Crisis revelations: balancing crisis content and corporate content during the COVID-19 pandemic

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Crisis revelations:

balancing crisis content and corporate

content during the COVID-19

pandemic

Word count: 10502

Lotte Tollebeek

Student number: 01506201

Supervisor(s): Sofie Verkest

A dissertation submitted to Ghent University in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Multilingual Business Communication.

Academic year: 2019 – 2020

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Acknowledgements

This master's dissertation is not just the result of my own work. I would like to thank some people without whose help I would not have been able to complete this final assignment of the Master's in Multilingual Business Communication.

First and foremost, I would like to thank my supervisor Sofie Verkest for assisting me with all substantive and methodological questions, and for providing me with the necessary feedback as quickly as possible. I would also like to thank Astrid Vandendaele and Geert Jacobs for the general coordination of the program. They were always ready with advice or to solve problems. Without them, this experience in Multilingual Business Communication would not have been the same. My internship supervisor Sam De Vos and the other colleagues at com&co are also indebted to me. I would like to thank them for the very pleasant internship experience, for making time for the interviews and for their interest in my research. Their support motivated me to carry out this research in the best possible way. My fellow intern Margot Vanhaverbeke also deserves my gratitude for the pleasant cooperation during the internship.

A big thank you goes to my parents who supported me, and to my friend Dapnhe Van der Meulen who read my thesis for mistakes. Also, great thanks to my friends who studied alongside with me while I was writing this dissertation. Finally, I would especially like to thank my fellow students for the encouragement in the run-up to this dissertation, for the great teamwork on the annual project and other group assignments. Thanks to the MTB students (specifically those of “de

prinsessenkamer”) hard work was alternated with a lot of fun, and my last academic year at Ghent

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Executive summary

In times of severe lockdown regulations due to the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, organisations attempt to balance crisis-related content and corporate content. It is, however, unclear what content is relevant and appropriate in times of a health crisis, and how this content should be communicated. This research focusses on the content balance four organisations applied during the COVID-19 crisis. These cases all operate business to business. Two cases provide HR-related services to other companies, and two other cases function as federations for businesses. Through a literature study, a qualitative content analysis and in-depth interviews, this study aimed to formulate some recommendations for crisis communication during a pandemic. By qualitatively analysing the shared content for the applied crisis response strategies as formulated by Coombs’ Situational Crisis Communication Theory (SCCT), it became clear what balance in content was maintained and what crisis response strategies were most commonly used.

Although results slightly differed between cases, it is clear that preparation is key to tackle a crisis when it occurs. Even though crisis-related content was more prominent in the cases’ crisis communication, regular corporate content was found to be relevant as well. Crisis communication managers of the organisations stressed the importance of business continuity in most cases. Surprisingly, no primary crisis response strategies were used. Secondary crisis response strategies did appear in the organisations’ crisis communication, and were combined with instructing information and adjusting information, which were shown to be the most important crisis communication strategies in times of a global pandemic. Communication practitioners can consider the results of this study and the recommendations presented when preparing for or dealing with similar crises in the future.

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List of figures

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Introduction

In December 2019, the COVID-19 epidemic broke out in China. The virus turned into a pandemic by spreading rapidly all over the world. By mid-March of 2020, many countries worldwide announced a complete lockdown, with many consequences for society: borders were closed, taking to the streets for no valid reason was banned and teleworking became the norm. This created a great need for clear communication of guidelines. Companies were confronted with problems such as absenteeism and threats to business continuity because many people became temporarily unemployed. Companies that provide B2B-services struggled to inform their customers on correct regulation and tips on how to ensure business continuity while keeping employees safe and healthy. In times of severe lockdown regulations due to the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, organisations require crisis communication strategies. B2B- organisations deal with questions such as whether corporate content that is not related to the crisis is still relevant to their stakeholders, what types of content are relevant and appropriate in times like these, and what crisis communication strategies to use (De Smedt, 2020).

A lot of the existing research focusses on the relevance of crisis communication and what negative consequences good crisis communication can help prevent (Coombs, 2006 ; Coombs & Holladay, 2002). Which crisis communication strategies are effective or ineffective has also been thoroughly researched (Coombs, 2007 ; Coombs, 2015). Other literature concentrates on how businesses should communicate during pandemics to help mitigate major operational threats (Dalton, 2006 ; Reynolds, Deitch & Schieber, 2007). Researchers have also evaluated how organisations have communicated about pandemics in the past (Chew & Eysenbach, 2010 ; Liu & Kim, 2011). Some stress the absolute importance of communication and trust in times of health emergencies (Longstaff & Yang, 2008 ; Mazzei & Ravazzani, 2014).

However, literature on what content is appropriate and relevant during pandemics is limited, and could be further explored to help businesses communicate with their stakeholders during a global crisis like the COVID-19 pandemic. The need for best practices in crisis communication has been stressed multiple times (Seeger, 2006 ; Sweetser & Metzgar, 2007). Therefore, formulating best practices for a specific crisis like a pandemic is highly relevant to deal with similar health crises that are still to come. By combining the results of a literature study, a qualitative content analysis and in-depth interviews with communication managers, some best practices on how to balance content in crisis communication on a pandemic are formulated in the recommendations section.

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6 This research was carried out as part of my internship at com&co as part of the Master's programme in Multilingual Business Communication at Ghent University. The research question was proposed by com&co because their clients were struggling with the issues mentioned above. This paper focusses on the strategic balance organisations should maintain between crisis related content and corporate content in times of a global pandemic crisis. To determine this balance, the following research questions were proposed:

• RQ 1: What balance do organisations maintain between their regular corporate communication and crisis communication concerning the COVID-19 pandemic?

• RQ 2: Is it relevant to communicate corporate content that is not related to the crisis? • RQ 3: What types of crisis related content are relevant in the COVID-19 crisis?

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Literature study

The literature study provides an overview of the existing literature about crisis communication. First will be discussed what type of crisis pandemics are, and why crisis communication is crucial during pandemics. Examples from previous health crises are included. The benefits of the use of different channels in crisis communication are presented, and a number of best practices from literature are cited. Finally, Situational Crisis Communication Theory is presented as one of the basic theories for crisis communication, and crisis response strategies to address crisis communication are explored.

1. Defining the crisis

Before digging into crisis communication, it is important to understand what a crisis is. A number of authors have defined the concept. Already in the 1990s, scholars defined crises by stressing their unexpected nature and the threat they form to an organisation’s goals (Seeger, Sellnow & Ulmer, 1998). As later defined by Coombs (2007), “a crisis is a sudden and unexpected event that threatens to disrupt an organisation’s operations and poses both a financial and a reputational threat. Crises can harm stakeholders physically, emotionally and / or financially”. These definitions are very similar and together form the starting point of this research.

However, a pandemic is not just an organisational crisis. A pandemic is defined as "an outbreak of a disease that occurs over a wide geographic area and affects an exceptionally high proportion of the population" (Merriam-Webster Dictionary, 2020). Situational Crisis Communication Theory (Coombs, 2007) proposes three crisis clusters that differ in terms of the organisation's responsibility for the crisis. Since organizations themselves are not responsible for the outbreak of a pandemic, the current crisis is categorised in the victim cluster. In this case, organisations themselves are victims of the crisis (Coombs & Holladay, 2002; Coombs, 2007). A pandemic can be defined as an external threat, as it occurs in organisations’ external environments (Jin & Cameron, 2007).

2. Importance of good crisis communication

The large amount of research into appropriate crisis communication demonstrates its importance. Many researchers have stressed the need for best practices for crisis communication (Seeger, 2006 ; Sweetser & Metzgar, 2007) , and have listed the do's and don'ts in crisis communication.

According to Situational Crisis Communication Theory, communication by management affects the organisation in crisis (Coomb, 2007). Coombs and Holladay (2014, pp. 40) stress the importance of crisis communication, stating that “the value of crisis communication rests on the belief that messages will have positive effects on crisis publics and those positive effects will benefit the organisation.”

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8 Communicating towards crisis publics is critical, as their reactions provide an estimation of crisis communication effectiveness. The objectives of crisis communication are to avoid reputational damage, but also to support purchase intention and to avert negative word-of-mouth (Coombs, 2007 ; Coombs & Holladay, 2001 ; Coombs & Holladay, 2014). Others define the objective of crisis communication as follows: “Crisis communication is associated with public relations and the need for organisations to repair damaged images after a crisis or a disaster” (Seeger, 2006). It has been proven that applying open communication in a fast and consistent manner is crucial to manage an existing crisis (Coombs, 2007 ; Sweetser & Metzdag, 2007). Given the fact that a pandemic is an external threat, even greater attention and effort from communication managers is required (Jin & Cameron, 2007). In the current age, where the internet has become ubiquitous, the high speed at which messages are communicated has become even more important (Eriksson, 2018). In general, it is agreed that appropriate crisis communication is crucial to counter organisational damage.

2.1. Consequences of a crisis

Crises form a threat to an organisation’s operational activities. However, this is not the only organisational aspect on which a crisis has an impact. Crises also form a threat to an organisation’s reputation, which can influence how stakeholders interact with the organisation (Coombs, 2007), making reputation management crucial as an aspect of crisis communication (Niedermeir, 2012). In this context, a reputation is defined as an evaluation made by stakeholders about how well an organisation is meeting their expectations. This evaluation is based on an organisation’s past behaviour (Coombs, 2007 ; Wartick, 1992).

A positive organisational reputation is extremely important, as it can attract customers as well as talented employees, generate interest from potential investors, improve financial performance and create a general competitive advantage (Coombs, 2007 ; Fombrun & Van Riel, 2004). A favourable pre-crisis reputation also protects an organisation’s reputational capital loss caused by a crisis (Coombs, 2007 ; Fombrun & Van Riel, 2004). It is important to protect an organisation’s reputation, as that reputation is closely related to stakeholder support and purchase intentions (Coombs, 2007 ; Coombs & Holladay, 2001).

Critical (stakeholder) relationships are to be the focus of organisations in regards to future crisis communication (Heath, 1997 ; Ulmer, 2001). Maintaining mutual relationships helps to understand stakeholders, gain their trust and meet their needs properly when resolving a crisis (Ulmer, 2001). Research has defined trust as a crucial factor in protecting an organisation during a crisis (Longstaff & Yang, 2008 ; Reynolds & Quinn, 2008).

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9 Other than reputational threat, affective reactions are evoked as well. Negative emotions caused by crisis responsibility have unpleasant consequences, e.g. negative word of mouth or avoiding interactions with the organisation (Coombs & Holladay, 2004).

2.2. Importance of crisis communication during pandemics

When a pandemic occurs, communication is necessary to diminish possible threats and negative consequences. Access to information is vital to the resilience of publics during a health crisis (Longstaff & Yang, 2008). The organisation is not responsible for the crisis, but is also a victim. Nevertheless, it is important that organisations communicate in times of pandemic, because their crisis communication can have an impact on the health of their employees (Reynolds & Quinn, 2008). Both governmental and corporate organisations face major challenges during a pandemic (Dalton, 2006 ; Liu & Kim, 2011). Keeping the public informed and engaged over the course of an entire health crisis has proven to be a difficult task (Liu & Kim, 2011). Governmental organisations are expected to play a leading role and to provide information on pandemic risk: they need to provide adjusting information to deal with anxiety, they need to communicate on regulation and they need to gain the trust of workers in essential sectors. Communicating on the economic impact of a pandemic is another issue governmental organisations take on (Dalton, 2006). Businesses on the other hand are challenged with communicating about how they plan to ensure their services and business continuity management (Dalton, 2006). Pandemics have the potential to cause mass absenteeism, which forms a threat to business continuity (Dalton, 2006). Absenteeism forms an even greater threat in essential sectors, as part of societal function depends on those sectors. Business will have to gain the trust of their employees, assuring them that their work environment is safe and that measures are being taken to protect the staff from infection.

Previous pandemics already provided an incentive for research into crisis communication around pandemics. For example, influenza pandemics and the 2009 H1N1 influenza outbreak have already been the subject of several works on crisis communication (Chew & Eysbenbach, 2010 ; Dalton, 2006 ; Kim & Liu, 2012 ; Liu & Kim, 2011 ; Longstaff & Yang, 2008 ; Reynolds, Deitch & Schieber, 2007 ; Reynolds & Quinn, 2008). Research has presented Twitter as a means of evaluating public perceptions during pandemics, using the 2009 H1N1 pandemic as an example (Chew & Eysenbach, 2010).

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3. Crisis communication channels

3.1. The use of social media channels in crisis communication

Social media channels are a double-edged sword when it comes to crisis communication, given that they can both facilitate the growth of a crisis, but can also be used to communicate about the crisis (Coombs & Holladay, 2012). Over the years, researchers and practitioners have developed best practices for communicating through social media during a crisis.

The possibility of a channel effect for social media (Schultz et al, 2011) should be kept in mind, which holds that “people react differently to an organisation’s crisis response strategy simply because it is delivered via social media as opposed to more traditional media or even the organisation’s website” (Coombs & Holladay, 2014, pp. 43). Social media break up the media environment, resulting in select audiences for different messages (Sunstein, 2007). Therefore, crisis managers should keep in mind that only people following a certain social media page or blog are likely to be exposed to the crisis messages (Coombs & Holladay, 2014).

Monitoring social media channels in a crisis response strategy has some benefits. First, responses from followers show the degree in which people have accepted the crisis messages. Secondly, comments from followers play a role in shaping reputations during a crisis (Conway et al, 2007 ; Eriksson, 2018). As mentioned before, whether comments are favourable or unfavourable can influence the damage done to organisational reputation (Coombs, 2007 ; Coombs & Holladay, 2014). Despite the many advantages that social media offer for crisis communication, it appears that communication managers are not yet using them optimally and integrating them into their communication strategy. For example, Facebook has some extended features that are very useful for crisis communication, however, research shows that practitioners hardly use the options that Facebook has to offer as a medium for crisis communication (Niedermeir, 2012).

3.2. The use of a corporate website and blog for crisis communication

Research (Liu, 2009 ; Sweester & Metzgar, 2007) has shown that people turn to online media like websites, blogs and social media channels when they are looking for up-to-date crisis messages (Liu & Kim, 2011 ; Kim & Liu, 2012). Online media has become indispensable in a crisis response strategy thanks to its benefits, for example influencing blog readers to perceive a crisis as less severe than non-blog readers (Kim & Liu, 2012 ; Sweester & Metzgar, 2007), and providing emotional support during crises that is not provided elsewhere (Liu & Kim, 2011).

Whereas researchers in the past doubted the use of blogging as a public relations tool, blogs have shown their use over the years, both as research and persuasion tools or as communication tools

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11 (Kent, 2008). Blogs improve organisational reputation, maintain or even increase purchase intention, and improve loyalty, which results in satisfied customers. Thanks to the conversational aspect and responsiveness, blogs are particularly useful when organisations want to build relationships with their publics (Kelleher & Miller, 2006 ; Kim & Liu, 2012 ; Schultz, Utz & Göritz, 2011 ; Sweester & Metzgar, 2007). Blogs can also be used to express an organisation’s view on the crisis, and to communicate emotional messages regarding the crisis (Kim & Liu, 2012). Blogs have also shown to be useful research tools (Kent, 2008).

Websites prove their use in crisis communication when they are used to provide timely communication and interactive conversations (Kim & Liu, 2012), and to provide relevant information to stakeholders (Taylor & Kent, 2006). Websites also help frame the crisis, as organisations have the opportunity to express their view on the crisis (Kim & Liu, 2012 ; Taylor & Kent, 2006).

3.3. The use of both online and traditional channels for crisis communication As mentioned before, communicating about a crisis through social media must happen at a high speed, as relevant and correct up-to-date information about a crisis is considered more reliable (Eriksson, 2018). Using social media, and more specifically Twitter, in a timely manner prevents rumours, avoids others “stealing thunder” and breaks the silence (Eriksson, 2018). Others state that traditional media, like television, radio and newspapers, are a more reliable source of information during crises than social media (Eriksson, 2018). They suggest social media to be a complementary source of information to traditional media.

During the 2009 flu pandemic, organisations generally used a more emotional approach in their traditional media than in their social media, but research holds that it might be more effective the other way around (Liu & Kim, 2011). The most common emotions expressed in communication on the 2009 health crisis were confusion, alert, fear, sympathy and sadness (Liu & Kim, 2011).

The public’s emotions should be kept in mind when deciding the crisis response strategies in social media and other online communication platforms (Schultz et al., 2011 ; Eriksson, 2018). During highly emotional crises like the COVID-19 pandemic, emotional messages have proven to be more effective than informational messages (Eriksson, 2018).

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4. Crisis communication theory

Crisis communication and management are phenomena that have been known for a long time, both in the literature and in the practice of communication management. Coombs & Holladay are the most common names in this field. Many others based their work on Coombs & Holladay’s theories since the 1990s. This paper is no exception, and starts from the Situational Crisis Communication Theory (Coombs, 2007).

4.1. Situational Crisis Communication Theory

With Situational Crisis Communication Theory (SCCT), Coombs (2007) provides a framework for understanding how to protect organisational reputation through post-crisis communication. Coombs’ SCCT also implies recommendations for crisis communication (Coombs, 2007 ; Niedermeir, 2012). The roots of Situational Crisis Communication Theory are situated in Attribution Theory (Weiner, 1985, 2006), which states that people attempt to explain events by digging for the cause of the event. In other words, people make attributions of responsibility to better understand unexpected events and to cope with the emotional reaction created by the event (Coombs, 2007 ; Niedermeir, 2012). Attributions encourage behavioural action. Responsibility for a crisis gives rise to negative behavioural responses and anger, while not being responsible for a crisis gives rise to positive behavioural responses and even sympathy (Weiner, 2006).Attribution Theory helps SCCT to predict the reputational threat a crisis presents and to decide the necessary crisis response strategies to protect an organisation’s reputation.

4.1.1. Crisis clusters

Based on attributions of crisis responsibility, SCCT defines three crisis clusters. The first is called the victim cluster, in which very little attributions of responsibility can be made. Natural disasters like the current pandemic cause organisations to become victims of the crisis. Secondly, uncontrollable or unintentional events, like technical errors or accidents, create minimal responsibility attribution and are grouped in the accidental cluster. Finally, when human errors and harm occur, organisations are considered highly responsible for the events, which results in very strong attributions of crisis responsibility. These crises are categorized in the intentional cluster (Coombs, 2007 ; Coombs & Holladay, 2002).

4.1.2. Crisis Response Strategies

Crisis response strategies are useful tools in reducing the negative effects caused by a crisis, like reputational threat and negative behavioural intentions and emotions towards the organisation (Coombs, 2007). Others defined communication strategies as “message repertoires that are designed to repair the organisation’s image by influencing stakeholder perceptions” (Massey, 2001, pp. 155) or

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13 means to make it appear like an organisation is in control of an uncertain situation (Ray, 1999). In general, researchers agree that crisis response strategies are fundamental principles for crisis communication (Lukaszweksi, 1997). In order to protect an organisation’s reputation in crisis, crisis response strategies have three main objectives. The first is to shape the attributions to the crisis, the second is to change stakeholder’s perception of the organisation in crisis, and the third is to diminish negative emotions.

The priority in crisis communication is the protection of stakeholders affected by the crisis. SCCT suggests the use of instructing and adjusting information to achieve this goal (Coombs, 2007 ; Kim & Liu, 2012). Instructing information provides affected publics with knowledge on how to protect themselves from harm during the crisis, while adjusting information provides corrective action in order to help publics psychologically cope with the crisis. Instructing and adjusting information are essential to avoid negative crisis reactions (Schultz, Utz & Göritz, 2011), and are usually combined with the other crisis response strategies defined in SCCT (Kim & Liu, 2012).

Situational Crisis Communication Theory divides crisis response strategies into three categories: (1) denial strategies, (2) diminish strategies and (3) rebuild strategies, and adds reinforce strategies as an a complementary fourth category (Kim & Liu, 2012). The distinction between these categories is based on the amount of responsibility an organisation accepts in a crisis (Coombs, 2006 ; Niedermeir, 2012), or in other words, an organisation’s locus of control in the crisis (Jin, Pang & Cameron, 2007). Table 1 displays the crisis response strategies defined by Situational Crisis Communication Theory (Coombs, 2006 ; Coombs, 2007 ; Kim & Liu, 2012).

Table 1: Crisis response strategies defined in Situational Crisis Communication Theory

Deny crisis response strategies

Attacking the accuser Denial

Scapegoat Diminish crisis response strategies

Excuse Justification Rebuild crisis response strategies

Compensation Apology Reinforce crisis response strategies

Bolstering Ingratiation

Victimage Endorsement

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14 When a crisis hits, organisations face the challenge of responding in an appropriate way that will be received well by the public. Choosing a fitting crisis response strategy is the first step in this process. Situational factors help determine which strategy is relevant to which crisis. Following SCCT, in order to meet stakeholder’s expectations, crisis managers should select a strategy with a high level of responsibility acceptance or locus of control when stakeholders attribute a high level of responsibility to the organisation (Niedermeir, 2012).

When an organisation wants to eliminate its connection to a crisis, deny strategies are the first choice (Coombs, 2007). The organisation does not take any responsibility for the crisis. Deny strategies can be further divided in three more specific strategies: (1) attacking the accuser to confront them with the accusation of the crisis existing (2) deny the fact that the crisis exists (3) use a scapegoat to blame for the crisis (Coombs, 2007 ; Kim & Liu, 2012). Diminish strategies on the other hand focus on minimalizing the crisis by providing an excuse or by justifying the crisis (Coombs, 2007). When selecting a diminish strategy, an organisation recognises its responsibility in the crisis, but attempts to reduce damage by explaining why the crisis occurred. With rebuild strategies, an organisation accepts responsibility for the crisis, and uses rebuild strategies to enhance the damaged organisational reputation. For example, offering material compensation or apologizing to victims of the crisis positively influences an organisation’s reputation (Coombs, 2007 ; Kim & Liu, 2012).

SCCT defined reinforce strategies as secondary types of crisis response strategy. The strategies in this category are usually combined with another crisis response strategy. By highlighting past good deeds, organisations can use bolstering as a means to protect their reputation. Ingratiation is another reinforce strategy where organisations praise stakeholders in their communication. Lastly, organisations can use “victimage” to declare themselves as a victim of the crisis. Scholars completed this list by adding the support of third parties as a fourth option using the label endorsement (Kim & Liu, 2012).

Locus of control is not the only situational factor influencing the choice of crisis response strategy. Some suggest that crisis response strategies should consider emotion as a critical stimulus in a public’s interpretation of a crisis situation (Jin, Pang & Cameron, 2007 ; Liu & Kim, 2011). The COVID-19 pandemic has evoked quite some emotional reaction, e.g. fear, confusion and uncertainty. Therefore, the choice for a crisis response strategy should at least partly be based on the evaluation of the emotions public’s experience during this crisis (Jin, Pang & Cameron, 2007).

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5. Best practices for crisis communication in literature

Scholars have put forward best practices for crisis communication, with the aim of helping crisis managers to deal with a crisis (Seeger, 2006 ; Sweetser & Metzgar, 2007). The main best practices from the literature are listed below.

Seeger (2006) proposed a list of his own on general best practices for crisis communication. First, possible crisis communication scenarios should be incorporated in an organisation’s communication strategies, which should be integrated in the general organisational process (Seeger, 2006). Practitioners should prepare certain messages or content in advance, setting it ready to be published. This will help with communicating urgent information as quickly as possible (Eriksson, 2018).

Second, pre-event planning is crucial to prevent great reputational damage following a crisis (Eriksson, 2018 ; Seeger, 2006). Developing a strong pre-crisis presence on social media is third best practice in preparation for a crisis, as well as familiarising practitioners with different media, in order to understand them profoundly when a crisis hits (Eriksson, 2018). Fourth, building equal relationships with the public and listening to their opinion through interactive channels provides helpful information on their needs and on the effectiveness of the crisis messages that are being communicated (Coombs & Holladay, 2014 ; Kent, 2008 ; Seeger, 2006 ; Ulmer, 2001). Fifth, in order to build these trusting relationships, honesty and trust are needed (Seeger, 2006 ; Sweetser & Metzdag, 2007).

Sixth, Seeger advises practitioners to build a pre-crisis network to collaborate and communicate consistently during a crisis. Seventh, maintaining relationships with the media is recommended, as this facilitates effective communication when the press is needed. Eighth, communicating with certain compassion and empathy enhances the credibility of the message and the spokesperson as a representative of the organization. Ninth, the acknowledgment of uncertainty can be used to the organisation’s advantage, as information can later be refined more accurately. Finally, promoting self-efficacy through instructing information is positively received by publics (Coombs, 2007 ; Reynolds & Quinn, 2008).

Other literature suggests linking a recognisable face to the crisis as another best practice. The source of crisis messages on social media is crucial for the effect of these messages on the public. Scholars argue that “having a face as a source will have a greater effect on the effectiveness of social media crisis communication than using an anonymous organisational social media account” (Eriksson, 2018, pp. 532 ; Snoeijers et al, 2014) and that crisis managers and spokespersons are perceived as trustworthy sources in crisis communication (Eriksson, 2018 ; Park & Cameron, 2014).

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Methodology

Exploratory interviews

The cases in this study were recommended by my supervisor at com&co because these are clients who were strongly influenced by the COVID-19 health crisis, and therefore could use some advice on crisis communication. I conducted four exploratory interviews with account managers from com&co, who provided me with information on the cases and helped me select the most relevant communication channels for content analysis.

Qualitative content analysis

To answer the research questions, a qualitative content analysis was carried out for four organisations’ communication channels. The method for this qualitative content analysis was based on a framework for the use of possible crisis response strategies through various (social) media channels (Coombs, 2007 ; Coombs & Holladay, 2013). A corpus was collected from pieces of content subtracted from the organisation’s Facebook, Twitter, YouTube & LinkedIn pages, their blogs and their corporate websites. The evaluation of multiple communication channels is considered necessary for communication practitioners to understand the impact of their crisis messages through different channels (Coombs & Holladay, 2014). The corpus comprised all content shared on these channels for a period of two months, specifically from March 13th 2020 to May 13th 2020. The corpus was collected by manually going through the mentioned channels and analysing the content. No software was used.

Through qualitative content analysis, each piece of content on the communication channels was linked to a crisis response strategy defined by Situational Crisis Communication Theory (Coombs, 2007 ; Kim & Liu, 2012): deny strategy (deny, scapegoat or attack the accuser), rebuild strategy (compensation or apology), diminish strategy (excuse or justify) or reinforce strategy (bolstering, ingratiation, victimage or endorsement). The crisis response strategies were assigned on the basis of an analysis of the subject matter of the piece of content. By reading the title and text of the piece of content, it became clear which topic it was about, as well as which strategy was hidden behind the piece of content. The information provided in the piece of content was also labelled as instructing or adjusting information, because research indicated that other crisis response strategies are often combined with instructing or adjusting information (Kim & Liu, 2012). Comparing the amount of content pieces related to the crisis with the amount of content that is not related to the crisis gives an impression of the balance between crisis-related content and corporate content, which allows to answer RQ 1. After assigning crisis response strategies to the content, it becomes clear what

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17 strategies were most commonly implemented in the organisations’ crisis communication. This allows to answer RQ 3 and RQ 4 on what content is relevant in times of a global pandemic.

Interviews

To answer RQ 1 and RQ 2, I conducted in-depth interviews with the communication managers of the analysed organisations for each case. I did this to discover which strategies they implemented in their crisis communication concerning the COVID-19 pandemic, and how they did or did not maintain the balance between crisis-related content and corporate content. The interviewees were the communication or marketing managers or the account managers of the analysed cases. All interviews were conducted in Dutch. The interview guide can be found in the appendix (Appendix 1).

Cases

The clients whose communication and content was analysed all operate business-to-business. The selected sectors are highly relevant because com&co has several clients operating in those sectors. SD Worx and Mensura are both cases from the HR-sector. These organisations provide services related to human resources for other businesses, like wage calculation and payment or safety at work. Flanders Investment and Trade and Fevia are both federations for businesses, which form an umbrella organisation for hundreds of companies from specific sectors. Each case is presented in more detail below.

SD Worx is active in the B2B HR-sector, where it focuses on three aspects. First and foremost, SD Worx functions as a social secretariat, performing wage calculation and payment of wages for other organisations. Second, SD Worx helps organisations create attractive compensation for their employees. Finally, SD Worx specialises in workforce management, advising organisations on talent management and staff planning.

Mensura is an external prevention service for companies that focuses on implementing health and safety regulation at work. More specifically, they provide advice on ergonomics in offices, hazardous situations and environmental permits. Companies are obliged to have a health policy. Many small companies, but sometimes also large companies, use an external prevention service for this purpose. Flanders Investment and Trade consists of two departments that operate almost completely independently from each other. Each also has its own communication channels. It is therefore relevant to analyse these two departments as separate cases. Invest in Flanders is mainly responsible for promoting Flanders to companies abroad. This way, they want to convince foreign companies to invest in Flanders. They do this by providing them with the right contacts, such as consultants, social security, and so on. They also answer personal questions about living and working in Flanders.

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18 Flanders Trade is the second department of Flanders Investment and Trade. This department’s mission is to assist Flemish companies in international business and export. They fulfil this mission by giving advice, organising actions, events, seminars and group trips, being present at trade fairs, etc. Fevia is a federation for companies that advises, guides and represents players in the Belgian food industry on a political level. They keep their members informed on subjects such as legislation, food safety, health, social affairs, the growth strategy and the sustainability strategy of the sector. "We are helping the food industry grow sustainably," says Fevia's communications manager during the interview.

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Results

Case 1: SD Worx

Qualitative content analysis

The SD Worx Facebook page and Twitter page contain a great deal of crisis-related content. Only one third of the shared content via Facebook was not corporate content that was not related to COVID-19. When analysing the crisis-related content it became clear that instructing information and ingratiation were the most commonly used crisis response strategies. Examples of instructing information on the SD Worx Facebook and Twitter page were posts linking to SD Worx’s website pages, which included information on necessary information for employers during the COVID-19 crisis, how to deal with temporary unemployment, and many more (Appendix 2a). Ingratiation appeared as a strategy in SD Worx’s images to thank crucial sectors for their hard work (Appendix 2b). Adjusting information only appeared in a limited way as a crisis response strategy when SD Worx posted content on how they help their clients cope with the crisis.

The SD Worx’s LinkedIn page contained as much crisis-related content as corporate content, and the crisis response strategies instructing information and ingratiation also occurred in equal measure. Examples of the content these strategies contain are the same as on the Twitter and Facebook page. Content on adjusting information did not appear on the LinkedIn page. Just over half of the videos on SD Worx's YouTube page were about the COVID-19 crisis. Through these videos SD Worx mainly communicated instructing information on how to make a win-win situation from teleworking, on administration in the event of temporary unemployment, on new employment rules during the crisis, and so on. Only one video followed the ingratiation response strategy, in which cyclist Jolien D'Hoore thanks SD Worx employees by delivering presents at home.

The press releases that SD Worx shared on its website concentrated for the most part on the COVID-19 crisis. Approximately two thirds of these press releases contained instructing information, for example, providing information on the postponement of social elections due to the crisis (Appendix 2c), and one third contained adjusting information, showing how certain sectors are coping with the crisis. The ingratiation strategy did not appear here. On the SD Worx blog all blog posts were exclusively related to the health crisis. Because these answer FAQs, give tips on temporary unemployment and the mental well-being of employees, these could all be linked to the strategy of instructing information (Appendix 2d).

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20 Interview

The account manager at com&co is primarily responsible for SD Worx's content strategy. An interview with this person was therefore highly relevant to the investigation. According to this account manager, the employment crisis caused by the COVID-19 pandemic had a major impact on SD Worx. Since SD Worx is responsible for personnel policy and remuneration at many companies, these companies asked them for advice on teleworking and temporary unemployment. Therefore, content concerning the COVID-19 crisis became a hot topic in the SD Worx content strategy.

SD Worx’s content strategy isn’t planned much in advance, allowing their communication management to work ad hoc. This was an advantage when tackling the sudden crisis. Their content strategy for reporting on the COVID-19 pandemic implied the use of formerly released content. Existing content (e.g. concerning teleworking or compensation in unemployment situations) was altered to fit the COVID-19 crisis situation. By not having to create all content from scratch, SD Worx and com&co saved a lot of valuable time. They were able to quickly provide the information that their customers and stakeholders needed. SD Worx faced the question on what balance to maintain between this highly relevant crisis-related content and other useful, but perhaps less urgent corporate content.

For communication about the consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic, SD Worx used their blog and corporate website, as well as social media (Facebook, LinkedIn, Twitter & YouTube). The SD Worx newsletter and press releases were integrated in the strategy as well.

Case 2: Mensura

Most messages on Mensura’s Facebook page concerned the health crisis. A few reports were about other subjects, for example about research into burn-out. Of the crisis-related messages, most included instructing information. Mensura, for example, shared a few short videos in which they answer a frequently asked question about 'corona at work' (Appendix 3a). Mensura communicated adjusting information by linking to a blogpost that provides tips on how to deal with the stress caused by this crisis (Appendix 3b). Mensura also thanked the care personnel, which could be linked to ingratiation. Mensura’s Twitter page contained more messages related to the crisis. Here, too, instructing information was the most commonly used strategy. Other strategies such as adjusting information, ingratiation and endorsement occurred, but to a lesser extent. The same trends were recognised on the LinkedIn page of Mensura.

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21 The video’s on Mensura's YouTube channel provided adjusting information on how to cope with stress and anxiety caused by the crisis. No news articles were found on the Mensura website. However, Mensura shared many articles on its blog. Most of the blog posts were related to the crisis, which again provided instructing information on temporary unemployment and teleworking (Appendix 3b). As these articles sometimes provided information on other companies’ efforts to fight this crisis, endorsement was recognised as a strategy here as well.

Interview

Since 2015, com&co has helped Mensura draw up their content strategy and create the content itself. The account manager for Mensura at com&co provided answers during this interview. The most important information hub at Mensura is undoubtedly their blog, on which they publish a lot of content both in times of the COVID-19 crisis and otherwise.

When the health crisis in March 2020 occurred, employee safety became the top priority at every company. Mensura felt that the demand for information was growing, and therefore set up a mini-site for all information on occupational safety and health measures. Many blog posts on relevant topics in this crisis were also published via the blog on their corporate website.

At the request of com&co, corporate content was also shared on a regular basis. Just a little more crisis content was shared than corporate content. Com&co recommended building in a content buffer to avoid an abrupt transition when the crisis ends. The restart guide for businesses is a very important part of Mensura’s content strategy towards the end of the crisis. Thanks to this restart guide, Mensura will maintain or even strengthen its reputation as a helpful advisor.

Mensura's communication channels were used to spread information on safety at work as widely as possible. Mensura highlighted the blog on its general website and the corona at work mini-site as the main sources of information. Mensura's social media channels (Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn & YouTube) provided many links to these web pages, as well as useful videos to guide employers to make their work environment as safe as possible and to answer their questions.

Case 3a: Invest in Flanders (Flanders Investment and Trade)

On the general Facebook page for Flanders Investment & Trade, more than half of the posts dealt with the crisis. Some still dealt with other topics, like vacancies and interesting developments in industries. The use of the crisis response strategies was rather divided: instructing information, adjusting information, endorsement and ingratiation all appeared equally on the Facebook page. Instructing information was provided in posts concerning export advice or new governmental

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22 measures. Facebook posts on how Invest in Flanders supports their organisations in dealing with this crisis were linked to adjusting information. Invest in Flanders endorsed companies who successfully helped to resolve the crisis, and showed gratitude towards these organisations.

Invest in Flanders’ corporate, non-crisis related tweets concerned new investments from foreign companies in Flanders. The crisis response strategies used in the crisis-related content were again divided between instructing information, adjusting information and ingratiation of endorsement (Appendix 4a). Many of the topics from the Facebook page appeared on the Invest in Flanders Twitter as well.

Via LinkedIn, Invest in Flanders shared both crisis-related messages and corporate messages. A lot of this content also appeared on the Facebook and Twitter pages. However, instructing and adjusting information did not in appear in many LinkedIn posts. Especially endorsement and ingratiation were common as crisis response strategy, as Invest in Flanders focused on the successes Flemish companies have achieved in fighting the crisis. Invest in Flanders did not share videos via its YouTube channel during the analysed period of two months. Of the news items that appeared on the Invest in Flanders website, a little over half of them are related to the crisis. Instructing information and adjusting information each appeared in some messages, but endorsement as a strategy again prevailed (Appendix 4b). Invest in Flanders has no active blog.

Interview

Before the crisis hit, Invest in Flanders mainly communicated about the attractiveness of Flanders for foreign investors, and tried to highlight the assets of Flanders as a location to invest in. They work with an annual plan in which fixed storylines are determined. The main communication channels Invest in Flanders uses are their central website and e-mails, but also Facebook, Instagram, Twitter and LinkedIn. Social Seeder is a social media channel used to reach their network of social ambassadors abroad.

At the beginning of the COVID-19 crisis, Invest in Flanders still shared corporate content, but they quickly attempted to abandon this because they did not think it was appropriate anymore and they wanted to show that they definitely did not deny the crisis. The tone of the crisis-related content was kept as positive as possible. That is why they mainly focused on solutions for citizens and how the research on COVID-19 progressed in Flanders. This content took the form of long reads or inspiring stories in the form of news articles.

Because the crisis started to subside in May, Invest In Flanders decided to share content on other themes again. An appropriate balance was sought between crisis-related content and regular

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23 corporate content. Since May, the balance has been such that about 60% of the content is communicated around the crisis, and about 40% around other themes. Before that, the share of content related to the COVID-19 crisis was much higher. For corporate content, they focus on bringing positive stories too.

Little has changed in terms of the use of communication channels. The reduced use of Instagram during the crisis is probably the only striking difference. Invest in Flanders did not see the relevance of Instagram as a communication channel to tackle this crisis, and therefore left it untouched for the period of the crisis. The other communication channels were integrated in the crisis response strategy of Invest In Flanders.

Invest In Flanders was able to count on a lot of feedback from stakeholders to find out the effectiveness of their crisis communication. Their network of social ambassadors indicated that Flanders was not put in a positive light in foreign media during the COVID-19 crisis, which allowed Invest In Flanders to adjust its strategy and to focus more on bringing positive stories about Flanders. Although the impact of the crisis communication via social media channels is difficult to estimate at this point, Invest In Flanders adds that their content was shared a lot. As a result, they generally have a good feeling about their approach to this crisis.

Case 3b: Flanders Trade (Flanders Investment and Trade)

As Flanders Trade uses the same Facebook page as Invest in Flanders, the results for this channel can be found in the case above. Most of Flanders Trade’ tweets were not crisis-related. These tweets were mainly about trade proposals and market studies on other countries, in order to get Flemish companies interested in foreign countries (Appendix 5a). Flanders Trade provided instructing information via tweets on frequently asked questions from companies, and by calling on them to flatten the curve. In addition, they also provided adjusting information by writing about how Flanders Trade is helping its companies through this crisis (Appendix 5b).

Flanders Trade' LinkedIn page also included more corporate posts than crisis-related posts. Of those crisis-related posts, most contained instructing information when providing advice for export or when answering frequently asked questions. Adjusting information were also featured in Flanders Trade’s LinkedIn content when explaining how Flanders Trade helps organisations who export or work in other countries to survive this crisis. Flanders Trade implements endorsement as a strategy on its LinkedIn page by highlighting certain companies that are actively helping to combat the crisis. When considering the news items that appeared on the Flanders Trade website on the other hand,

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24 more articles were related to the crisis than not related to the crisis. The vast majority of the articles contained information on the crisis situation around the world, which can be seen as instructing information for exporting organisations (Appendix 5c). Only a couple of articles could be linked to adjusting information when focussing on Flanders Trade’s services during this crisis. Flanders Trade has no active blog. Therefore, no blog posts were analysed.

Interview

Flanders Trade mainly centres its communication via its website, where it offers information on all kinds of subjects related to export and international business.

When the crisis hit in March, Flanders Trade did not immediately take major steps to change their content strategy. From the start, they felt it was important to report on the crisis, but also to make it clear that the world of international business just kept on going. To meet the need for information on export in times of the COVID-19 crisis, a new website (www.exportadvies-corona.be) and a newsletter were set up, and this information was also shared on social media.

Flanders Trade's content strategy differed only slightly from the strategy that was applied before the crisis began. Most importantly, a coordinator was appointed to steer the crisis strategy. There were always a few articles about the crisis, but general information on export or corporate content remained relevant as well. Although the consideration around the balance between crisis content and corporate content was made, Flanders Trade was convinced that crisis content was not more important than corporate content. The continued functioning of the international economy was the most important argument for this. Flanders Trade decided to share even more market studies and trade proposals, so that regular content weighed more heavily on the balance sheet. In terms of tone of voice, the communication remained rather informative. Flanders Trade considered it inappropriate for a government organisation to respond to the emotions of stakeholders, since that is not what their audience is looking for. However, it is still early to investigate the reaction of the public to this strategy.

Case 4: Fevia

Fevia does not have an active Facebook page, making it impossible to analyse content for this channel. Most but not all of Fevia’s tweets were crisis-related. Tweets that contain updates on the crisis or the impact of the crisis on the food sector were labelled as instructing information, and tweets on what Fevia does to help its organisations were labelled as adjusting information. Ingratiation was definitely the most widely used crisis response strategy, as Fevia’s FoodHeroes

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25 campaign mostly contained content on gratitude towards food companies. Video’s and photos were spread multiple times to thank the sector (Appendix 6a).

Fevia's LinkedIn followed the same pattern as the Fevia Twitter page. On the Fevia YouTube channel all crisis-related videos were labelled as ingratiation, as they all showed gratitude towards organisations working in the food sector. Fevia also published many crisis-related news items and only a few news items on other subjects, like the importance of an international sustainable food system, or measures taken by the government that were unrelated to the crisis. Of the crisis-related news items, most contain instructing information. For example, when reporting on new governmental measures, when providing updates on the crisis situation, or when informing organisations on consequences of the crisis (Appendix 6b). A few articles contained adjusting information, when reporting on the steps Fevia takes to help organisations in need. Ingratiation and endorsement were present too in the news section of Fevia’s website, as the FoodHeroes campaign is featured there as well, albeit to a lesser extent. Fevia has no active blog to analyse.

Interview

The health crisis caused a lot of absenteeism in the food sector and employers looked to Fevia to guide them and provide them with information and solutions. Fevia immediately took action to almost fully adapt their content and communication strategy to the crisis.

On the one hand, Fevia wanted to inform. To achieve this, a mini site with relevant information about the crisis was set up, as well as an e-mail address to answer questions and provide daily updates with new information to members. The newsletter, the general website and social media were also included in this strategy. During the first weeks of the crisis, Fevia communicated almost exclusively about the crisis. All planned content was removed and replaced. As the crisis progressed and there was more clarity, people started to share content on other subjects again. However, it is not back to normal yet: the balance is still leaning in the direction of COVID-19 content.

On the other hand, Fevia also wanted to get emotional, a role that normally doesn't really suit them. In this case, however, it turned out to work. In only a week time, Fevia and com&co set up the campaign called FoodHeroes. This campaign was meant to emphasize the essential work that the food sector does during the health crisis, and to thank companies and employees for their efforts. The campaign was perceived very positively with the members of Fevia. No less than 17 Belgian ministers expressed their thanks for the food sector via a video. However, the weakening of the crisis does not mean the end of the FoodHeroes campaign. Under the name FoodHeroes a fixed content format will be offered on which members of Fevia can tell their success story.

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26 Fevia's communication channels were completely dominated by the new strategy. The corporate website was the central hub for information about the crisis. E-mail was the second most important channel in the strategy. Social media was used slightly less than before the crisis, but still played an important role. Microsoft Teams was not used before the crisis, but proved to be very useful for consultation with members. To measure the effect of the crisis communication, Fevia conducted surveys. To communicate with the government, however, telephone remains the most important means of communication.

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27

Discussion

RQ 1: What balance do organisations maintain between their regular corporate communication and crisis communication concerning the COVID-19 pandemic?

During the peak of the COVID-19 crisis, SD Worx balanced both regular corporate content and crisis-related content on their social media channels. Its news section and blog, however, were almost completely dedicated to the COVID-19 crisis. Mensura’s Facebook, Twitter and LinkedIn pages on the other hand barely contained any regular corporate content, and their YouTube channel only featured crisis-related content as well. The mini-site 'Corona at work' and the restart guide mentioned in the interview prove that the crisis was the main focus. On Mensura's blog about two thirds of the content was about the crisis, so the blog did include corporate content on other topics next to crisis-related content. Com&co advised them to build in a buffer of corporate content to quickly pick up old habits after the crisis. When we compare these two cases from the HR sector, a number of similarities stand out. Both strongly use their news section and/or blog to share crisis-related content, and occasionally share content on other topics via social media. Both organisations share more crisis-related content than non-crisis-related content.

Invest in Flanders kept a balance with crisis-related content occurring a bit more frequently than non-crisis-related content. This balance was maintained for all social media channels and corporate channels. At Flanders Trade, however, the balance was strongly dependent on the channel. On the Facebook page of Flanders Trade, equal amounts of crisis-related content and non-crisis-related content appeared. Twitter and LinkedIn mainly contained non-crisis related content, while the opposite was true for the news section of the website. In the interview, it appears that Flanders Trade deliberately shared more corporate content. The creation of a website around the crisis and a newsletter show that content about the crisis was not unimportant. With Fevia, crisis-related content is undoubtedly more important than non-crisis related content, as the food sector was strongly influenced by the crisis. At the beginning of the crisis, Fevia focused almost exclusively on the crisis. The FoodHeroes campaign proves this. The grip of the crisis on Fevia's communication was later eased, making way for some corporate content. When comparing these federations for companies, a number of contradictions stand out. For example, the balance between the content is already very different in the two departments of Flanders Investment and Trade, with Invest in Flanders keeping a balance on all channels, while Flanders Trade rather uses social media for non-crisis-related content and corporate channels for crisis-related content. With Fevia, there is hardly a balance sheet, and crisis-related content remains the main focus.

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28 When we compare the two sectors, it is striking that the approach to HR cases is more similar than the approach of the federations. As no research has been conducted on the balance between corporate content and crisis-related content during a crisis, it is difficult to indicate which of these organisations uses the correct tactics according to literature. What can be concluded, however, is that the balance strongly depends on the needs of the target audience, and that these needs are the most determining factors for the balance in content in a crisis communication strategy.

RQ 2: Is it relevant to communicate corporate content that is not related to the crisis?

SD Worx’ social media channels still contained some corporate messages, indicating that communication managers still found those messages to be relevant, even at the peak of the crisis. SD Worx faced this question, and answered it by stating that content unrelated to the crisis was still quite relevant to them. Mensura barely communicated content unrelated to the crisis. However, this can be attributed to the fact that Mensura's corporate content also contains information about safety at work, just like crisis-related content in the COVID-19 health crisis. It is therefore more difficult for Mensura to distinguish between corporate content and crisis-related content. On the advice of com&co, Mensura still regularly communicated corporate content. Com&co advised both SD Worx and Mensura that corporate content is relevant as well during this crisis.

For Invest in Flanders, both corporate content and related content continued to be shared, although Mensura indicated to focus mainly on the crisis because they found sharing corporate content less appropriate. This objective was not quite visible in the content analysis. Flanders Trade proves via Twitter and LinkedIn that corporate content is still extremely relevant. As the communications manager emphasized in the interview, the world keeps spinning. Nevertheless, Flanders Trade informed their audience about the crisis via news articles. The interview showed that Flanders Trade did not want crisis-related information to take precedence, and that corporate content still had to carry the heaviest weight. For Fevia, non-crisis related content was not on the agenda at the start of the crisis. As the crisis progressed, unrelated content also became relevant.

Here, too, the relevance of corporate content strongly depends on the organisation and its target audience. Organisations sense which information is relevant to their target audience and, based on this information, make the choice to share that content. Nevertheless, com&co recommended that corporate content should not be pushed aside entirely, which indicates that such content still has added value in times of crisis.

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29 RQ 3: What types of crisis related content are relevant in the COVID-19 crisis?

For crisis-related content, SD Worx opted mainly to share instructing information, and used social media channels to express gratitude via ingratiation content. At Mensura instructing information was very important as well. All other crisis response strategies were only minimally applied in Mensura's communication. For Invest in Flanders, endorsement stands out strongly, which is a logical consequence of Invest in Flanders’ focus on promoting Flanders abroad. The interview confirmed that this was Invest in Flanders’ main objective in its crisis communication. Flanders Trade almost exclusively communicated instruction information, mainly to inform interested parties about the crisis situation abroad. For Fevia, both content concerning instructing information and ingratiation were very important.

Due to the unique context of the COVID-19 pandemic, only a few of the crisis response strategies from SCCT are applicable. Mostly instruction and adjusting information occur, often in combination with the reinforce strategies ingratiation and endorsement, which were defined as secondary crisis response strategies. Apart from instructing and adjusting information, no primary crisis response strategies were used to report on this crisis. The choice of strategy differs a little between companies, but there are great similarities between the strategies applied. Both HR cases and federations for companies mainly communicate instructing information. Some share more ingratiation or endorsement content than others, but still this strategy is ubiquitous in this crisis. RQ 4: Through which channels should that crisis related content be communicated?

SD Worx mainly communicated ingratiation through their social media channels. SD Worx’ newsletter and press releases served mainly to disseminate instructing information to customers and stakeholders. Mensura communicated its instructing information content, as well as a bit of ingratiation through all its channels.

Invest in Flanders communicated more or less equally through all corporate and social media channels. Flanders Trade’ social media channels include various crisis response strategies, while the corporate website, the specific website on the crisis and the crisis-related newsletter mainly included instructing information. Thanks to the FoodHeroes campaign, Fevia focused strongly on gratitude and ingratiation, as well as endorsement. This emotional campaign was mainly conducted via social media, because, according to literature, social media are better suited to convey emotion (Liu & Kim, 2011). Fevia communicated instruction information to its members via e-mail and the crisis related mini-site.

Crisis revelations: balancing crisis content and corporate content during the COVID-19 pandemic