by Moldan, Janouskova and Hak51_{, which suggests there are ‘truthful’,} objective definitions of sustainability. However, the choice of indicator reflects “societal and political norms and priorities”52_{. So for instance, using decoupling as an indicator, where the use of}

environmental resources is linked to economic growth53_{, suggests an emphasis on efficiency and} growth, whereas the carrying capacity indicator suggests concern with living within the limits of the eco-system and perhaps a acknowledgement that there needs to be limits to growth.

Another approach to mapping sustainability places emphasis on the use of discourse and how this reflects values and systems of beliefs. Dryzek explores how discourses “construct meanings and relationships, defining common sense and legitimate knowledge”54_{. He characterizes the different} viewpoints of sustainability by studying; the basic entities whose existence is recognized or

constructed, assumptions about natural relationships, who are the agents and their motives and the key metaphors and other devices that are used55_{. Related to this is the construction of “villains,} victims and actors” in different approaches to sustainability56_{and how this is indicative of different} views. One example is the construction of villains in deforestation; in one approach, over-populating farmers are the villains, in another, the forces of globalization are the villains57_{and this shapes what} solutions should be. Whilst discourses and discourse analysis are interesting and important, we will not be conducting a complete discourse analysis, but it is useful to have an idea of the role

discourses play. 50_{Cowell et al. 1999, p280} 51_{Moldan et al. 2012} 52_{Rametsteiner et al. 2011, p68} 53_{Moldan et al, 2012} 54_{Dryzek, 2013, p10} 55_{Dryzek, 2013, pp17-18} 56_{Adger et al. 2001} 57_{Adger et al. 2001, p686}

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Choucri’s approach to mapping sustainability allows for fluid redefinitions and is more multi-dimensional and comprehensive than other approaches58_{. She has devised a framework which} contains the domains of sustainable development, under the headings demographics, energy and natural resource, technology-centred and decisions and choices and the dimensions of the issues, from activities to problems to technical solutions, then social solutions through to international responses (Appendix 2). The strength of this approach is that it can be modified by deleting or adding different dimensions or domains, to reflect different conceptions of sustainability and it reflects a multi-scale perspective. One suggestion for more effective reflection of the different conceptions of sustainability would be if the domains differed in size to reflect which issue has priority.

2.3.2. Competing conceptions

Sustainability is a vague concept, so we need to use a combination of the above approaches to find out what sustainability means to different people. It’s not possible to map all the approaches here so this section will highlight some of the most prominent issues of contention within discussions of sustainability. To start with, one of the most basic features of how sustainability is conceived is whether it is approached from an anthropocentric or eco-centric stance; whether to strive for sustainability because of its instrumental or intrinsic value. The more common view, especially when talking about sustainable development is anthropocentric and this is reflected in major sustainable development publications, such as the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development which states as its first principle “human beings are at the centre of concerns for sustainable

development”59_{and the Millennium Development Goals which frames natural resources in terms of} social safety and poverty. However, deep ecologists come from an eco-centric approach, which recognises non-human systems as having rights and values in themselves60_.

There is an essential difference between those who subscribe to weak sustainability and strong sustainability. Weak sustainability “sees natural and manufactured capital as interchangeable with technology able to fill gaps”61_{, i.e. substitutability and strong sustainability recognises that “natural} and human made capital are not perfect substitutes”62_{and that some things such as ozone cannot} be replaced i.e. complimentarity. This dimension has a long history from theories on limits to growth by JS Mills and population pressures by TR Malthus and on the other hand the idea of tecFhnological

58_{Choucri, 2007}

59_{UN General Assembly, 1992, 1}st_Principle 60_{Hopwood et al, 2005, p40}

61_{Hopwood et al, 2005, p40} 62_{Goodland, 1995, p15}

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progress solving environmental issues propounded by David Ricardo in the eighteenth century63_. Despite its long history, there still is no consensus on which view is correct.

Weak and strong sustainability diverge in terms of the nature of nature and its relation to other forms of capital but there is also a divergence in terms of the system of governance for dealing with sustainability. Hopwood et al make the distinction of approaches that propose keeping the status quo, those in favour of reform and those who demand transformation64_{. Keeping the status quo} means “making adjustments without any fundamental changes to society, decision making or power relations”65_{whereas reform requires large shifts in policy and lifestyle within the present social and} economic structure66_{and transformation as a “transformation of society and/or human relations} with the environment is necessary to avoid a mounting crisis and even a possible future collapse”67_. Dryzek also makes distinctions between approaches to sustainability based on how social, political and economic systems are seen, between prosaic and imaginative but makes another distinction between reformist and radical, which produces four main approaches (or discourses); problem solving (problem solving by liberal democratic governments or markets or administration), limits and survival (wholesale redistribution of power and reorientation away from perpetual economic

growth), sustainability (dissolving conflict between environmental and economic values)and green radicalism (rejecting the basic structure of industrial society)68_.

Although people may not fit neatly into any of the approaches above, it is good to be aware of the types of values, norms and conflictions that can arise when discussing environmental sustainability.

2.3.3. Environmental Awareness and Action

Asides from how sustainability manifests itself, it is also important to look levels of environmental awareness and action and what accounts for this. Inglehart argues that levels of public support for environmental protection depend on both experience of severe objective problems and subjective cultural factors, varying in importance depending on the country69_{. According to Inglehart there is a} “growing body of evidence [that] indicates people’s basic values and goals are gradually shifting from giving top priority to economic growth and consumption, to placing increasing emphasis on

63_{Goodland, 1995, pp7-8} 64_{Hopwood et al, 2005} 65_{Hopwood et al, 2005, p42} 66_{Hopwood et al, 2005, p43} 67_{Hopwood et al, 2005, p45} 68_{Dryzek, 2013, p16} 69_{Inglehart, 1995}

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quality of life”70_{and that this is in evidence in the “unprecedented degree of economic security} experienced by the post-war generation in most industrial societies”71_{. Part of this shift to} ‘post-materialism’ is being prepared to make financial sacrifices to solve environmental problems. The idea is that economic security allows countries to progress along the spectrum towards

post-materialism and this is spreading across the world as countries become wealthier. Another theory is that values, including environmental values, come primarily from the “‘microsystem’, which is comprised of the immediate social net”, to a lesser extent by the “‘exosystem’, such as the media and political organisations and even less so by the “’macrosystem’, the cultural context in which the individual lives”72_{. As this study is exploring environmental awareness of the nation as a whole, it is} the macrosystem that mainly interests us, although what contributes to the ‘cultural context’ is not elaborated on.

There is the argument that the best way to increase environmental awareness is by education, both by educating people about sustainability and educating people to enable them to live in a

sustainable way73_{, but there has also been many studies on the gap between environmental} knowledge and pro-environmental action74_{. Other factors that contribute to pro-environmental} behaviour have been listed as; demographics, institutional, economic, social and cultural factors, motivation, locus of control, responsibilities and priorities75_{and some of these factors are included} in the study.

70_{Inglehart, 1995, p61} 71_{Inglehart, 1995, p62}

72_{Fuhrer, 1995 cited in Kollmuss and Agyeman, 2002, pg251} 73_{McKeown, 2002}

74_{Kollmuss and Agyeman, 2002} 75_{Kollmuss and Agyeman, 2002, p240}

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3. Conceptual scheme

The conceptual scheme outlines how the three main elements of this study: communities, oil and gas companies and environmental CSR projects are related and how other elements impact and are impacted by these three key components. The arrows show relationships between elements with the direction of the arrow showing the direction of impact. So there are the different (sometimes overlapping) conceptions of community, which have different levels and manifestations of environmental awareness which influences the environmental issues important to them. These environmental issues can be included in environmental CSR projects through a number of

participation methods, which involve varying levels of input from community members. The other main foundation for the shape of environmental CSR projects is energy companies themselves and the development and implementation of projects depends on which of the drivers is the main motivation for a company’s CSR programme. The environmental CSR projects then address, to some extent, the environmental issues of different communities through different types of project. I have also included external factors in the conceptual framework as, in the field, they emerged as

important factors. This study focuses on the elements of the environmental CSR projects taking places and how this interacts with the various identified communities in terms of addressing,

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reflecting and affecting their environmental sustainability concerns. Other elements such as how communities participate in CSR projects, how companies develop CSR programs and how external factors such as government and historical and cultural factors affect other elements have been included as they impact the main focus of CSR projects and their affect on communities.

The conceptual framework reflects the constructivist approach to the research, as it enforces that environmental issues are not completely objective issues agreed on by everyone and programmes and projects are not undisputedly positive or negative but that different perspectives lead to different views on the success of the project. Before the research, I imagined I would find

communities with specific pressing environmental concerns which either were or were not being effectively addressed, by company CSR projects or by other means. What I found is a complex combination of cultural, social, political, legislative and economic elements that influence each other and a wide range of priorities and objectives among different actors and groups and the conceptual framework aims to reflect this.

Appendix 3 shows the operationalisation of key concepts which helped formulate the study.

4. Context

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Trinidad and Tobago is a twin island nation off the coast of Venezuela and part of the Caribbean. It is ranked as a high income country by the World Bank76_{, is a parliamentary democracy and has an} adult literacy rate of 98.7%. The energy sector, including gas and oil accounts for 45% of GDP77_which leaves it exposed to oil price shocks. In terms of labour force, 3.8% is employed in agriculture, 12.8% in manufacturing, mining, and quarrying, 20.4% in construction and utilities and 62.9% in services. According to the C.I.A, water pollution from agricultural chemicals, industrial wastes, and raw sewage, oil pollution of beaches, deforestation and soil erosion are the main environmental problems in the country78_.

4.2. Mayaro

Mayaro is in the South East of Trinidad within the Rio Claro/Mayaro District, is largely rural with 27 communities located along the main arterial roads. Oil plays a large role in the region, and now most of the onshore oil fields are fully explored, fields are primarily offshore. It is a bio-diverse region and more than 50% of the land is protected by legislation. Environmental vulnerabilities include land slippage, flooding, high winds and soil and coastal erosion. Cocoa, coffee and coconut production is diminishing in the region but still occurs, fish production is an important source of livelihoods and ecotourism is emerging79_{. According to the Trinidad and Tobago Human Development Atlas 2012,} Mayaro/Rio Claro had the lowest human development index score in Trinidad, the lowest primary and secondary education attainment rate and the lowest household income of the nation apart from Tobago80_.

4.3. Point Fortin

The Borough of Point Fortin is in the South West of Trinidad. Its key economic activities are related to commercial businesses, major industrial undertakings and tourism. In terms of oil and gas, production of liquefied gas is produced for export by Atlantic LNG and offshore drilling activities are carried out by Petrotrin off the coast. There are restricted opportunities for employment in

petrochemical industry and unemployment is above the national average. Environmental issues include ground pollution, flooding and a decline in the fishing industry81_.

4.4. Environmental CSR programmes

76_{World Bank, 2015}

77_{Ministry of Energy and Energy Affairs, 2015} 78_{Central Intelligence Agency, 2015}

79_{Mayaro/ Rio Claro Region Corporation, 2010} 80_{Central Statistical Office, 2012}

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An overview of the main current and recent environmental CSR projects being carried out by oil and gas companies within Trinidad and Tobago is available in Appendix 4, to provide reference for the rest of the thesis. The main elements of these CSR projects are: education and awareness building; sponsorship of pre-existing environmental groups/projects; partnerships with these groups; mitigation of energy company operational impacts; employee engagement and agriculture and diversification. Some projects include more than one of these elements.

5. Methodology

5.1. Methods

5.1.1. Qualitative methods

I have chosen to conduct qualitative research in order to answer my research questions. Cresswell identifies defining characteristics of qualitative research, some of which are: including the voices, interpretations and meanings of participants; using an emergent design where questions and foci may change during the data collection process; undertaking an interpretive enquiry and presenting a holistic account of the research issue82_{and this study has followed these principles. The scale of the} study is community level and in-depth and does not aim to be generalizable or predictive so

qualitative research is the best fit.

Bryman states that qualitative research can be selected for either technological or epistemological reasons83_{and both have informed the nature of this research. The study focus is a result of a} constructivist viewpoint, an interested in different actors’ perceptions and how priorities are negotiated rather than finding a definitive answer to whether environmental CSR projects ‘work’. The research questions try to address this and it was decided, that technically, qualitative methods were the best way to get this data.

5.1.2. Observation

I employed various observation techniques. In some cases I had the role of a ‘play participant’ or ‘participant as observer’, which means playing “at becoming an active member engaging in a range of cultural activities” but being able to opt-out and maintain a distance84_{. This included attending the} Eco-Pheonix Club trek and participating in a Caribbean Youth Environmental Network meeting and two Repsol meetings with Greenhouse Growers and community members. This enabled me to observe and interact with members of the community, identify participants to interview, gain useful

82_{Cresswell, 2007, p39} 83_{Bryman, 2008, p45-57} 84_{Tracy, 2013, p109}

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information on what CSR projects are taking place and to gain an understanding of what environmental issues matter to who.

I also carried out non-participant and material culture observation at large social events and in natural spaces. This allowed me to interpret what people’s priorities were and how they interacted with their natural spaces, when used with data gathered through other methods. O’Toole and Were argue that “studying physical culture gives us important clues about the ways in which humans live”85_{and I found this useful to match what I had been told about Trinidadians’ relationship with} the environment to reality. I recorded these observations in field notes.

5.1.3. Interviews

The method supplying the main body of research data is qualitative interviews conducted with community members, oil and gas company representatives and NGO actors. It was important to use interviews as it fits with the aim of getting perspectives of different actors and probing complex issues in detail. As Tracy says, “interviews elucidate subjectively lived experiences and viewpoints from the respondent’s perspective”86_.

I conducted 34 interviews, which are listed in Appendix 5, lasting between half an hour and an hour and a half. Code names beginning with a ‘C’ are energy company staff; ‘N’ for NGO representatives; ‘G’ for government officials; ‘R’ for beneficiaries or local community members and ‘D’ for

consultants. Interviews took place mainly in predetermined locations with occasional opportunistic interviews. When the interview had not been planned in advance, I made sure the environment allowed for uninterrupted conversation to ensure the quality of the interview. Interviews took place in Port of Spain where the headquarters of oil companies and the offices of some NGOs are based or in the fence line areas of Mayaro, La Brae and Point Fortin.

The interviews were semi-structured, with an interview guide of specific questions but also space for other topics to be discussed. This method allowed me to discuss issues I identified as important but also allowed participants the flexibility to discuss other issues important to them. The interview questions were generated from the theoretical literature, indicators within the operationalization and from interest in perspectives on specific issues such as aspects of a certain CSR project or recent flooding within Trinidad and Tobago. The interviews were iterative, meaning I used previous

interviews to adapt future interviews to include issues I originally missed.

85_{O’Toole and Were, 2008, p617} 86_{Tracy, 2013, p132}

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I used interviews to explore all four research questions, with emphasis on different sub-questions depending on the participant, for example, company representatives providing a comprehensive overview of CSR projects taking place, NGO workers sharing knowledge of local environmental issues and community members informing whether projects have addressed issues meaningful to them.

5.1.4. Document Analysis

I have also conducted qualitative content analysis on available open-archival or open-published documents87_{. I have analysed company CSR reports, stakeholder consultation, other energy} company literature and NGO literature. I used these documents to help me answer sub-question two about what CSR projects there are and how they are implemented, however, it is important to take a critical viewpoint as “documents represent a specific version of realities constructed for specific purposes”88_{. Therefore I used document analysis in conjunction with other research} methods to determine whether what is stated in these documents represents the reality on the ground. Document analysis is also useful in determining how different company and community perceptions of environmental issues are.

5.1.5. Sampling

Initially I planned to use purposive sampling, defined by Bryman as “samples on the basis of wanting to interview people who are relevant to the research question”89_{, followed by snowball sampling} where interviewees recommend other people for me to speak to. Before going into the field I identified major oil and gas companies operating and having environmental CSR programmes in Trinidad and Tobago. I also indentified geographical communities who are within the scope of these programmes, whether they actively participated or were affected by the programmes or not. Within the companies I wanted to speak to those who have expert knowledge on corporate responsibility and within the communities I planned to approach those within local organisations who could introduce me to ‘average’ community members. In the field I did speak to the CSR representatives within companies and spoke to some people who were members of the fence line communities. However, as my perception of community evolved, I sought out members of environmental interest groups to interview and as the role of other actors became evident, I wanted to interview

government officials too, thus my sample changed. The mix of purposive and snowballing sampling worked, however, many times the people who were being recommended to me by interviewees were already people I had tried to get in contact with through my purposive sampling.

87_{Classifications from Flick, 2009, pg256} 88_{Flick, 2009, p259}

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In some ways my sampling was quite strong, thanks in part to the size of Trinidad. I spoke to

representatives of almost all the major oil and gas companies, with a good mix of national and multi-national companies giving a good overview of how different companies approach environmental CSR and their reasons behind this. I also spoke to many of the main environmental NGOs, pressure groups and other organisations who had received support, to some extent, from CSR programmes. The fact that people were recommending the same contacts as I had found myself made it feel as if I was talking to the right people. However it could mean I wasn’t casting my net far enough in terms of sampling, however I made a conscious effort to get a diverse sample.

5.1.6. Data analysis

Once I collected and transcribed the data from interviews, I used a Computer Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Software (CAQDAS) to code it. I coded it according to themes identified in the theoretical framework, operationalization and the data emersion phase, which Tracy defines as re-reading and reflecting on data collected and taking a general overview of it90_{. I also used open} coding to find emerging issues not previously discussed. This is especially important when exploring people’s conceptions of environmental sustainability as I wanted to understand how people define the concept themselves rather than making assumptions. I then narrowed down the codes with selective coding. I also used content analysis on the documents that have been selected, identifying segments relevant to the research and coding this. I used comparative analysis to compare the different perceptions of environmental issues within different sets of data and to compare how well the reality of CSR projects match the values identified by the community.

I am approaching the research from a constructivist point of view, where “reality and knowledge are constructed and reproduced through communication, interaction and practice”91_{. This means} attention is paid to how knowledge interacts with values and how different actors interpret reality.

5.2. Ethics and Limitations

In terms of methodological quality, the research only lasted ten weeks, which has implications for the quality and depth of findings. The study is not generalizable to CSR projects in other contexts due to its specificity. However, it may bring up issues to be explored in other contexts, in terms of how far CSR policies address the issues of communities affected. A saturation point was starting to be reached towards the end, as many of the things participants were saying had been said before. I had a good relationship with one of the oil company representatives which resulted in an in-depth

90_{Tracy, 2013, p188} 91_{Tracy,2013, p40}

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one on one interview and attending meetings with people affected by their CSR programmes, which was fruitful. It would be good to have had that experience with everyone but time limitations, restricted access to company representatives and perhaps a lack of meaningful programmes by other companies meant this was not possible. I also spent two days with a fisherman talking about the environmental issues and relationship with oil and gas companies and that level of interaction with more people would have been desirable, rather than just meeting once for an interview. My methods of interviews, observations and analysis of texts worked well in helping me get relevant data for my research. I planned to carry out some participatory research such as matrix ranking, however time and access restrictions meant I did not get to carry this out. I would also have liked to have carried out some data analysis but there is a distinct lack of data on environmental CSR programmes.

What could be seen as another limitation is the lack of attention paid to CSR relating to emissions, climate change and other scientific aspects of environmental sustainability in the study. One reason for this is that scientific considerations were too technical to tackle in this thesis, due to researcher limitations and resources available. However it is also because of the nature of the study, which is concerned with exploring the social aspects of environmental issues. Another reason to not focus on issues relating to emissions and climate change is that they are issues mostly on a different scale to the community level focus of this study.

Tracy describes good quality qualitative research as self-reflexive, being honest about your own standpoint and transparent about any issues that arise92_{. I found myself questioning the role my} own views played in my research. As I found there was limited concern amongst the general population for environmental issues, I had to confront my personal belief of the importance of tackling environmental issues and that this belief has to be made explicit; that the research comes from a position of believing that these companies should be tackling environmental issues at the community level.

Following the procedural ethics outlined by Tracy93_{, I ensured I got informed consent from} participants and let them know they could opt out, ensured their confidentiality by not using any identifying information and be as transparent as possible about the study to avoid deception. I didn’t encounter any problematic situational ethics as the topic isn’t a particularly sensitive one. There is also the issue of marginalized groups- it was not possible within the scope of the study to actively seek them out which relates to the issue of representativeness. It could be argued there is a

92_{Tracy, 2013, p233} 93_{Tracy, 2013, p242}

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responsibility on the part of the researcher to address this issue. However, as the study is not Participatory Action Research, this is a secondary concern.

6. Analysis

6.1. Various Identified Communities and Their Dynamics

In this section, different conceptions of community and their values and priorities will be outlined, which has an impact on how CSR addresses the different issues each of these communities have and how the energy companies can reconcile these competing needs. It provides a basis for answering sub question one about which environmental issues matter to which community groups by

identifying these groups.

6.1.1. Definition of Community

The original community focus of the research was restricted to fence line communities within the geographical area of energy company operations. This conception was challenged when I conducted my first interview with environmental NGO worker N1, who lives in Port of Spain, away from the oil and gas operational locations. When I explained my research was about the effects of environmental CSR on communities, he said, “I would consider myself part of that community... they [the energy companies] seem to be very focused on community as being from the community where an oil well is or something like that, which I think - Trinidad is a small place, I don’t think that is necessarily right” (N1). This quote is indicative of the different perceptions of what defines the community that ought to be involved in CSR projects, from fence line communities to interest-led communities, like environmental groups, to the economic community of the whole nation. How community is defined can affect all stages of the CSR process, for example, concerns were raised about consultations on seismic surveys being “focused on the community or area geographically near to the proposed activity even when the activity can be considered of national concern and/or affects a larger geographical area (such as seismic surveys). This does not allow equal opportunity for all stakeholders to be consulted on the activity”94_.

Definitions of what constitutes a community can be shaped by practical, institutional and internal factors. The energy companies included in this study have mainly focused on CSR projects for fence line communities and one institutional factor is the need to comply with Environmental and Social Impact Assessments (EIAs and SIAs) where they address the impacts of operations on areas of influence, as described by C2; “Every project, we need to do an impact assessment for every project, so out of the impact assessment, you determine your area of influence... Our direct impact area,

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community, what is called our fence line community is Mayaro... In the event you have another oil spill here, if we don’t do anything for a number of days, the oil can reach all the way up to Toco... So this is how we determine our area of influence” (C2).

There are practical reasons for concentrating on projects in fence line community. The literature on CSR mentions ‘issues management’ as a driver for CSR, defined as “responsiveness in the face of social issues”95_{and many instances of this presented themselves during the research. For instance,} National Gas Company (NGC) described the evolution of their CSR strategy as a ‘risk mitigation’ strategy to tackle community led stoppages on the installation of NGC’s “Project 2000” pipeline96_. Another practical issue is not being able to afford far-reaching projects; “they [energy companies] do not want to promote and encourage an environmental space of CSR beyond fence line because it will become for them too expensive” (N2). Budget considerations are important in determining the reach of CSR, but need not be a deciding factor if philosophical or ethical considerations lead to a choice to expand or change the focus of CSR programmes. Historically, most CSR projects within Trinidad and Tobago took place at fence line level because they built capacity and infrastructure to allow the companies to operate effectively within the area. The oil and gas sector has had a major impact on the development of these areas, as one company representative said, “it built everything, roads, communities, so there are whole communities that would not exist if not for [this energy company]” (C7).

Another perspective is that ‘community’ in terms of environmental CSR programmes should be about the nation as a whole. Respondent N2 compares the idea of companies being in a physical space with the idea of companies being “in our space in terms of ‘you’re in our economy’” (N2) and addressing the most pressing needs within that national space. Many participants said fence line communities like Mayaro have been heavily invested in until now and either their needs have been sufficiently addressed or community characteristics in these areas make this approach ineffective. One participant argues that whilst there may have been need for direct intervention in those

communities fifty years ago, other communities’ needs are now more critical (N1). Another says that despite investment, people in Mayaro “are where they are because they’re meant to be like that” (C2), reflecting common disdain for this particular community. Whatever the reasoning, there is an argument for CSR to move away from fence line communities to focus elsewhere.

Some energy companies have indeed started investing in national projects or projects in

communities outside their areas of operation. Some even see community as the wider area of the

95_{Garriga and Mele, 2004, pg 58} 96_{Charles et al., n.d (a) ,pg30}

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Caribbean. A conservation NGO, one of the fishing organisations and the youth environmental network all have close connections with organisations throughout the Caribbean because of shared culture, history and shared environmental concerns as small island states.

There are also interest led community groups and in this study the main community is the environmentally conscious community, which mainly consists of those who work or volunteer for environmental NGOs. Meadowcroft describes these common-interest groups as ‘stakeholders’ rather than a ‘community’ as such97_{, however interviews showed that it had many of the} characteristics listed in McMillan and Chavis’ definition of community98_{. More specific interest} communities have been identified in this study, such as the fishing community and the farming community.

6.1.2. Group Tensions

Although those within a community have seemingly aligned interests, there are significant tensions within and between groups and this can be because of “community fragmentation, lack of unity, overemphasis on individualism and self-interest”99_{. Whilst many of the environmental NGOs have a} good relationship with each other, some groups are critical of how other NGOs work and sceptical of their aims, for instance, Respondent N3 described other environmental actors as “ass-kissers who go to cocktail parties” (N3). Even within the same sector, there is friction and this is evident within the fishing community. One example of this is the existence in South-East Trinidad of two separate fishing associations and how they approach the issue of oil companies conducting seismic surveys. Respondent N18 from one of the organisations discussed how, whilst they were pushing for compensation and limits on seismic surveys, the other organisation was “happy with donations of life jackets” and “didn’t see a problem with the seismic surveys” (N18). Even within community groups there are tensions, such as within an agricultural CSR programme there was an issue with one member who was withholding information and not attending meetings. The tensions between and within groups makes it difficult for CSR projects to address everyone’s needs.

There can also be friction between opposing communities. Sometimes the environmental

community and other communities can have conflicting priorities that are difficult to reconcile. For example environmentalists wanting to conserve endangered marine species and conflicting with fishermen who see this as a threat to their income. As one participant puts it, “the fisherman who’s like ‘hey this is my bread and butter’ and you're like ‘that’s an endangered species, you can’t eat

97_{Meadowcroft, 2004, p169} 98_{McMillan and Chavis,1986, p9} 99_{MacQueen et al., 2001, p1932}

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that, put that back’” (N1). One of the four elements of community according to McMillan and Chavis is membership, which has boundaries, which means “there are people who belong and people who do not”100_{which will inevitably lead to group tensions. The question is how energy companies deal} with these group tensions in their CSR programmes.

6.1.3. Women as Environmental Stewards

One section of society that was discussed in four interviews was women and their role and concerns in terms of environmental issues. The impression from interviews was that women have an

influential role over the people in their lives and are more likely to deal with or more responsible for dealing with environmental issues. They play a role either directly, for instance, Respondent N10 argues that “females are most likely to be included [in implementing CSR]” or play a support role, for instance, in fishing “the women help their husbands do the books, fix nets, build nets, process the fish” (N18). Some believe women have “a tremendous capacity and opportunity to do good, influencing the children and men in their lives, at home, at school and at work”101_{and one example} of this is that “when seismic surveys happen where the fishing takes place, the women talked to their husbands” (N18). There is an implication that women are more connected to the environment because of motherhood and protecting the environment for future generations. The literature links women to nature in terms of: women who need to provide fuel wood, animal fodders and water for their families being worst effected by environmental degradation, because of this they have

‘privileged knowledge and experience of working closely with the environment’; also women’s special empathetic and nurturing capacities and feminist theory that connects the domination of nature with the domination of women102_.

6.1.4. Youth, Education and Futurity

A group that was identified as important, only marginally by CSR, but greatly in terms of the environment is youth. There is a general consensus amongst those I spoke to that it is important to embed environmental values at an early age because “the older ones are so meshed in their ways, it’s hard to change” (N19). At a meeting for an agricultural CSR project, there was the suggestion to bring children along to the training, to get them early exposure. As well as investing in

environmentally conscious citizens of the future, one participant hoped that children would “learn and take the message home and instill change in their parents” (N15), similar to the idea of women influencing the people in their lives. It is also interesting to explore the idea of ‘futurity’ in terms of future generations dealing with the consequences of actions taken now.

100_{McMillan and Chavis, 1986, p9} 101_{Point-a-Pierre, 2009, pg 9} 102_{Braidotti et al, 1994, p2}

Environmental CSR : addressing, reflecting and affecting community needs

Graduate School of Social Sciences

MSc International Development Studies Master Thesis

Environmental CSR: Addressing, Reflecting and Affecting

Community Needs

Sophie Mendes | 10701052

1

July 2015

Supervisor | Dr. Hebe J.L.M. Verrest

Contents