Conventional Farm an interdisciplinary case study

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Permaculture on the

Conventional Farm

an interdisciplinary case study

Students: Milan Besselink: Earth Sciences (10469850) Guido Knibbe: Anthropology (10421521)

Luut Dingemans: International and European Law (5977959)

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ABSTRACT - This study explores some essential aspects that comprise an effective model for sustainability applications in modern field crop agriculture. A case study on the Bloeiend Bedrijf project in the Netherlands with over 550 participating farmers is analysed for its success factors. This project is a promising model for the modern application of permaculture principles. Systems thinking provides the basis for an interdisciplinary integration of

disciplinary analyses from the perspectives on Law Science, Earth Sciences and Anthropology. Thus, this integration includes project structure, practical results of the

permaculture application and the experiences of the participants and regulators in the project, including their interactions with the Dutch society. Results show that (1) collective subsidy application, (2) the involvement of civil society and (3) a well-organized communication structure are essential structural aspects of successful operation models for sustainability projects. Essential practical aspects include (1) the use of farming applications that serve multiple purposes in accord with permaculture principles, (2) that these applications show measurable results to the farmer and society, (3) a particular symbolic and ritual value in these applications and (4) social recognition. All of these aspects are recommended for

consideration by policy makers in both the public sector and the private sector.

Copyright IMAGES on title page:

By Wikibiro (Own work) [CC BY-SA 3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)], via Wikimedia Commons

[[File:View along a field margin - geograph.org.uk - 1355339.jpg|View along a field margin - geograph.org.uk - 1355339]]

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Introduction

Since the modernization of agriculture from the 1950's until the 1980's, efficiency and yields per hectares have increased greatly in the Western world. The intensification was a policy specifically intended to push agriculture from the primary sector to the industrial scale (Grin, 2014). This was established with the help of uniform mono-culture crops, inorganic fertilizer and intensification of pesticide usage. Apart from efficiency benefits, this

“productivist” paradigm (Lawrence, 2005) augmented environmental problems such as decreasing biodiversity (Chapin et. al. 2000) and widespread usage of pesticides (Botkin, et al. 2009).

In the beginning of the 21st century, society not only asks for productivity and efficiency, but farmers are pressured to produce more sustainable as well. After decades of scientific reports since Meadows et. Al. (1972) it is safe to say that many ecologists, climate scientists and environmental scientists have stressed the importance of minimizing

environmental problems associated with modern agriculture such as biodiversity loss, (over)usage of agricultural toxins and dealing with nutrient surplus and outflow to

(ground)water. These concerns lead to the incorporation of pillar-2 agro-environmental policy into the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) of Europe (Latacz-Lohmann and Hodge, 2003). Moving step by step from a more traditional approach of income support for production to an inclusion of subsidizing ecological services done by farmers under the heading of “rural development”.

This research focusses on exploring effective operation models that promote

sustainability in modern agriculture. A case study on the “Bloeiend Bedrijf” project (referred to as BB in this report) is conducted to determine the essential structural aspects that have led to the successful operation of this project. First, the case study analyses how Functional Agrobiodiversity (FAB)-edges may offer solutions to aforementioned ecological and

environmental problems. No structural study has yet been done on the practical application of FAB-edges. Next, the systemic design of the BB case will be examined in accord with

General Systems Theory (GST, see Von Bertalanffy, 1956). Interestingly, FAB-edges are also applied by experts in the modern field of permaculture, a design approach to sustainable agriculture that is grounded on systems thinking. We hypothesize that an examination of a permaculture application within a governmentally subsidizes operation model can provide a fertile basis to structurally achieve sustainability gains in modern agriculture. More

information on permaculture and systems thinking will be provided in the first chapter. The central question of this research is: “To what extend can the Bloeiend Bedrijf project in the Netherlands serve as a model for long-term solutions toward more sustainable field crop agriculture?” First, this report provides an introduction to systems thinking and permaculture. Next is the case study of the BB project, which will also include a short note on the methods of research that were used. Lastly, the system dynamics of the BB project are analysed to determine essential aspects for success and how these can be applied more broadly in agricultural operations.

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Systems Thinking and Permaculture

Systems thinking as a scientific method was pioneered around the 1950s by biologist Ludwig Von Bertalanffy in his general systems theory (GST) (Von Bertalanffy, 1956). Von Bertalanffy believed that a perception of the world in terms of interacting systems could be a framework for the basic unity of human knowledge. The systems approach provides models for comparison that could for the first time bridge the gap between the natural and social sciences.

From the 1950’s onward, the systems approach has been further developed into a practical method for interdisciplinary research. The famous systems theorist Ervin Laszlo points out that this approach can be used to “build models of certain perspectival features of phenomena and hold up the models for investigation and comparison” (Laszlo, 1971: p.175). He explains that by modelling the interactions between the ‘features’ and ‘phenomena’ that comprise a system, the scientist is able to map organized complexity.

The systems approach has two important implications for the research project that we have conducted. First, it allows for the transcendence of monodisciplinarity through holistic thinking, as described in Repko (2011: 274-278). This study thus recognizes that human beings are interwoven into a hierarchy of isomorphic open systems that include ecosystems, political systems and cultural systems. Human beings (in our case farmers, people who pass by their lands, and the general Dutch society) thus represent the common ground between the disciplines of earth science, law and anthropology in our interdisciplinary research. Second, as a research method, the systems approach allows for the systemic analysis of the features and phenomena relevant to each discipline and how they relate to others. This can help to identify the mechanisms of feedback that are involved in and between the different systems that we will describe. This approach creates common ground, both by organizing systemic

interactions and extending the scope of each discipline’s findings, as described in Repko (2011: 340-347). Systems thinking thus allows for an overview perspective that is essential in understanding how sustainability can be achieved in conventional farming.

One profound aspect of systems thinking is that it not only provides a theoretical tool for the unity of science, but its philosophical and practical aspects are also available to anyone who wants to apply them in the ‘real world’. Arguably the most straightforward and effective form of such an application is found in the form of ‘Permaculture’, a design system that was invented in the late 1970’s by Bill Mollison and David Holmgren (Mollison & Holmgren, 1978). Originally referring to gardening practices inspired by natural ecosystems,

permaculture practices have now stretched out through the whole realm of human habits. These habits, ranging from economics to the use of technology and education, are all approached as systems that together comprise human culture. Permaculture takes an

integrative systems approach to design human culture according to the model of nature. In the words of Holmgren (2007, p.3): “Thus the permaculture vision of permanent or sustainable agriculture has evolved to one of permanent or sustainable culture”. Mollison’s perspective on total design in permaculture is visualized in figure 1 on the next page.

The FAB-edge is a natural design solution that the field of permaculture is already familiar with. This study will take a systems approach to explore how the application of this technique in the BB project connects to natural, social and political systems. The goal of this

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approach is to provide an overview perspective that can serve to map the complexity of successful sustainability projects. The resulting model can then be used by policy makers to design for more sustainability in modern agriculture.

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Part 1 – Case: Bloeiend Bedrijf

History and Organization

“Bloeiend Bedrijf “, which can be translated as “Blossoming Venture”, is a project based in The Netherlands from 2011 until 2014, in which a total of 550 farmers where subsidized for applying specific ecological measures on their open field farm. The farmers were professionally supported by various knowledge and agricultural institutions to do so. Farmers implemented on their farms FAB-edges, known as “Akkerranden” in the project. These are rows of flowers and herbs that attract biodiversity. The aim of the project was to decrease pesticide usage of the farmers by attracting natural predators of insect pests, increasing Functional Agro Biodiversity (FAB) and decreasing the amount of insecticides used by the farmer (Bloeiend Bedrijf 2014).

In this report a thorough analysis of the project is made. In which we wish to answer the research questions with the data, interviews and literature found concerning the BB project. This will give an academic insight into how ecological measures work on the farm and how governments and other stakeholders can be involved to contribute to a more sustainable and more biologically diverse open field agriculture. Contributing to an agricultural system where less pesticides are used and with a more biological diversity on (and around) the farm. A complete analysis of the project is given in order to understand the workings of a subsidized regulation with many different stakeholders involved, varying from the European Common Agricultural Policy to regional farmer’s collectives, knowledge institutes and the outlook of the individual farmers that play a role.

The “demoregeling beheer akkerranden” was a scheme by the Dutch Ministry of economic affairs, agriculture and innovation (LE&I) from 2010 until 2014, and was specifically aimed at subsidizing FAB- edges. It was co-funded by the Dutch ministry of Agriculture, Economics and Innovation (LE&I) and European agriculture subsidies through the Common Agricultural Policy.

A farmer named Teunis Jacob Slob was the main applicant of the subsidy and worked at farmer organisation ‘Veelzijdig Boerenland’ while applying (2010). With the help of another hundred farmers the BB project was able to start its first year. Two years would follow and 550 farmers were ultimately involved. This research intends to look at the effects and results BB managed to realise, as well as the way it was done. We thank the farmers and institutions involved for their openness that enabled us an inside look into the workings of the BB project.

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Research Methods

The case analysis is carried out through various research methods. First, a literature study examines scientific papers, newsletters, and reports about the BB project and FAB-edges. This data is appropriated to explore the role of FAB-edges in the natural environment, the experiences of participants in the BB project, and the design of BB’s regulation structure.

Secondly, empirical data is collected in the form of interviews with BB’s project regulators and one in-depth interview was held with a participating farmer. This empirical information is used to complement and support the literature study.

Thirdly, inside knowledge into the project is obtained by participating in an evaluation meeting that was hosted by the civil society groups involved in the BB project and which was attended by participants. The information gathered at this meeting will not explicitly be expressed in this report, but rather serves to complement the general knowledge that the research team obtains from the internet and other sources with hands-on experience.

It was crucial that this research had an interdisciplinary approach, in order to fully understand the project. The 4 criteria of interdisciplinary research that Repko (2012) explains can all be seen in the report: (1) It was a complex case study, sustainable farming is (2) a societal issue, (3) no single discipline could have addressed the case study, and (4) insights from various disciplines are offered in the research.

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Natural benefits and constraints of FAB-edges

The FAB-edges are used in agricultural

practices and in BB. It is defined as the whole of the crop edge, any margin strip present and the semi-natural habitat associated with the boundary (Greaves & Marshall, 1987). The boundary (figure 2) is the barrier between fields or two different types of land use, usually in the form of

hedges and if present with a watercourse (Marshall & Moonen, 2002). The strip settled in the field or at the edge of the field between boundary and the crop is defined as the margin strip. This margin strip includes wildflower strips, grass strips, buffer strips, strips sown to bird cover crops and buffer strips. The outer few metres of the crop is the crop edge (Marshall & Moonen, 2002). The report of BB (2012) indicated that the herbal and flower mixtures they used for the FAB-edges, stimulated useful biodiversity. For instance, the sown herbs and flowers produce nectar and pollen which are also easy to reach for insects with short

mouthparts. Thereby, the sown herbs itself do not cause weed pressure and they don’t attract pests and plagues. Another result is that the mixtures bloom as early and as long as possible, therefore the multi-year mixtures forms habitat for beneficial insects to winter.

Predator insects and prey in the FAB-edge

Out of the latter it becomes clear that the FAB-edges have different functions, one of these functions is that it serves as a hide out for different kinds of insects (Van Rijn, Willemse & Alebeek, 2011). In this way the use of pesticides can be reduced or become unnecessary. The results of the BB (2012) report indicated that the FAB-edges attracts two important groups of natural predators. The species including lacewings, hoverflies and ichneumon flies, are attracted to the nectar and pollen in flowers after which their larvae fight against the harmful insects. And the species that are attracted to places for wintering and reproduction, and from there hunt on other harmful insects. Examples include ground beetles, spiders and ladybugs.

According to research of the BB (2013) report, the FAB-edges have especially a positive effect on the Hoverfly populations. If there is sufficient bloom and there are sufficient prey insects present in the crops, then in the late summer there are great quantities of

Hoverflies. Hoverflies can have up to 10 generations per year therefore populations can increase tremendously. Also lacewings benefit from FAB-edges, but they only have two generations per year. Therefore, the populations respond slower to increasing pest pressure. The third important group of natural enemies are the ichneumon, for aphid control. This group

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appears to be independent on nectar and pollen because the honeydew that aphids secrete are sufficient to build up an ichneumon population.

The FAB-edges of BB (2012) were primarily developed for natural control of aphids in particular cereals and consumption potato. BB observed in their studies that most profits of FAB-edges could be achieved in crops that meet the following criteria:

- They are prone to aphids; - Aphids are a major reason to use

insecticides;

- For aphids there is not a "zero-tolerance": it is tolerable that some aphids are present before it exceeds the damage threshold (figure 3).

Crops that meet these criteria are cereals, sugar beet and consumption or starch potato. However, the function of FAB-edges on outbreaks are obviously wider, the outbreaks of whitefly and snails can be reduced when well-developed populations of natural enemies are present.

Impact of FAB-edges on insecticide usage

In the field meetings of BB (2013) it became clear that natural enemies are not only present when the FAB-edges flourish, but also before that. Landscapes have naturally much to offer. The most important factor that determines the presence of certain natural predators is the presence of prey. If there were no aphids, then there were no or very few natural enemies. At the insecticide-treated plots beneficial insects were almost absent (figure 4). According to the report of BB (2013) this is caused by the insecticides, because it eliminates the most important food source of natural predators. The participants of BB indicated in the report that when they do not use insecticides the chance of aphid

outbreaks may increase. But according to the results of the BB (2013) report, the problem lies in the fact that insect control occurs preventive. To overcome this they

recommend inspections on pest pressure. The excellent results of BB (2012) report of crop protection in 2011 emphasizes the importance of crop inspections. Because at two-thirds of the farmlands, aphids were observed and at just a third of them the threshold was exceeded. Eventually the BB made clear that 67% of insecticide use by the participants is reduced and

Figure 4: The aphids pressure (upper) and the number of natural predators (bottom) in sprayed (left) and unsprayed (right) grain fields (numbers per 100 grain culms). Source: BB, 2012

Figure 3: Natural aphid suppression. Source: BB, 2012.

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even 40% of the 67% did not even sprayed insecticides on their crops. Moreover, BB also observed 116 natural predators and 26 species of wild bees.

Different functions of the FAB-edge and its link to permaculture

Another function is that the margin strips of the FAB-edge can influence the

environmental impacts of agriculture, such as pesticide and fertilizer application. The FAB-edges can reduce the impacts because it can act as a buffer, which reduces runoff from the fields in the water courses and leaching of nutrients and agrochemicals. There are optimal dimensions of margin strips to reduce erosion by runoff and to function as a buffer (Van Dijk et al., 1996). BB (2012) recommends 3 meter wide margin strips because their results

indicated that this size is sufficient to create the buffering effect. The interviewed farmer Kamper (2014) responded as followed to the size of the FAB-edges:

“It appears that FAB-edges at every 50 meter in your crops with a size of at least 3 meters wide have an effect. But my plots are 200 meter wide and I'm not going to put a margin at every 50 meter, because that needs more work than it actually yields me, instead of using chemicals despite the fact that I don’t want that. Those chemicals cost money, but those resources are reliable in operation and the margins aren’t. But FAB-edges certainly contribute to the soil quality of the piece of land where it is placed, but not in the widening of it. The FAB-edges have a contribution to the emission of crop protection. Because you are further away from the ditch and FAB-edges catches the spraying chemicals before it reaches the ditch”.

The interviewee acknowledges the functioning of the FAB-edges regarding the buffering effect and the soil quality. But despite the fact that he acknowledge that, the interviewee indicates that the FAB-edges are not always reliable and that it takes a lot of time and effort to maintain the FAB-edges.

Marshall, West and Kleijn (2005) state that the margins are important for some bird species. But on the other hand, the other species that forage over considerable areas, the 3 meter margin strips appeared to be of little significance. When Kamper (2014) was asked about the increase in biodiversity and birds he responded:

“Concerning ecology the FAB-edges have a major influence, I sow a certain mixture of flower seeds that are nice for you to see and which are useful for the insects. But actually the entire biodiversity increases, and whether you're talking about animals or insects or birds that doesn’t matter, I think everything increases due to FAB-edges”. It is made clear that FAB-edges have different natural and sustainable functions; therefore it is well suited as a permaculture technique. Because in permaculture everything has multiple functions. Therefore, the FAB-edge with its multiple functions could be implemented very

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well in a system to design human culture according to the model of nature. So the FAB-edge is in line with the vision of Holmgren (2007) about permaculture.

Benefits and downsides of the FAB-edge

According to Bos and Dirks (2014) the most important obstacles for the partitioning in the BB project are the implementation of FAB-edges and the lack of suitable crops, weed suppression, the experience of insufficient results and the complexity of the matter (

determine the damage thresholds and recognizing species). Furthermore, the FAB-edges replace agricultural production and therefore mean yield loss. Integrated pest management takes more time than preventive spraying of insecticides. These two factors are driving the costs up, and that is not recouped automatically via the product price. But on the other hand, the FAB-edges also have multiple benefits. Some important insights are the reduction of pesticide use, the buffer effects, the increase in biodiversity and the recreational function. A financial incentive from the society is therefore justified and for most farmers also a

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Regulatory Framework

European subsidies in the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP)

After a period of homogenization and increased productivity starting roughly in the period from the 1950’ until the 1980’s (Brown & Mitchell 1997), the adverse effects of modernized agriculture became visible in the 1970’s, especially in Northern European Union member states such as Denmark, The Netherlands and Germany (Latacz-Lohmann and Hodge, 2003). After acknowledging problems of overproduction and pollution,

agri-environmental policies were slowly implemented into the CAP in the 1980’s (Appendix 2). With landscape conservation groups lobbying becoming stronger in the 1980’s, a strong argument was made for redirecting money from production grants into conservation schemes as was observed by Potter (1987) according to Latacz-Lohman and Hodge (2003).

Funding of the Bloeiend Bedrijf project

A large part of the funding for the BB came from the European Common Agricultural Policy. In the period between 2007 and 2013 the Dutch implementation of the Common Agricultural Policy was under the “Plattelandsontwikkelingsprogramma 2” or “POP2” and fell under pillar 2, rural development (Agrarisch natuurbeheer) from the Common

Agricultural Policy (CAP). Pillar 1 is direct payment for production subsidies; pillar 2 is rural development, or specific subsidies for ecological services that farmers may provide. Bloeiend Bedrijf was erected under the funding of a pillar 2 project for Rural development. The POP 2 had in the plan funding for the demoregeling beheer Akkerranden (scheme for FAB-edges), the Dutch program that ran from 2011-2014 to support FAB-edges. It was under this scheme that the farmer Teunis Jacob Slob, “Veelzijdig Boerenland” and a hundred other farmers applied for the pillar 2 funding and started the beginning fase of the project in 2010 (Dirks, 2014).

As said, the scheme for FAB-edges was under the responsibility of the departement “Dienst regelingen” of the Dutch ministry for agriculture, economy and innovation (LE&I). The set-up is an example of co-operation between European and national policy to implement a pillar 2 project. This structure is visualized in figure 5.

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Figure 5: Funding and structure of BB

At the top (dark blue) are the structural funds for agriculture by the European Union. The Dutch program (orange top) is the rural development program, POP2. The Dutch ministry is responsible for the FAB-edge scheme (orange under). In Dark green is the head applicant, both farmer and civil society worker. In light blue civil society is represented. On top the central organs, below the regional farmer organizations.

The participating institutions of Bloeiend Bedrijf: the involvement of civil

society

As became clear from the BB project, a crucial aspect of the success was the

intensive support by civil society. The knowledge sharing, meetings and newsletters, as well a as the administrative support could not have been done without the involvement of civil society groups. The involvement of civil society in the form of farmer, nature and knowledge institutions can be considered a successful practice picked that can be picked up from the BB project. Because the civil society groups were of great importance to the project, it is only right to introduce the actors (Appendix 1). This can also shed some light for future projects and the type of organizations needed for a functioning sustainable project.

Is public funding necessary to implement FAB-edges?

A modern farm is run like a business. A farmer has a set and limited amount of land, time and working hours. FAB-edges take up land, and thus less production space, time

invested in the required knowledge and the labour hours to plant and maintain a FAB-edge on the farm.

Only a limited amount of farmers will find it acceptable to pay this price for the benefits of a FAB-edge. Economically, the only advantage for a farmer is the decreased amount of pesticides used.. It is obvious that the investment in time, work and the space to

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create FAB-edges weigh heavy on a farmer. Although more specific economic analyses is recommended for future policymakers on the subject, it is safe to conclude that the

investments required by a farmer weighs much heavier on a farmers professional/financial balance than the benefits derived from decreasing the purchases of pesticides.

FAB-edges however, have several benefits that are enjoyed by society at large: of which esthetic value and increased, functional and non-functional biodiversity are only a few examples. In a situation where there is no public financial support for Functional Agro Biodiversity, the farmer invests, while the society gets the benefits.

Furthermore, one of the keys to success for BB was the intense involvement of civil society in the form of knowledge institutes and farmer- and nature conservation organizations. The newsletters, workshops, and skill-sharing, people hours and meetings all have to be paid for somehow. Sustainable agriculture does not come cheap, and if the public and political establishment desire a more sustainable agriculture, then financial support is required.

In Article 21 of the Dutch Constitution it is said that “the protection and enhancement of the environment are for the concern of the government”1. In order to compensate the farmers for their ecological services, it is the government that is responsible for it and thus should pay for it. From the BB project can be concluded that subsidies remain necessary in the short to mid-long term to supply farmers with necessary knowledge and skills. This generation of farmers is mostly not familiar with ecological practices, so they must learn them and get compensation for the lost income due to the investment in time, labor and land.

Another suggestion can be made for the long-term: if governments decide to adopt certain successful ecological measures, these measures can be included in school curriculums. It is therefore imaginable that for generations of farmers that are growing up with for example Functional Agro Biodiversity in mind, much less subsidies are necessary in future. The lost production surface however remains eligible for compensation even for the long term.

The future of FAB: regulatory realities and the CAP 2014-2020

CAP 2007-2013 : CAP 2014-2020:

Pillar 1 direct income subsidies Greening demand of 5% included in order to get direct income subsidies

Pillar 2 Rural development Rural development

Table 1: Common Agricultural Policy two timeframes

Table 1 shows that the Greening demand in the 2014-2020 period comprises a set of demands a farmer must comply with in order to receive funding through pillar 1. This is the first time this is demanded for direct subsidies. Apart from a certain crop rotation scheme, additional ecological measures must be taken. This involves among other possible measures

1

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the use of FAB-edges. When a farmer reserves a certain space for FAB-edges, he or she is eligible for European income subsidies.

However, FAB-edges are as mentioned not the only possibility a farmer has in order to comply with the Greening demand. Farmers may be compelled to take a more easy route in the form of catch crops, certain crops that take up excess nutrients but do little or no good for biodiversity or pesticide usage. The adding of easy measures such as that can prove to be a lost opportunity from the EU to stimulate biodiversity through FAB-edges. Farmers need more skill to implement these than they need for planting another crop after a production crop. The civil society groups involved in Bloeiend Bedrijf viewed especially catch crops as a threat for the development of FAB-edges (interview H. Begeman, 2014). In the BB case the FAB-edges have multiple benefits (see previous chapter), for farmers as well as for society at large. It is recommended to policymakers that in order for a Greening measure to be eligible for funding, it must have multiple benefits. In this case FAB-edge would be eligible for funding, while catch crops may not meet the criteria.

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Experiences of Participants and Regulators

This part of the study takes an anthropological perspective to analyze two systems in the context of BB. One is a system of interaction which involves communication among participants and regulators and the interactions between these two types of actors. The other system comprises the application of a permaculture approach by participants. Both are concerned with experiences and perceptions of the people involved in BB. Hence, in the analysis of these systems the significance lies in subjective accounts as opposed to a critical evaluation of the factual accuracy of what people say or do.

One fundamental philosophical insight from anthropology that has become generally accepted is that the human world is continually being created through subjective meaning. While people are often not conscious of this subjectivity, they believe that their own values are part of the natural order (Wilk, 1996). Culture in this sense is actively created by people, but at the same time it is also taken for granted. The pattern is one of cyclical causality.

People shape culture through their actions, but culture simultaneously conditions people into a certain worldview, which is the basis of their actions.

Culture conditions people primarily through ideology and symbols. Clifford Geertz (1973) describes ideology as a dual phenomenon: it offers models of the world (ontology) while at the same time providing a system for action (ethos). Ontology in this regard provides a concept of what reality truly is, in all factuality, and so gives an understanding of existence. Ethos is a practical attitude towards the self and the world, which is reflected by how people live their life. Symbols, Geertz argues, are necessary to ‘store’ the meaning of ontology and ethos and link the two together. Through the process of ritual, symbols re-enact the meaning behind the worldview and relate it to a proper way of life. Geertz’ theory provides a

framework that can be usefully applied to systemically analyze the experiences of participants in the BB project. What follows is an examination of literature and interviews, which is then related to the concepts of ontology, ethos, symbol and ritual.

Experiences with communication

The main goal of the BB project is to stimulate participants in knowledge sharing by demonstrating the effectiveness of new farming approaches. According to the project leaders, group meetings and communication is therefore essential in this project (Bos & Dirks, 2014: 5-7).

Before setting out to explore the experiences of the participants involved with the project, it is useful to understand why they have decided to join in the first place. In the newsletters we find four main motives: “financial support, social recognition, interest in biodiversity and heart for nature and sustainability.” (Newsletter 7, 2013). Practically, this means that the participants are curious to find out how they can integrate biodiversity and natural pest-control in their companies. (Newsletter 1, 2011). This information already hints at how the participants value their position in society and that they are eager to develop a certain worldview and put it into practice. However, these topics will be dealt with in the next

paragraph. For present purposes, the eagerness itself is of interest.

The active involvement of the participations illustrates their motivation: during one season (2011) 40 study meetings on crop inspection were attended by almost all participants

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colleagues and experts during hundreds of local and national meetings (Bos & Dirks, 2014). These meetings have proven to be of key importance to acquire the necessary knowledge and experiences for a competent integration of natural pest-control. “On a normal day, the time is lacking to properly think about these issues. The study meetings are an outstanding chance to brainstorm with colleagues” (Newsletter 9, 2014). According to the project directors, trusting nature to deal with pest problems is essential and the sharing of skills and knowledge with the participants provides the basis for that trust. This is supported by the data on what farmers are saying: 84% says BB is their most important source for knowledge about natural predators and pests. 70% of the participants think the study meetings are essential for a more

sustainable pest control (Newsletter 9, 2014).

In addition to knowledge sharing, the BB project has also led to more communication between farmers and society. Participants experience a significant increase in positive contact with passers-by and others that are aware of the FAB-edges (Bos et al., 2014: 45). Participant Hein in ‘t Hout: “I am suddenly credited for the fact that I am a farmer” (Newsletter 7, 2013: 5). Farmers indeed explain that this aspect of FAB-edges is the most important as they feel that it leads to social support for sustainability.

Experiences with a permaculture approach

This paragraph will focus on the experiences that participants have with the application of FAB-edges in their business. As will be shown, the experiences of a new farming approach are not just limited to the physical tasks that are involved, but collaboration is also important.

The concept of the study meeting, as mentioned in the previous paragraph, is a particularly relevant example of such collaboration. The goal of these meetings is for participants to learn how they can detect useful natural predators for themselves. This so-called ‘scouting’ is supervised by experts from the Louis Bolk institute. By teaching them a ‘first look, then act’ approach, participants are stimulated to gain the skills and knowledge that are necessary to become autonomous experts in making informed decisions on whether it is necessary to use pesticides on their land (Newsletter 2, 2011).

Results show that 63% of the participants have changed their view on crop protection. Farming guidance-expert Jaap Flikweert: “I notice that farmers are pushing their boundaries. Spraying is becoming much less of a habit for most farmers. They are looking at their crops with a different eye.” (Jille, 2012).

The positive effect that such a simple permaculture approach as FAB-edges has on a more sustainable view on farming is very promising. Project leader Bos: “Farmers get a new chance to show useful craftsmanship. That innovation leads to real gains in sustainability. (…) The change in behavior leads to less spraying and more contact with the environment” (de Vré, 2013. Our translation). This attitude is definitely shared by participant Theo Salomé who points out that “the flowering edge stimulates awareness”.

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Part 2 – Synthesis and Conclusions

Bloeiend Bedrijf as a Dynamic System

First, we forget the BB project for one moment and look at how an individual farmer would go about installing an FAB-edge through a state subsidy. This will provide a clearer understanding of the functions that the BB project fulfils for farmers and society. In a

‘normal’ scenario such as visualized in figure 6 below, a farmer would individually apply for the available subsidy and engage in natural pest control by installing, maintaining and using the FAB-edge with his own knowledge and skills. However, as we have seen, farmers often lack the required expertise and initiative to successfully do so.

The analysis of participant experiences and facts provided by BB in the previous chapters have shown that the BB project initially plays an important role in attracting a large number of farmers to participate and to equip them with the necessary expertise to engage in natural pest control effectively, as shown in figure 7 below.

In the previous chapter we have seen how participants have experienced the application of FAB-edges in combination with group meetings and active communication. The participants

Figure 6: Scenario for subsidy application by an individual farmer

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and project leaders both regard knowledge sharing and the resulting skills and trust as vital. Participants also say that positive social recognition is an important driver for their

involvement in the project and for sustainability in general.

Furthermore, participants show a more environmentally conscious work ethic and a more holistic view on crop protection. A recap to the anthropological literature will provide a relevant context to understand these findings. It has become clear that the participants have changed their practical farming approach, their ethos, by engaging in natural pest control. The effectiveness of this new approach is largely dependent on knowledge and skills, and

ultimately trust in nature. This different view on nature that comes with a new ethos suggests a corresponding change in ontology as well. The FAB-edges thus act as symbols that connect a different view on nature with a new approach on farming. The maintenance of the edges and the cooperative study meetings are rituals that re-enact the newly acquired meanings. Figure 8 below provides a systemic visualization.

We have also seen that the new ethos and the esthetical value of a FAB-edge gain significant support from society. Importantly, this social recognition triggers positive emotions in farmers that are directly associated with their new approach, thus legitimizing it. Another important effect of social appreciation is that society can ultimately stimulate the government to subsidize sustainability projects. In other words, a society that is satisfied by ecological measures can keep their systemic application running, as visualized in figure 9 on the next page.

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An integrated system

Figure 10: Interconnectedness of the BB

Figure 10 shows the interconnectedness of the BB project as a whole. All parts that can be separated as different disciplines are dependent on other parts and are connected either directly or indirectly. Different colours represent a different sub-system or discipline. The dark blue nodes are the regulation structure and it is vital for funding of a complex agro-environmental project. Without the dark blue parts, the civil society (light blue) would not be able to deliver work and invest time for the setup and skill-sharing necessary for a complex project. The two central light blue institutes do most of the central knowledge (newsletters, BB website) and administrative work, while the regional organizations help local farmers with practical issues such as sowing the FAB-edge. The farmer (light green) is able to implement a FAB-edge measure because the farmer receives help from civil society institutes and public funding to compensate for investments in time, work and land. When the FAB-edge is

installed, it has certain ecological and economic benefits represented by the dark green nodes. These positive results together with the knowledge gained from working with Functional Agro Biodiversity, changes the worldview of a farmer and the way they work -with nature- on the farm, represented by the yellow node.

The FAB-edge also connects the policymakers with the project, because society recognizes the beauty and benefits of a FAB-edge and in doing so create support for public investment in these measures. Viewing the project as an integrated system in this way, it can be concluded that different factors such as policy, ecology, farmer's ethos and the general

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public's opinion, cannot be seen separate from one another. It was therefore crucial that this research had an interdisciplinary approach, in order to fully understand the project.

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Conclusions

The lesson learned from this project is that BB in several ways can be a model for successful projects. Although farmers were enthusiastic, farmers will not do such a project alone. Public financial support remains essential in similar projects. Moreover, farmers will need intensive guidance by civil society to overcome their lack of knowledge and experiences of insufficient results. This is particularly applicable for recognizing species and determining the damage threshold of pest insects. With this knowledge the farmers will experience

measurable results of reduced pesticide usage. Besides, an integrated communication structure is also a crucial structural aspect for the success of BB.

Apart from these structural essential aspects, the practical aspects are at least as important. For example, the field inspections in relation to FAB-edges are crucial ritual activities in that it stimulates the meaning of the FAB-edges as a sustainable tool for the work ethic of the farmers. Moreover, a visual aspect is also important, because the FAB-edges are visual symbols that give a farmer and society the idea that they are really engaging in

sustainability. The research of the functioning of the edges made clear that the FAB-edge has multiple purposes, this is in fact an important aspect of permaculture. These practical aspects will eventually lead to social value which is important to stimulate the farmers but also give incentives to the government to subsidize sustainability projects.

Therefore, it can be concluded that the BB project serves in multiple ways as a model for long-term solutions toward more sustainable field crop agriculture.All of these aspects are recommended for consideration by policy makers in both the public sector and the private sector.

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Appendix 1

The Louis Bolk institute is an independently operating international knowledge and research institute. Focusing on sustainable agriculture, food and health issues. They describe themselves as having a multidisciplinary approach on environmental / human problems they research and are always looking at the whole system and context of a particular problem.

`Veelzijdig Boerenland (Versatile Farmland), is a Dutch cooperation of nature- and landscape conservation organizations focused on the Western part of the Netherlands. The main focus is on the quality of the regulation of nature and biodiversity in an agricultural landscape.

ZLTO or Southern Land and Horticulture Organisation is based in the three Southern provinces, and is an association to support agriculture entrepreneurs. Helping them with among others corporate sustainability and professionalisation of the business. Boerennatuur or “Farmers Nature” is a similar organisation for the Northern part of the Netherlands.

De Natuurweide (The Natural Pasture) is the association for organic dairy farmers in the Netherlands.

The Common Agricultural Policy or CAP, is the structural fund for the stimulation of European agriculture. About a third of the European Union budget is spent on agricultural subsidies.

Appendix 2

The 1985 European regulation (ECC 797/85) can be marked as the beginning of environmental policies. By the late 1980’s, most northern Member States applied agro-environmental incentives schemes, while the Southern Member States were still fully

entrenched in the productivist paradigm and had ignored the opportunity that the legislation 797/85 gave for rural environmental programs.

To solve this, in 1995 regulation (ECC 2078/92) came which sought to include the Southern member states in the agro-environmental schemes. The most important change was the ability for member states to co-fund with EU subsidies, setting the environmental

measures on equal footing with the CAP’s pillar 1 income subsidies. These adjustments established paid stewardship or rural development firmly across the entire European community (ibid. 2003).

Conventional Farm an interdisciplinary case study

Permaculture on the