Automotive Security Functions; The Use of New Technologies to Tackle Vehicle-Related Crime

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Automotive Security Functions

The Use of New Technologies to Tackle

Vehicle-Related Crime

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prof. dr. F.E. Kargl Universiteit Twente, Universität Ulm

prof. dr. M. Junger Universiteit Twente

prof. dr. P.H. Hartel Universiteit Twente prof. dr. G. Laycock University College London prof. em. dr. iur. H.-J. Kerner Universität Tübingen

dr. E. Schoch Audi AG

CTIT Ph.D. Thesis Series No. 15-379

Centre for Telematics and Information Technology P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE

Enschede, The Netherlands

ISBN: 978-90-365-4010-0 ISSN: 1381-3617

DOI number: 10.3990/1.9789036540100

Official URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.3990/1.9789036540100

Typeset with LA_{TEX. Cover photo and design: Peter Knapik}

All rights reserved. No part of this dissertation may be reproduced, stored in a database or retrieval system, or published in any form or in any way, electronically, mechanically, by print, photo print, microfilm, or any other means without prior written permission by the author and Volkswagen AG. Publications concerning the content of this work require the written consent of Volkswagen AG. The results, opinions and conclusions expressed in this thesis are not nec-essarily those of Volkswagen AG.

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AUTOMOTIVE SECURITY FUNCTIONS

THE USE OF NEW TECHNOLOGIES TO TACKLE

VEHICLE-RELATED CRIME

DISSERTATION

to obtain

the degree of doctor at the University of Twente, on the authority of the rector magnificus,

prof. dr. H. Brinksma,

on account of the decision of the graduation committee, to be publicly defended on Friday, 29th of January 2016 at 12:45 by Peter Knapik born on 13th of July 1981 in Königshütte, Poland

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Abstract

Daily life is increasingly penetrated by new technologies. Advanced driver assistance systems with sophisticated sensors are increasingly available in all classes of vehicles. Moreover, mobile devices, such as smartphones, have become our daily companions. With the help of wireless communication technologies, our society and mobility have become increasingly connected. Based on these technologies, industry and academia have developed applications within the automotive field to provide customers with improved traffic efficiency, infotainment features and driver assistance.

Vehicle-related crime as well as fear of vehicle-related crime are omnipresent in our society. They result in personal injury, economic losses and reduced quality of life. Vehicle-related crime is a worldwide problem beyond national borders. Since criminals usually adjust their skills to overcome countermeasures, continuous development towards more innovative secu-rity measures is necessary to counteract them. Until now, existing countermeasures dealing with vehicle-related crime are mostly concentrated on the vehicle itself and focus on physical target hardening. Neither occupants, infrastructure nor other vehicles are involved to counter-act vehicle-related crime collaboratively.

To close this gap, we focus on automotive security functions. These functions make use of new technical capabilities of modern vehicles and consumer electronics to tackle vehicle-related crime, decrease fear of crime and provide tangibility of security to customers.

In this thesis, we focus on the identification of potential security functions in a structured way and the pre-emptive evaluation of security functions, i.e., estimating the (expected) effective-ness before a security function is entirely developed and deployed. Our contributions can be summarized as follows:

• We propose a definition of automotive security functions and vehicle-related crime to establish a fourth class of applications besides infotainment, traffic efficiency and assis-tance applications.

• We analyze statistical crime data from several countries as well as data from existing victimization surveys to gain a deeper understanding of vehicle-related crime. Addi-tionally, we conduct a victimization survey in Germany, the USA and Mexico to gain further insights into (fear of) vehicle-related crime. Making use of the same methodol-ogy in all three countries, we are able to compare findings across these countries. • We propose a methodology which uses both the crime script concept and the 25

tech-niques of situational crime prevention to identify security functions in a structured way. To support the structured identification, we provide a hierarchical classification of

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vehicle-• We develop four vehicle-related crime scripts and subsequently apply our methodology. We identify and propose six potential security functions, thus showing the suitability of our methodology.

• We design two security functions, namely the cooperative home light (CHL) and the electronic decal (ED). We identify and analyze the underlying technologies and show the feasibility of implementing both security functions. The CHL aims to provide improved lighting to the driver when going to or from their vehicle by involving neighboring ve-hicles to provide lighting. The ED continuously broadcasts a request that the vehicle be stopped and checked by police when it is illegally moved.

• We evaluate the CHL and ED with respect to the (expected) effectiveness with the help of several approaches. First, we transfer the existing results from similar countermeasures to our security functions. Second, we conduct a customer study to rate the effectiveness of reducing the fear of crime, the expected effectiveness of fighting crime and attitudes towards the CHL and ED. Third, interviewed experts assess the potential of our security functions to fight crime. Last, we propose defining measurable criteria which represent the effectiveness of both security functions. As a proof of concept, we implement a sim-ulation environment in order to simulate the CHL to estimate its effectiveness.

Using these contributions, interest groups such as car manufacturers can develop supplemen-tal security measures and provide customers with tangible security functions. With this work, we pursue the goal of contributing to combat vehicle-related crime and make our mobility more secure.

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Samenvatting

Het dagelijks leven wordt steeds meer door nieuwe technologieën gestuurd. Geavanceerde rijhulpsystemen en sensoren zijn in toenemende mate beschikbaar in alle klassen van voertui-gen. Bovendien zijn mobiele apparaten, zoals smartphones, uitgegroeid tot onze dagelijkse metgezellen. Door draadloze communicatietechnologieën is onze samenleving en mobiliteit steeds sterker verbonden. Op basis van deze technologieën hebben de industrie en de acade-mische wereld binnen het automotive bereik toepassingen ontwikkeld om klanten te voorzien met verbeterde verkeer efficiëntie, infotainment functies en rijhulpsystemen.

Voertuigcriminaliteit en de angst daarvoor zijn alomtegenwoordig in onze samenleving. Ze leiden tot persoonlijk letsel, economische verliezen en een verminderde kwaliteit van leven. voertuigcriminaliteit is een wereldwijd probleem dat landsgrenzen overschrijdt. Aangezien criminelen meestal hun vaardigheden aanpassen om beschermende maatregelen te overwin-nen, is continue ontwikkeling van meer innovatieve veiligheidsmaatregelen nodig. Tot nu toe concentreren veiligheidsmaatregelen om voertuigcriminaliteit tegen te gaan vooral op het voertuig zelf en de focus ligt op fysieke maatregelingen. Bewoners, infrastructuur en andere voertuigen worden niet betrokken bij het tegengaan van deze criminaliteit.

Om deze kloof te dichten, richten wij ons op automotive beveiligingsfuncties. Deze functies maken gebruik van nieuwe technische mogelijkheden van moderne voertuigen en consumen-tenelektronica om de voertuigcriminaliteit en de angst daarvoor te verminderen, om zo de klanten een gevoel van veiligheid te geven.

In dit proefschrift richten wij ons op een gestructureerde identificatie van mogelijke beveili-gingsfuncties en de preventieve evaluatie daarvan, dat wil zeggen, het schatten van de (ver-wachte) effectiviteit voordat een beveiligingsfunctie geheel wordt ontwikkeld en geïmplemen-teerd. Onze bijdragen kunnen als volgt worden samengevat:

• Wij stellen een definitie van automobiele veiligheid functies en voertuigcriminaliteit op, om een vierde klasse van toepassingen te vestigen naast infotainment, verkeer efficiëntie en rijhulpsystemen.

• Wij analyseren de statistisch criminaliteitsgegevens van verschillende landen, alsmede gegevens uit bestaande slachtofferenquêtes om een dieper begrip van voertuigcrimina-liteit te krijgen. Daarnaast hebben wij een slachtofferenquête in Duitsland, de VS en Mexico gevoerd, om verder inzicht te krijgen in (angst voor) voertuigcriminaliteit. Door gebruik te maken van dezelfde methode in deze drie landen, zijn wij in staat om de bevindingen tussen deze landen te vergelijken.

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gestructureerde manier te identificeren. Om de gestructureerde identificatie ondersteu-nen, bieden wij een hiërarchische indeling van het voertuigcriminaliteit, alsmede een indeling van de bestaande beschermende maatregelen en nieuwe technologieën. • Wij ontwikkelen vier voertuig-gerelateerde misdaadscripts en passen vervolgens onze

methodologie toe. Wij identificeren zes mogelijke beveiligingsfuncties en stellen deze voor, waarmee de geschiktheid van onze methodologie duidelijk wordt.

• Wij ontwerpen twee beveiligingsfuncties, namelijk het coöperatieve huislicht (CHL) en de elektronische sticker (ED). Wij identificeren en analyseren de onderliggende techno-logieën en tonen de haalbaarheid van de implemnetatie van beide beveiligingsfuncties. Het CHL streeft naar een betere verlichting van de bestuurder wanneer hij of zij zich in de buurt van zijn voertuig beweegt, door het gebruik van verlichting door naburige voertuigen. De ED zendt continue een verzoek om een politiecontrole als het voertuig het illegaal wordt verplaatst.

• Wij evalueren de (verwachte) effectiviteit van het CHL en de ED met behulp van ver-schillende benaderingen. Ten eerste gebruiken wij bestaande resultaten van vergelijk-bare beveiligingsmaatregelen voor onze veiligheid functies. Ten tweede hebben wij een klantenonderzoek uitgevoerd, om de effectiviteit ten opzichte van het verminderen van de angst voor criminaliteit, de bestrijding van de criminaliteit en de houding van de klant ten opzichte van de CHL en ED te bestuderen. Ten derde hebben wij met gein-terviewde experts de haalbaarheid van onze beveiligingsfuncties om de criminaliteit te bestrijden beoordeeld. Ten slotte definiëren wij meetbare criteria, die de doeltreffend-heid van beide beveiligingsfuncties vertegenwoordigen. Als proof of concept simulieren wij het CHL, om het op zijn effectiviteit te schatten.

Met behulp van deze bijdragen kunnen belangenorganisaties, zoals autofabrikanten, aanvul-lende veiligheidsmaatregelen ontwikkelen en klanten voorzien van concrete beveiligingsfunc-ties. Met dit werk streven wij het doel aan bij te dragen aan de bestrijding van voertuigcrimi-naliteit en daarmee een veiligere mobiliteit.

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Acknowledgments

Time goes by quickly...

After having spent the last five years working towards a PhD degree, this work has only been possible thanks to the support I have received from various people throughout that time. First of all I would like to thank my promoter Frank Kargl, who guided me from my first day of research up to the last day when discussing the abstract. Frank, you were always patient with me and never gave up on me. I particularly enjoyed our discussions, which ranged from computer science to crime science and social science. Frank, it was a great pleasure working with you.

Elmar, you were my supervisor at Volkswagen Group Research. Unfortunately, you left earlier than planned to advance development at Audi AG. Although we were long way away from each other you made yourself always available for discussions.

I remember when I got to know that my supervising university would be the University of Twente. I had not been expecting a university outside of Germany. I can say now that I am very glad about this choice. Although I was an external PhD candidate, everyone at the UT were always very helpful and friendly. I have always felt welcome and have enjoyed my visits. Thanks to all the current and former members from the DIES and SCS group.

I also wish to thank the members of my graduation committee that I have not addressed so far – Marianne Junger, Gloria Laycock, Pieter Hartel and Hans-Jürgen Kerner. Thank you Marianne and Pieter for our fruitful interdisciplinary discussions and your insightful comments. I am also very grateful to you, Bertine and Stefan. Thank you for helping me through the labyrinth of university procedures and for helping me in preparing this thesis.

I would like to express my gratitude towards all my former colleagues at Volkswagen Group Research who provided an enjoyable working environment. I have learned countless new things during my projects beyond this thesis, during our discussions, meetings, events and of course during our lunch times.

Thank you Laura, Sebastian, Christian, Waldemar and Torsten for our great collaborations as well as for your great project work, bachelor theses and master theses that I had the pleasure to supervise.

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children Julia and Sebastian throughout these intense years.

Schließlich danke ich meinen Eltern, die mir alle Möglichkeiten eröffnet haben meinen ge-wünschten Weg einzuschlagen. Ihr habt mich und vor allem uns als Familie in allem unter-stützt. Danke für eure Geduld und dass ihr super Eltern und Großeltern seid!

Thank you all, Peter

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8.4. Summary . . . 206 9. Summary 209 9.1. Contributions . . . 209 9.2. Future work . . . 212 9.3. Conclusion . . . 214 A. Abbreviations 217 B. Questionnaires 219 B.1. Questionnaire for online survey in Germany, USA and Mexico (English version) 219 B.2. Questionnaire for face-to-face survey in Germany . . . 224

C. Bibliography 241 C.1. Author’s publications . . . 241

C.2. Bibliography . . . 241

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Chapter

1

Introduction

1.1. Motivation

Our daily life is increasingly dominated by new technologies. The vision of accident-free driv-ing and the guarantee of our future mobility leads to an increasdriv-ing number of advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS). In the past, ADAS were mainly available only in high-class ve-hicles. Since then, these systems have become available in mid- and even low-class veve-hicles. Consequently, the number of vehicles equipped with ADAS is continuously increasing, lead-ing to a growlead-ing availability of sophisticated sensors and actuators in a wide range of vehicles. New technologies are also increasingly available in the consumer market, and here even faster than in the automotive field. The frame of electronic devices to satisfy daily entertainment and communication demands is almost infinite. Mobile devices, such as smartphones, play a growing role in our daily life and have become a constant companion. They provide increasing processing power and are increasingly employed in daily use. Furthermore, our society and means of mobility are becoming increasingly connected. Different wireless communication ap-proaches as well as technologies are already available or in development to realize Vehicle-to-X (V2X) communication. Besides Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V) and Vehicle-to-Infrastructure (V2I), V2X communication also includes Vehicle-to-Device (V2D) communication. Academia and in-dustry invest a lot of resources and effort to make new technologies safe and reliably usable. These technologies form the basis for applications which are experienced by customers. Con-sidering the automotive field, academia as well as industry design and develop applications based on these technologies in three main fields:

• Traffic efficiency: increasing traffic efficiency by reducing traffic jams and enabling fluent traffic seeks to improve customers’ traveling convenience as well as ecological friendli-ness.

• Infotainment: reliable internet connection opens the door for social networks, online radio or even movies in the vehicle. Driver and passengers are increasingly provided with infotainment features.

• Assistance functions: besides assisting the driver while driving, assistance functions mainly aim to reduce the number of accidents as well as their impact. The work moves towards fully-automated driving with zero accidents, and consequently no fatalities.

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Crime and fear of crime are pervasive in our society, experienced in discussions with friends and family, in newspapers, on television or in the worst case even from first-hand experience. It leads to personal injury, economic losses and reduced quality of life. Criminal offenses are usually defined by the criminal laws of each country of which vehicle-related crime forms a part. According to statistics provided by the Federal Criminal Police Office in Germany [139], vehicle-related crime has constantly made up over 10% of overall crime in Germany during the last 10 years. However, vehicle-related crime is not only a German phenomenon but an ongoing worldwide problem which does not respect national borders and affects everyone. Vehicle-related crime is not limited to vehicle theft. Instead, the term vehicle-related crime encapsulates all crimes in relation to a vehicle, focusing on motor operated road vehicles, such as cars, buses, motorbikes and trucks. From the perspective of a car manufacturer, cars play an essential role but the other vehicles mentioned here cannot be neglected since they constitute a non-negligible part, e.g., in Germany one-fourth of all registered motorised road vehicles [140]. Furthermore, considering V2V communication, the involvement of a broad number of vehicles is of great importance, especially to achieve high penetration rates. Thus, vehicle-related crime relates to any malicious attacks defined as criminal offenses by legislation in a given country which are directed against occupants as well as the vehicle itself, and cause some degree of property damage, property loss or bodily injury and which, in a broad sense, relate to a vehicle. To fight vehicle-related crime and reduce fear of vehicle-related crime national governments, the automotive industry, insurance companies and other parties have taken several counter-measures. However, until now, existing countermeasures dealing with vehicle-related crime are mostly concentrated on the vehicle itself and focus on physical target hardening. That means existing countermeasures ignore the involvement of other vehicles, occupants and in-frastructure in tackling vehicle-related crime by making use of sophisticated technologies. Re-search and industry mainly uses these sophisticated technologies to develop infotainment fea-tures, to improve traffic efficiency and in particular to develop assistance functions. Since criminals typically adjust their skills steadily to keep up with countermeasures, it is important to continuously keep pace with criminals and to even be a step ahead. Hence, the use of so-phisticated technologies to involve other vehicles, occupants and infrastructure provides the potential to increase the effort required by criminals to commit vehicle-related crimes. Thus, as shown in Figure 1.1, we claim that new technologies have the potential to be enablers for a fourth class of applications, namely security functions, which must not be mixed up with IT-security mechanisms, such as securing V2X communication or an ECU (electronic control unit) against tampering. Applications falling into the class of automotive security functions pursue the following three goals:

1. Fighting vehicle-related crime: Security functions make use of sophisticated technolo-gies to (cooperatively) fight vehicle-related crime. They aim to reach this goal by

• predicting an occurring offense • preventing the offense

• warning occupants of the offense • reducing the impact of the offense • helping to investigate the offense

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1.1. Motivation

2. Reducing fear of vehicle-related crime: Fear of crime negatively affects our behavior, economics, politics and our daily life. Hence, in addition to fighting crime, security functions aim to reduce fear of vehicle-related crime. Fear of crime does not necessarily correlate with crime; anomalies exist, e.g., crime is low but fear of crime is high and vice versa [7]. Thus, fear of crime needs to be considered independent of crime. Furthermore, vehicle manufacturers want their customers to feel comfortable while driving their ve-hicles. Reducing the fear of crime, i.e., increasing the feeling of security, contributes to improving the driving experience in addition to improving assistance systems, infotain-ment features and traffic flow. From an economic point of view, tackling fear of crime provides a unique selling point to the vehicle manufacturer. This can be used to stand out from competitors and increase the number of sales and improve the firm’s brand image.

3. Providing tangibility of security: Security, not only in the automotive field, is essential and forms the basis for reliable applications. The main drawback of security is that it is not tangible, especially not for customers. Therefore, the importance of security is mostly not appreciated and sometimes even neglected until security measures are compromised. Moreover, since security is not tangible for customers, it is difficult to sell it as a product and there is a lack of understanding on the customer side. Therefore, security functions aim to make security tangible, providing vehicle manufacturers with the opportunity to extend their set of applications. This way, a vehicle manufacturer can stand out from competitors, increase sales and in particular bring security closer to customers in order to improve its understanding and importance.

In a nutshell, automotive security functions, which are on the whole white spots in academia and especially in industry, make use of sophisticated technologies to tackle vehicle-related crime, decrease fear of crime and make security more tangible.

Enabling technologies

Infotainment Traffic efficiency

Assistance functions Security functions

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1.2. Research objectives

The main focus of this thesis is to study the opportunity to use new technologies to develop security functions following our definition from the introductory Section 1.1. Additionally, the effectiveness estimation of potential candidate functions will be focused on in this thesis. In our opinion, working on security functions from the application perspective is still a white spot in research. Thus a security function has to be seen as an extension to the three classes of applications from Figure 1.1. Security functions must not be mixed up either with safety functions, which form a subset of assistance functions, or with IT-security mechanisms, which protect from malicious cyber attacks seeking to gain control over a system or to gain access to (critical) private information.

In the course of the introduction of infotainment, traffic efficiency and driving assistance appli-cations, the technological basis for the development of security functions including IT-security mechanisms and privacy issues is being widely researched and is even partially available in series products. These topics are being widely discussed in both the community and in stan-dardization committees. Therefore, we leave these topics to one side, though they are impor-tant research topics in relation to the issue of security functions.

Until now, existing countermeasures dealing with vehicle-related crime are mostly concen-trated on the vehicle itself and focus on physical target hardening. That means they neither in-volve other vehicles, occupants and infrastructure, nor do they make use of other sophisticated technologies. Hence, considering the aforementioned scope, the main research hypothesis of the thesis is:

Main research hypothesis: New technologies can be enablers for a novel class of ad-vanced and cooperative security functions in the automotive field.

To research our main hypothesis, we have to deal with two central issues. First, combining the opportunities and richness of new technologies with the high diversity of vehicle-related crime leads to a nearly infinite frame of possible security functions. To handle this complex-ity, a structured approach to develop proposals for security functions is necessary. Second, the effectiveness of a security function is crucial. To estimate how effective a security function fights crime, decreases fear of crime and provides tangibility to customers, the straightforward approach is to evaluate statistical data considering other influencing factors from the past. However, this approach implies the implementation of a security function and continuous us-age under realistic conditions along with high and even unnecessary costs as well as requiring observation over a prolonged period. From the perspective of a car manufacturer, it is un-satisfactory to spend resources to develop security functions with unpredictable effectiveness. Therefore, it is of great interest for a car manufacturer to identify beforehand security functions which have the potential to be effective.

Hence, in order to research our main hypothesis, we seek to answer two main research ques-tions:

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1.3. Main contributions

Main research question 1:How can we identify automotive security functions?

To identify automotive security functions, we firstly need a deeper understanding and knowl-edge of the occurrence of crime and fear of crime. The focus therefore is on vehicle-related crime. To be able to combine this knowledge about aspects of vehicle-related crime with new technologies in order to identify security functions that account for the diversity of vehicle-related crime, a structured approach is necessary. Therefore, we tackle our first main research question by answering the following two sub research questions:

RQ 1.1: How can we gain deeper understanding of the factors leading to (fear of) vehicle-related crime?

RQ 1.2: How can we identify tailored automotive security functions in a structured way?

Main research question 2:How can we evaluate the effectiveness of automotive security functions?

To avoid unnecessary implementation costs and to shorten the time frame in which effective-ness results of security functions become available, it is of great importance to know as early as possible whether a security function has the potential to effectively fight crime, to decrease fear of crime and to find customer acceptance by providing tangibility of security. Consequently, we refine the second main research question in the following three sub research questions: RQ 2.1: How can we evaluate the effectiveness of fighting crime?

RQ 2.2: How can we evaluate the effectiveness of reducing fear of crime? RQ 2.3: How can we evaluate customer acceptance of security functions?

1.3. Main contributions

This thesis provides methodological and empirical approach to identify, design and evaluate automotive security functions. The results can be used as an orientation on the development of security functions. Our work is of an interdisciplinary nature and involves the following three domains: computer engineering, crime science and social science. The contributions of this thesis can be summarized as follows:

• Introducing the concept of automotive security functions in the community to form a fourth class of applications besides infotainment, traffic efficiency and assistance ap-plications makes up a significant part of this work. We propose a definition of security functions and a distinction with the other classes of applications appearing in [1, 2].

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• Understanding vehicle-related crime forms the basis of successful identification of se-curity functions. We use a combination of analysis of statistical (vehicle) crime data and data from victimization surveys to gain a deeper understanding of vehicle-related crime. Additionally, we conduct an online survey in Germany, the USA and Mexico in order to gain further insights into (fear of) vehicle-related crime as well as to compare the results on an international level. The results have been published in [2, 3].

• A methodology is proposed to identify security functions in a structured way. We make use of two approaches from crime science, namely crime scripts and 25 techniques of sit-uational crime prevention. Both approaches are used in collaboration to identify possible security functions in a structured way. The methodology appears in [1].

• Security functions are identified by developing vehicle-related crime scripts and conse-quently applying our methodology, and thus, showing the suitability of our methodol-ogy.

• By designing two security functions, namely the cooperative home light (CHL) and the electronic decal (ED), we show the feasibility of their realization in consideration of the underlying technologies. Both security functions appear in [4, 5].

• An evaluation of the CHL and ED is conducted in this thesis. We seek to estimate the (expected) effectiveness with the help of several approaches. First, we consider results of already existing and similar countermeasures. These results are transferred on our security functions. Second, we conduct a customer study to rate their effectiveness in reducing fear of crime and identify their expected effectiveness in fighting crime. Cus-tomers’ attitudes towards the CHL and ED and thus the tangibility of security are also evaluated. Third, we interview experts to consider the potential of our security func-tions to fight crime. Lastly, we suggest measurable criteria representing the effectiveness of both security functions. We implement a simulation environment in order to simulate the CHL to estimate the effectiveness derived from simulation results. Evaluation results partly appear in [6].

1.4. Organization of the thesis

The contributions of this thesis are discussed as shown in Figure 1.2. In Chapter 2, we conduct a statistical (vehicle-related) crime analysis for several countries to gain a deeper understand-ing of the objective facts on (vehicle-related) crime. Additionally, we analyze the results of existing victimization surveys to cover the subjective view of vehicle-related crime. Chapter 3 presents our cross-country survey from Germany, the USA and Mexico including research re-sults considering the aspects of vehicle-related crime. In Chapter 4, we introduce and develop the necessary basics for our methodology SAIAS (Structured Approach to Identify Automotive Security Functions) before designing SAIAS. Considering our understanding of vehicle-related crime from the previous chapters, we apply SAIAS in Chapter 5 to propose six possible security functions. Two selected security functions, namely the electronic decal (ED) and the

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cooper-1.4. Organization of the thesis

ative home light (CHL), are refined subsequently in Chapter 6. An evaluation of the ED and CHL as well as security functions in general is conducted in Chapter 7. Here, we transfer results from related work and conduct a supervised one-to-one survey as well as expert in-terviews. In Chapter 8, we additionally suggest evaluating security functions with the help of simulations. Hence, we implement a simulation environment and evaluate the CHL as an example. Finally, Chapter 9 summarizes this thesis with a revisit of our research questions and directions for future work, before concluding the thesis.

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Evaluating effectiveness of security functions

Expert interviews

Understanding vehicle-related crime

Survey analysis Existing countermeasures Statistical analysis

Designing selected security functions

Cooperative home light Electronic decal

Chapter 2, 3, 4 Chapter 4, 5 Chapter 6 Knowledge transfer Simulation Survey Electronic decal Chapter 7, 8

Designing and applying SAIAS

(Structured Approach to Identify Automotive Security Functions)

SAIAS is based on collaboration of two methods from crime science Situational Crime Prevention (25 techniques)

+

Rational Choice Perspective (crime scripts)

Possible security functions

Cooperative home light Electronic decal

Visual vehicle tracking

Open door / window reminder Cooperative alarm system Voice enabled crime detection

Cooperative home light

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Chapter

2

Understanding vehicle-related crime

To elaborate on security functions, a deeper understanding of vehicle-related crime and the fear of it is necessary. Therefore, we conduct a statistical crime analysis based on police statis-tics. Additionally, we analyze and provide core findings from existing victimization surveys regarding vehicle-related crime.

In the beginning of this chapter, we first discuss the benefits as well as drawbacks of police statistics and victimization surveys. In the following, we conduct a statistical crime analysis and an analysis of victimization surveys before summarizing the chapter.

2.1. Police statistics and victimization surveys

The two most important data sources for gaining understanding about the development of crime are police statistics and victimization surveys. Basically, to gain statistical data the police record crimes detected or reported by victims or witnesses. Since not all crimes committed are detected or reported to the police, statistics are supplemented by victimization surveys. In these surveys, a randomly-selected sample of the population is asked whether they have fallen victim of specific crimes. Beyond that, surveys can also cover aspects of fear of crime as well as more details about the circumstances of a crime. In using police statistics and victimization sur-veys to gain better understanding of crime development, we need to consider the limitations of both.

Police statistics aim to provide an objective view of crime development over time. However, police statistics may be inaccurate due to unreported cases since they depend on the willing-ness of victims or witwilling-nesses to report the crime to the police. For example, with theft of vehicle parts, it is possible that the victim does not report the loss to the police or their insurance com-pany as the victim does not expect the police to solve the crime and has no insurance to cover the loss. Consequently, offenses not reported to the police lead to inaccurate data, i.e., a dark figure of crime. Furthermore, not all crimes which come to the attention of police through re-porting or investigation are recorded in the end. Whether a crime is recorded or not depends on the investigation policies of the police. For example, the setting of different priorities in the investigation influences crime recording. Generally, more serious crimes are better recorded than less serious crimes. Crime is not always reported and not all reported crimes actually enter the official records. Furthermore, offenses can be wrongly recorded or may be

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misin-terpreted by the victim or police since the offender’s intention is ultimately hard to ascertain. For example, a vehicle theft may be interpreted as vehicle vandalism when the offender was disturbed during the offense and left a smashed window. There is always considerable lee-way for interpretation of the crime. Due to the ambiguous character of crime, it might not always be precisely clear what happened. Furthermore, the introduction of computer systems and continuous improvement can also influence statistics. The penetration of computerization can lead to a simplified recording process which in turn might influence the statistics due to a general increase of productivity and automation. In contrast, a policy of financial cuts, and thus, a reduction in police officers might negatively influence productivity and lead to inferior recording.

Victimization surveys provide a supplement to police statistics, since statistics do not reveal information about people’s fear of crime. The main advantage of surveys is the consideration of emotional influences and personal experiences. Furthermore, surveys might help to reveal eventual dark figures in crime resulting from unreported incidents. Since surveys aim to mea-sure victimization against individuals and households, crimes which are directly victimless, such as dealing with stolen cars, are not covered by victimization surveys. Furthermore, sur-veys do not cover the entire range of demographics since interviews are conducted with people from a specific age, e.g., 16. and the way questions are structured and asked may have an im-pact on the respondent, and thus, influence the results. Applied descriptions generally allow a broader interpretation than the legal description of a crime.

In a nutshell, we have to treat police statistics as well as victimization surveys with care. First of all, Wittebrood and Junger [8] showed that both police statistics and victimization surveys might reflect a different trend in the development of crime within a country. Second, people’s fear of crime does not necessarily go hand in hand with the real development of crime [9]. Third, police statistics as well as victimization surveys from different countries might diverge due to different measuring methods and criminal law descriptions of crime applied by po-lice and authorities. Nevertheless, popo-lice statistics and victimization surveys are the leading measures of crime development as well as fear of crime.

2.2. Statistical crime analysis

Few countries provide annual crime statistics over a relatively long period. As discussed in the previous section, police statistics come with several drawbacks which need to be kept in mind while conducting a statistical (vehicle-related) crime analysis to show trends in development. We first describe the methodology of our statistical crime analysis. The main goal is to show the trends of vehicle-related crime over a longer period and provide explanations for these trends. We will therefore look at selected countries on their own to provide an overview of crime development in general. In the second step, we then focus on vehicle-related crimes, namely vehicle theft, theft from vehicle, vehicle vandalism and carjacking, since these crimes are statistically covered in the main. The knowledge from our first step supports the

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under-2.2. Statistical crime analysis

standing as well as the explanation of the effects of the development of vehicle-related crime. Afterwards, we draw conclusions for the development of security functions.

2.2.1. Method

To be able to assess crime in different parts of the world, we considered conducting a statistical analysis in the countries shown in Figure 2.1. These countries range from emerging countries to industrialised countries with high living standards and stable legal and political systems. These selected countries are spread across the globe and provide different economic competi-tiveness. Among others, we considered China to be part of our crime analysis. However, to the best of our effort, we were not able to get any statistical data considering crime or even vehicle-related crime. Furthermore, we considered Brazil to be one of our selected countries. Again, the available data is highly incomplete and crime categories have changed several times dur-ing the last few years. We also identified inconsistencies in data compardur-ing crime reports from former years. Consequently, China and Brazil were discarded from our statistical analysis.

Figure 2.1.: Countries considered for statistical crime analysis

• Germany • USA • England and Wales • China • India • Mexico • Brazil • South Africa

Conducting our statistical (vehicle-related) crime analysis, we draw on freely-accessible crime data provided by the according state authorities within each country. We use the number of reported offenses to the police in each country. Table 2.1 provides an overview of the data sources we used to estimate the number of reported offenses within our selected countries. We further need the number of population as well as the number of registered vehicles in our selected countries. We do not present absolute data, i.e., the absolute number of offenses, since the number is influenced by the number of inhabitants as well as registered vehicles in the country concerned. Therefore, we give the number of offenses per 100,000 inhabitants and per 100,000 registered vehicles. Table 2.1 shows the sources of data used to estimate the population size as well as the number of registered vehicles in our selected countries.

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Table 2.1.: Overview of sources used for statistical crime analysis

Number of Population Number of

reported crimes size registered vehicles

Germany Bundeskriminalamt, Polizeiliche Kriminal-statistik [139] Statistisches Bun-desamt, Bevölke-rungsentwicklung in Deutschland [141] Kraftfahrt Bundesamt, Fahrzeugbestand [140]

USA Federal Bureau of In-vestigation, Uniform Crime Reports [142]

United States Census Bureau, Population Overview [143] Department of Trans-portation, Number of Vehicles [144] England and Wales

Home Office, Crime Statistics at Home Office [145]

Office for National Statistics, Population Estimates for England and Wales [146]

Department for Trans-port, Vehicles statistics [147]

Mexico Secretariado Ejecutivo del Sistema Nacional de Seguridad Publica, Incidencia Delictiva [148] Instituto Nacional de Estadistica y Geografia, Poblacion total [149] Instituto Nacional de Estadistica y Geografia, Vehiculos de motor reg-istrados en circulacion [150]

India National Crime Records Bureau, Crime in India [151]

Ministry of Home Af-fairs, Census Data Sum-mary [152]

Ministry of Road Trans-port and Highways, Road Transport Year Book [153]

South Africa

South African Police Service, Crime Report [154]

Trading Economics, South Africa Popula-tion [155]

National Traffic Infor-mation System, Live Ve-hicle Population [156]

Since offenses are presented as a per population and/or per number of vehicle rate, we show in Figure 2.2 the number of vehicles per population for the according countries, respectively. Additionally, Table 2.2 summarizes our calculation of the average growing rates of population as well as the number of registered vehicles for specified time periods dependent on data avail-ability. The vehicle possession rate is noticeably higher in industrialized countries. However, growth rates of both population and especially numbers of registered vehicles are noticeably higher in emerging countries. Overall, there are clearly fewer vehicles per person in emerging countries than in industrialized countries. This circumstance of course influences statistical figures and needs to be kept in mind.

Each country has proprietary crime variables so crime variables differ across countries. There-fore, we define crime categories with definitions shown in Table 2.3. These crime categories and definitions are guided by common law [10], which is the legal system in most English-speaking countries. In the further course of our analysis, we assign statistical data from proprietary crime variables to the according crime categories, respectively. This way, we aim to make data comparable across countries. It is important that data remains independent, for example, theft from vehicle can be sometimes a subcategory of theft. In this case, theft from vehicle has to

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2.2. Statistical crime analysis 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 [T housan d] Year

Number of vehicles per 100k population

Germany England and Wales USA

India South Africa Mexico

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 [T housan d] Year

Number of vehicles per 100k population

Figure 2.2.: Number of vehicles per 100,000 population

Table 2.2.: Average vehicle and population growth rates for selected countries

Germany USA England

and Wales India South Africa Mexico Years 1993-2013 1994-2013 1990-2013 2001-2013 2007-2013 1995-2013 Average vehicle growth rate 1.3% 1.3% 1.8% 9.8% 3.1% 6.5% Average population growth rate 0.0% 1.0% 0.6% 1.6% 1.7% 1.1%

be excluded from this category otherwise results are falsified due to dependency. Neverthe-less, we have to keep in mind that statistical data underlies different measuring methods and different criminal law descriptions of crime in each country.

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Table 2.3.: Crime categories with according definitions Crime category Definition

Vandalism: (VAN)

Vandalism covers any damage to a person’s personal goods or property as well as to public property.

Vehicle vandalism: (VTV)

This offense covers any damage to a vehicle. (Aggravated) Assault:

(AAS)

Assault consists of intentionally afflicting violence on a person. As soon as the attacker makes use of a weapon assault is con-sidered to be aggravated. The attempt to commit a murder falls also in this group.

Murder: (MUR)

Murder covers offenses of intentionally or negligently killing another person.

Sexual offense: (SEX)

Any sexual attack directed against another person without this person’s consent is seen as sexual offense.

Robbery: (ROB)

Robbery represents the unauthorized taking or attempting to take personal goods or property from another person. The of-fender makes use of violence or threat of force.

Burglary: (BUR)

Burglary covers unauthorized entries into buildings or other structures with the intention to steal.

Larceny/theft: (THE)

Larceny summarizes unauthorized taking from personal goods or property from within a building to which the offender has free or legal access, e.g. shoplifting. Pickpocketing also falls in the category of larceny/theft.

Vehicle Theft: (VTH)

Vehicle theft describes the unauthorized taking of another per-son’s vehicle.

Theft from vehicle: (TFV)

Theft from vehicle summarizes theft of valuables and other things from the inside of the vehicle. Furthermore, theft of cle parts and accessories is also represented by theft from vehi-cle.

2.2.2. Results: crime by country

In this section, we provide the results of the development of our crime categories defined in Table 2.3 for each selected country separately. We provide a graphical analysis which aims to show the development and trends of crime categories. This way, we estimate relationships across crime categories. For example, when violent crimes as well as property crimes have decreased to the same extent it might be an indication that the economical, social and/or po-litical situation has improved in the country, which might have had a positive overall effect on crime development. But for example when vehicle theft has decreased significantly and other property crimes, such as burglary, robbery and larceny, have remained stable or even increased, this might be an indication that the introduction of measures against vehicle theft encouraged this development. Furthermore, contrasting developments might be an indication of crime displacement to other crime categories.

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2.2. Statistical crime analysis 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 120% 140% 160% 180% 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 Year

Relative development of reported crimes in Germany

VAN VTV AAS MUR SEX

ROB BUR THE VTH TFV

40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 Year

Relative development of reported crimes in the USA

AAS MUR SEX ROB

BUR THE VTH TFV

Figure 2.3.: Relative development of reported crimes in Germany since 1994

Germany

As can be seen from Figure 2.3, there has been neither an overall increase nor a decrease of crime in Germany since 1994. Nevertheless, trends are evident. Violent crime, namely (ag-gravated) assault, sexual assault, vandalism and vehicle vandalism increased since 1994 with (aggravated) assault standing out. Murder is the only violent crime which decreased. In con-trast, property crime, namely robbery, burglary, theft, vehicle theft and theft from vehicle, have decreased since 1994. Only burglary started to increase against the trend a few years ago whilst the other property crime categories continued decreasing. It seems that property theft has dis-placed vehicle-related theft, i.e. from vehicle theft and theft from vehicle to burglar, meaning property crime has remained stable in the last few years. Violent crime also showed in the last few years a sideways trend though without displacement across crime categories.

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2. Understanding vehicle-related crime 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 120% 140% 160% 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 Year

VAN VTV AAS MUR SEX

ROB BUR THE VTH TFV

40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 Year

Relative development of reported crimes in the USA

AAS MUR SEX ROB

BUR THE VTH TFV

Figure 2.4.: Relative development of reported crimes in the USA since 1995

USA

Figure 2.4 shows crime development in the USA since 1995 where it can be seen that crime generally decreased within the period from 1995 to 2013. However, crime development has proceeded in a volatile manner so we cannot observe clear trends. Noticeable is the fact that vehicle theft underwent the largest decrease of all crimes, similarly to Germany. Furthermore, the crime development can be split up in three phases. In the first phase from 1995 to 1999, all crimes decreased. During the second phase from 2000 to 2007, all crime rates remained ap-proximately unchanged (that is, they moved sideways) except theft from vehicle which largely increased in the beginning before moving sideways as well. In the third phase from 2008 to 2013, all crimes decreased again and generally reached a bottom line again which indicates a fourth phase where crime rates follow a sideways trend again.

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2.2. Statistical crime analysis 10% 60% 110% 160% 210% 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 Year

VAN VTV AAS MUR SEX

ROB BUR THE VTH TFV

Relative development of reported crimes in England and Wales

50% 70% 90% 110% 130% 150% 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 Year

Relative development of number of reported crimes in Mexico

VAN AAS MUR SEX

ROB BUR THE VTH

Figure 2.5.: Relative development of reported crimes in England and Wales since 1999

England and Wales

As can be seen from Figure 2.5, property crimes, namely burglary, vehicle theft and theft from vehicle mostly decreased during the last decade. Theft remained nearly constant. Robbery started to decrease in the second half of the last decade after having increased by 80% in the beginning of the last decade. Similar to Germany, property crimes mostly decreased. The remarkable decrease of vehicle theft is noteworthy, similar to Germany and the USA.

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2. Understanding vehicle-related crime 10% 60% 110% 160% 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 Year

VAN VTV AAS MUR SEX

ROB BUR THE VTH TFV

50% 70% 90% 110% 130% 150% 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 Year

Relative development of reported crimes in Mexico

VAN AAS MUR SEX

ROB BUR THE VTH

Figure 2.6.: Relative development of reported crimes in Mexico since 1997

Mexico

Figure 2.6 shows the relative development of crime categories for Mexico since 1997. All crimes, except assault and vandalism, increased since 2007 noticeably. Possible reasons for the increase are the consequences of the world economic crisis, which started approximately in the beginning of 2008. The decrease in assaults was displaced by increased murder rates, in our opinion. This indicates an increase of brutality, which is also noticeable for vehicle theft. The number of vehicle thefts without violence decreased slightly within our studied period. In contrast, vehicle theft using violence increased, and thus is mainly responsible for the large in-crease in vehicle theft since 2007. In particular property crimes, namely burglary, vehicle theft, robbery and theft increased noticeably since 2007. These property crimes started to decrease slightly again with an improvement of the economic situation after the economic crisis.

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2.2. Statistical crime analysis 70% 120% 170% 220% 270% 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 Year

Relative development of reported crimes in India

VAN AAS MUR SEX

ROB BUR THE VTH

65% 70% 75% 80% 85% 90% 95% 100% 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 Year

Relative development of reported crimes in South Africa

VAN AAS MUR SEX ROB

BUR THE VTH TFV

Figure 2.7.: Relative development of reported crimes in India since 1999

India

Relative crime development in India is shown in Figure 2.7. Vehicle theft stands out in par-ticular, with a significant increase of approximately 150% since 1999. Other property crimes moved sideways. Only robbery started to increase by 40% since 2008, during which the world economic crisis began. We have no definitive explanation for this significant increase of vehicle theft, but a possible explanation is the growing demand for personal mobility which is growing faster than the offer of affordable opportunities for personal mobility. Hence, vehicle theft is one opportunity to satisfy the demand for personal mobility. Additionally, across our selected countries, India has the highest average vehicle growth rate at nearly 10% (Table 2.2) so the number of potential targets has greatly increased as well. It is important to consider that the ratio of cars to motorbikes remained constant since 1999, namely one to five, indicating there has not been a shift away from motorbikes to cars. Cars, it seems, are still not affordable for the majority in India. Furthermore, there is a distinct increase in sexual offenses in 2013 which can be mainly explained by a higher number of reported cases following to the “Delhi gang rape” [157] in December 2012. A young foreign female was raped by several men and died from her injuries. The “Delhi gang rape” has led to a world wide attention and demonstrations espe-cially by women in India. Both facts have made it easier for women to report rapes and led state authorities to consider sexual offenses with increased seriousness.

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2. Understanding vehicle-related crime 70% 120% 170% 220% 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 Year

VAN AAS MUR SEX

ROB BUR THE VTH

65% 70% 75% 80% 85% 90% 95% 100% 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 Year

Relative development of reported crimes in South Africa

VAN AAS MUR SEX ROB

BUR THE VTH TFV

Figure 2.8.: Relative development of reported crimes in South Africa since 2004

South Africa

As can be seen in Figure 2.8, crime generally decreased or remained at least at the same level since 2004. We think that the overall decrease results in part from the declaration of “war” on crime by the South African government in preparation for the football world cup in 2010. Crime categories did not decrease at the same rate and in our opinion, there is no clear trend visible. An interesting fact is however that vehicle theft started to decrease later than other crimes. In contrast, theft from vehicle is one of the crimes which quickly decreased. However, theft from vehicle is also the only crime which increased again.

2.2.3. Results and discussion: vehicle-related crimes

In this section, we focus on vehicle-related crime within our selected countries. We compare the development of vehicle theft, theft from vehicle, vehicle vandalism and carjacking across our selected countries since these crimes are statistically covered in the main. The knowledge from the previous section supports the understanding as well as the explanation of effects.

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2.2. Statistical crime analysis 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1.000 1.100 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 Year

Number of reported vehicle thefts per 100k population

200 400 600 800 1.000 1.200 1.400 1.600 1.800 2.000

2.200 Number of reported vehicle thefts per 100k registered vehicles

Figure 2.9.: Number of reported vehicle thefts per 100,000 population

2.2.3.1. Vehicle theft

Figure 2.9 and Figure 2.10 show the development of vehicle theft. The former figure shows the number of thefts per 100,000 inhabitants and the latter shows the number of thefts per 100,000 registered vehicles. As can be seen by comparing both figures, the number of registered ve-hicles per inhabitants influences the results, especially when considering emerging countries with small vehicle per population rates. The theft rate per registered vehicles in India is nearly constant although the absolute number of vehicle thefts steadily increases. However, this in-crease is neutralized by the steady inin-crease of registered vehicles. We have a similar figure for Mexico, although the vehicle growth rate is not as high as in India. Nevertheless, the vehicle growth rate even led to a small decrease in the vehicle theft rate per registered vehicle. The ve-hicle theft rate per population increased however. With the beginning of the world economic crisis in 2008 the Mexican theft rate per vehicle increased again. South Africa comes along with much higher theft rates compared to the aforementioned emerging countries despite a continuous decrease in recent years.

Although comparing data across countries has to be treated with care due to different data gathering methodologies, industrialized countries, namely Germany, the USA and especially

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2. Understanding vehicle-related crime 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1.000 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 Year

0 200 400 600 800 1.000 1.200 1.400 1.600 1.800 2.000 2.200 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 Year

Number of reported vehicle thefts per 100k registered vehicles

Figure 2.10.: Number of reported vehicle thefts per 100,000 registered vehicles

England and Wales, show noticeably higher theft rates. However, vehicle theft rates decrease steadily from high rates since the early 1990s. These high decreases are achieved neither by a growing population nor a growing number of vehicles. Both factors increased to a very slight degree within the last decades, as was shown in Table 2.2.

According to [11, 12], in the 1990s vehicle theft achieved an all-time high in England and Wales as well as in the USA. But Germany also suffered from high vehicle theft rates in the beginning of the 1990s, as shown in Figure 2.10. Furthermore, Figure 2.11 shows the development of vehicle theft rates from 1960 to 1990 based on data from [11, 12]. Both figures provide a good overview about the long-term development of vehicle theft in our considered industrialized countries where England and Wales stands out especially with its high theft rates.

One possible reason for the rise of vehicle theft during the 1980s and early 1990s in the USA is the loosening of international borders [13]. In England and Wales, the high increase of vehicle theft is related to the late mandatory introduction of steering column locks for new cars [11]. Germany introduced legislation for mandatory steering column locks in 1961, almost 10 years earlier than England and Wales [14]. Furthermore, in Germany steering column locks were also mandatory for motorcycles in addition to cars whereas in England and Wales only passenger cars were targeted. Since the effect on vehicle theft needs some time until enough vehicles are

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2.2. Statistical crime analysis

Number of reported vehicle thefts per 100k registered vehicles (1960‐1990)

0 500 1.000 1.500 2.000 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 Year

Number of reported vehcile thefts per 100k registered vehicles (1960-1990)

0 500 1000 1500 2000 1960 1970 1980 1990 Year

Number of reported vehcile thefts per 100k registered vehicles (1960-1990) Figure 2.11.: Number of reported vehicle thefts per 100,000 registered vehicles (1960-1990)

equipped with such locks, the earlier introduction and wider scope of such locks partly helped to keep vehicle theft under control in Germany, in contrast to England and Wales. In the USA, all car makers started to equip their cars with steering column locks in 1969 [15].

So, the introduction of steering column locks had different beneficial effects in Germany, the USA as well as England and Wales. In Germany, there was evidence of significant displacement of car thefts by motorcycle thefts. That means, opportunistic thieves switched from cars to motorcycles since steering column locks on motorcycles were easier to break [17]. In 1980, the proportion of motorcycle thefts accounted for 70% of all vehicle thefts in Germany whereas in the USA and England and Wales the proportions were below 11% [11]. In England and Wales, thefts for temporary use and joyriding were mainly responsible for the high increase of vehicle theft. Joyriding was mainly committed by young males in hot spot areas, i.e., areas with high crime rates. In the USA, Clarke and Harris [18] suggested a similar development as in England and Wales though the evidence was not as strong in the USA. The vehicle ownership rates has been higher in the USA than in England and Wales, with young people especially having more legal access to vehicles and thus less need or motivation to commit theft for temporary use and joyriding.

High vehicle theft rates in the 1980s and early 1990s prompted governments and car manu-facturers to counteract. In the USA for example, the Congress adopted the Motor Vehicle Theft Law Enforcement Act of 1984 [19] which aimed to improve the identification of passenger cars and introduced penalties for removing or altering the identification number. Furthermore, the import and export of stolen vehicles has been more severely punished. This act was extended by the Anti Car Theft Act of 1992 [20] where penalties were further strengthened, potentially resulting even in life imprisonment or death. In 1992, the Thatcham Research Centre [158]

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es-Very low

Very high Medium

High Low

Figure 2.12.: Map of available vehicle theft rates (thefts per registered vehicle) [16]

tablished a working group whose main goal was to tackle vehicle security. The group assesses almost all new vehicles destined for the UK market and security equipment from the perspec-tive of vehicle theft. Based on these results a ranking is established. Additionally, the British government introduced a car-theft index to rank car models by their vulnerability to theft [21]. Both Thatcham and the government’s ranking aimed to show vehicles’ risk for theft in order to elevate vehicle theft security to a marketing tool, and thus put pressure on car manufactur-ers to improve vehicle theft security. In October 1998, European Union legislation making the installation of electronic immobilizers mandatory for new vehicles became effective [22]. How-ever, most vehicle manufacturers started to equip their vehicles with immobilizers as standard equipment since 1995.

Although manufacturers have introduced further countermeasure besides electronic immobi-lization, such as improved door locks, more sophisticated locking systems that are more diffi-cult to circumvent and visible VINs, the steady decrease in vehicle thefts from the 1990s in Ger-many, the USA as well as England and Wales is mainly ascribed to the introduction and contin-uous improvement of electronic immobilizers [12, 23, 24]. Occasional thefts in particular have been made difficult. Nevertheless, vehicle theft is not completely eliminated. The remaining thefts are mainly committed by highly professional and organized gangs using sophisticated techniques or even violence to circumvent security measures. Thus, the steady decrease of ve-hicle theft in industrialized countries since the early 1990s has been mainly achieved by the reduction of occasional thefts for temporary use and joyriding. The rate of permanent loss did not change over the period [25]. The theft to gain financial benefits has steadily become profes-sional and organized. Figure 2.12 shows the latest qualitative theft rates for several countries over the globe based on the data from [16].

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2.2. Statistical crime analysis 0 500 1.000 1.500 2.000 2.500 3.000 3.500 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 Year

Number of reported thefts from vehicle per 100k registered vehicles

Germany England and Wales USA South Africa

0 200 400 600 800 1.000 1.200 1.400 1.600 1.800 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 Year

Number of reported thefts from vehicle per 100k population

Germany England and Wales USA South Africa

0 200 400 600 800 1.000 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 Year

Number of reported vandalism against vehicle per 100k population

Germany England and Wales

200 400 600 800 1.000 1.200 1.400

1.600 Number of reported vandalism against vehicle per 100k registered vehicles

Figure 2.13.: Number of reported thefts from vehicle per 100,000 population

2.2.3.2. Theft from vehicle

Theft from vehicle rates are shown in Figure 2.13 and Figure 2.14. As can be seen from both figures, no data is presented for Mexico and India since officially published data does not cover theft from vehicle in these countries.

Considering South Africa, data does not reach as far into the past as for Germany, the USA and England and Wales. Nevertheless, we can see that theft from vehicle has started to move sideways since 2009 after a decline in the previous years. We think that similar to vehicle theft, the introduction of increased measures to fight crime in general in preparation for the football world cup in 2010 contributed to this decline.

As can be seen from Figure 2.14 and Figure 2.15, England and Wales stand out with a high theft rate, reaching its highest values around 1990. Germany followed this trend especially in the 1970s and in the early 1980s though the rate did not reach that of England and Wales. In the USA the theft rate has moved mostly sideways except during two peaks in 1976 and 1995. According to Mayhew et al. [26], the increasing rate at which victims reported crime con-tributed partly to the increasing theft rate. The reporting rate increased by nearly 10% from 1981 to 1987. Furthermore, Webb and Laycock [11] state that the attractiveness of in-car enter-tainment systems increased in the beginning of the 1980s since most manufacturers started to equip their cars with radios with cassette player as a standard feature. Hence, in-car entertain-ment spread to lower-end cars and led to increased availability. Theft of vehicle accessories and parts increased in England and Wales by 143% whereas other theft increased by “only” 43% in the time frame, 1980 to 1990. The data may also suggest a displacement from vehicle theft to theft from vehicle, not only in England and Wales, but in Germany too.

Automotive Security Functions; The Use of New Technologies to Tackle Vehicle-Related Crime

Automotive Security Functions

The Use of New Technologies to Tackle

Vehicle-Related Crime

AUTOMOTIVE SECURITY FUNCTIONS

THE USE OF NEW TECHNOLOGIES TO TACKLE

VEHICLE-RELATED CRIME

DISSERTATION

Abstract

Samenvatting

Acknowledgments

Contents

Chapter

1

Introduction

1.1. Motivation

Enabling technologies

1.2. Research objectives

1.3. Main contributions

1.4. Organization of the thesis

Chapter

2

Understanding vehicle-related crime

2.1. Police statistics and victimization surveys

2.2. Statistical crime analysis

2.2.1. Method

2.2.2. Results: crime by country

2.2.3. Results and discussion: vehicle-related crimes

Number of reported vehicle thefts per 100k registered vehicles (1960‐1990)