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D isru p tin g th e D om inan t D isco u rse th a t M argin alises M usic in E d u cation
by
S h e ila May Sim
B. M us. Q ueen’s University, 1988. M.A., University o f Victoria, 1995.
A D issertatio n S u b m itted in P artial Fulfilm ent of th e R equirem ents for th e Degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
In th e D ep artm en t o f C u rricu lu m a n d In stru ctio n in E d u ca tio n We accep t th is d issertatio n a s conform ing to th e required sta n d a rd :
b n Supervisor
(D epartm ent o f Ç upriculum a n d In stru ctio n in E ducation) Dr. A ntoinette Oberg, Com m ittee ^ e m b e r
(D epartm ent o f C u rricu lu m a n d In stru ctio n in E ducation) Dr. M argaret R obertson, Com m ittee M em ber
(D epartm ent o f C u rricu lu m a n d In stru ctio n in E ducation) Dr. Ted T. Aoki, O utside Com m ittee M em ber
(E m eritus Professor, U niversity of Alberta) Dr. C h a rlen e M orton, E x tern al E x am iner
(D epartm ent of M usic, University o f Prm ce E dw ard Island) O SHEILA MAY SIM, 2002
U niversity o f Victoria
All rights reserved. This dissertatio n m ay n o t b e reproduced, in whole o r in part, l y photocopy o r o th e r m ean s, w ithout th e perm ission o f th e a u th o r.
Abstisct
T his stucty explores society’s influence o n o u r beliefs a b o u t m usic in g e n e ra l a n d m u sic e d u c a tio n in p artic u lar. My In te re st in th is topic ste m s from m y w ork a s a m u sic e d u c a to r a n d m y d esire to u n d e rs ta n d m ore fulty th e a p p re h e n sio n o f pre-service elem entary e d u c a tio n m ajors w ho frequently seem re lu c ta n t to engage personalty in m u sic-m ak in g a n d often a p p e a r unconvinced o f th e ir ability to te a ch m usic.
O th e r re se a rc h e rs w ho h av e been in te re ste d in th is p h en o m en o n h av e com m only a s s e s s e d s u b je c ts from a psychological perspective by ex a m in in g th e ir a ttitu d e s a n d a s s u m p tio n s , y e t th e re s u lts o f th e se stu d ie s have often been confusing, contradictory, a n d inconclusive, w ith little o f th e re se a rc h in flu e n c in g p ractice. As my re s e a rc h d irec tio n crystallized. I becam e m ore a n d m ore convinced th a t th is in q u iry w ould b en e fit from m oving o u t o f th e psychological p arad ig m a n d exploring socially-constructed m eaning. My research q u estio n therefore h a s been. “How do societal beliefs c o n s tru c t o u r u n d ersta n d in g o f m usic a n d m usic ed u catio n ?”
In p a rtic u la r. I h av e c h o s e n to explore th is q u e s tio n th ro u g h d isc o u rse analysis. D isco u rse an aty sis is interpretive w ork th a t a tte m p ts to in v e stig a te how m e a n in g is m ad e th ro u g h la n g u a g e a n d o th e r signitying practices in society. In o rder to locate a n d g en erate te x ts th a t s p e a k to th e c o n s tr u c tio n o f m e a n in g in m u s ic a l e x p e rie n c e , I d e c o n stru c te d te x ts from v a rio u s so u rces th a t in clu d ed interview s w ith pre-service elem entary e d u c a tio n te ach e rs, a n interview w ith a fine a r ts coordinator, com m entaries o n selected m usical events a n d o th e r m u sical rep rese n tatio n s in v ario u s m edia, a n d reflections o n m y own experience. An Inquiry into th e in stitu tio n aliz atio n o f m usic w as a n im p o rta n t p a rt o f th is research.
To organize th e b eliefs re p re s e n te d in th e te x ts . 1 id e n tifie d d u a lism s th a t op erate In so ciety a t large a n d th e n te a se d o u t how th ese
d u allstic relatio n sh ip s c o n s tru c t o u r u n d e rsta n d in g of m usic a n d m usic e d u c atio n . My in te rp re ta tio n pointed to a re a s of conflict m th e teach in g a n d le a rn in g o f m u sic a n d show ed how ideological d ifferences a b o u t m u sic a re re p re se n te d a n d m a n ag e d in v a rio u s d isc o u rse s. Finally, in o rd er to provide th e g roundw ork for a possible d isru p tio n a n d challenge to th e s ta tu s q u o , I explored a generative “T hird Space" t h a t su g g e sts how m usic could be co n stru c te d a s “M usic for Living" ra th e r th a n “M usic a s Art."
E xam iners:
Dr. Betty Hanley. S upervisor
(D epartm ent o f C u rricu lu m a n d In stru c tio n in E ducation)
Dr. A ntoinette Oberg. C om im ttee M ember
(D epartm ent o f C u rricu lu m a n d In stru ctio n in Education)
Dr. M argar
Dr. M argaret R obertson. C om m ittee M em ber
(D epartm ent o f C u rric u lu m a n d In stru c tio n in E ducation)
Dr. Ted T. Aoki. O u tsid e C om m ittee M em ber (E m eritus Professor. U niversity o f Alberta)
Dr. C h arlen e M orton. E x tern al E xam iner
Table o f Contenta
A bstract... Il T able of C o n te n ts...Iv Table of F igures... viil Table of T ables... vlli Acknowledgements...Ix
1. THE JOURNEY... 1
S itu atin g Myself In th e M idst o f th e R esearch... I Living M usically... 1
Following th e R esearchP ath... 5
Locating M yself a t th e B orders o f Disciplinary B oundaries 8 A f^roachtrtg a Space...10
Framing a Research Q uestion... 12
2 . INQUIRY APPROACH... 14
C hoosing a Theoretical B asis a n d M ethod...14
Organizing the R esearch... 16
Sutÿectivity inD ualistic T hought... 17
ResearchActÈüiîies... 23
Interviewing stu d e n ts... 25
Interview ing a fin e a rts coordinator...26
Interpreting selected te x ts...27
Rejlecttng on personal ejçperierux...27
Further questions fo r a n a ly sis... 28
G eneral In tro d u ctio n to th is In te rp re ta tio n ... 29
3. ENACTING THE MALE/FEMALE DUALISM...33
In tro d u ctio n to th e M ale/F em ale D ualism ... 33
Social M echanism s fo r Constructing D^fererwe... 37
Experience or Positionality...37
Language... 39
Representation... 44
W oman a s a n object o f sensucd desire... 45
W om an a s em otion... 46
W om an a s notaire...46
W oman a s d ivin e...46
W oman a s evil... 47
The code o f masculirUty... 47
The M ale/Fem ale D u a lism in Music a n d Music E ducation 50 Music a s a Fem inized D isco u rse...50
M usic a s a n O bject o f Sen su a l Pleasure... 51
Inteilectucdizing M usical E^xperience...57
Reconstructing S en su a l Pleasure a s A esthetic Pleasure 59 Constructing W estern A rt M usic a s Superior M usic...62
Denigrating M ass C ulture... 69
M usic a s Em otion... 73
Distancing M usic Jrom Emotion...75
Reconstructing M usic to Serve the Dominant D iscourses.... 78
M usic a s N ature... 84
M usic a s Divine...88
M usic a s Evil... 98
G ender C o n stru ctio n w ith in th e D isciplines...106
W ays o f M aking M usic... 106
Singing... 106 Playing In stru m en ts...110 Using Technology... 116 S tyles o f M usic...118 Career O pportunities... 125 Petforming... 125 Composing...126 Conducting... 133
Teaching... 134
R e cap itu latio n ...135
4. ENACTING THE WORK/PLAY DUALISM... 137
In troduction to th e W ork/P lay D ualism ...137
W ork a s Paid E n ^ lo y m e n t...138
Play a s Non-Productive Leisure...140
Play a s Id len ess...142
Work a s P roduct... 144
Play a s Process... 147
W ork a s Serious Re^)onsU)Uity...148
Play a s Fun...150
Play a s Pleasure...151
Play R econstructed a s Virtuous, C ultured A ctivity... 153
The W ork/P lay D u alism in Music a n d Music E d u catio n 155 M usic a s P lay... 156
M usic a s Leisure Time A ctivity... 156
M usic a s Pleasurable F un...163
M usic a s C ultured A ctivity...166
M usic a s P rocess... 168
M usic R econstructed a s W ork...170
M usic a s a Product o f Technology... 170
M usic a s P etform ance...174
M usic lesso n s constructed a s w ork... 174
Talent reconstructed a s serious responslbUlty... 177
The objectÿlcatton ofperform ers... 179
Performance products In schools...180
R ecap itu latio n ... 189
5. ENACTING THE TEACHER/STUDENT DUALISM... 192
Introduction to th e T e a c h e r/S tu d e n t D ualism ... 192
Teacher a s W om an... 193
Teacher a s A u thority...195
The Non-Pix^essional a s A n w teu r...202
Teacher a s Specialist... 203
G ifted S tu d e n ts...206
Forms o f Transm itting K now ledge...206
The T e a c h e r/S tu d e n t D ualism In M usic a n d M usic E d u ca tio n ...211
The M usic Teacher. A G endered Construction o f Power 211 Am bivalence Tow ard M usic in th e Interm ediate G rades 214 The A udiortty (^P rofessional M usicians...218
M aligning th e A m ateur...224
G eneralists or ^)e cla llsts? ...231
Identifying M usical Talent... 236
Rarefied M usical K now ledge... 247
R e ca p itu la tio n ... 253
6. M usic: R esonance for Life...257
F in al R eflection... 257
A uthentic Personhood (meàe/fem ale)...264
Playful W ork (work /p la y )... 276
The S tu d e n ta s Teacher a n d th e T ea ch era s S tu d en t (teach er/ student)...287
M usic a s R esonance for Life... 294
References...299
A ppendix 1: W hat to Expect D uring Y our Interview...329
A ppendix 2: Letter o f Inform ed C o n se n t...330
A ppendix 3: Interview Q u e stio n s...332
A ppendix 4: C o n tact Letter for Fine A rts C oordinator... 334 A ppendix 5: L etter o f Inform ed C o n sen t for Fine A rts C oordinator. .336
Table o f Figures
Figure 1: D u allstic In terre latio n sh ip s...32
Table o f Tables
T able 1: S am ple of m ini-posters su p p lied by NAMM... 81 Table 2: S am ple of m ini-posters supplied by NAMM... 82 Table 3: Two C o n stru c tio n s o f M usical E xperience... 263
Acknowledgements
T his research h a s b een possible w ith th e h elp a n d s u p p o rt o f m an y people. I w ish to acknow ledge a n d th a n k th e s tu d e n ts who took a n active p a r t in th is research —for th e ir c a n d o u r a n d th e ir friendship. As well. I a m in d e b te d to all s tu d e n ts In m y c la s s e s a t th e u n iv ersity w ho hav e e n ric h e d m y life over th e y e a rs a n d provided th e in sp ira tio n for th is research.
My th a n k s also e x te n d s to m y com m ittee m em bers. P articu larly I w ould like to acknowledge th e faith fu l su p p o rt o f Dr. B etty H anley o n my c irc u ito u s research jo u m Q r. B o th Dr. B etty H anley a n d Dr. A ntoinette O berg h av e advised m e for m an y y e a rs in my m a sters work a s well a s th is d o c to ra l d is s e rta tio n . T ry in g to m ove from th e d o m in a n t re s e a rc h p a ra d ig m to so m e th in g u n fa m ilia r w as a d a u n tin g c h a lle n g e . F or believing in m e w hen I frdtered, I w ould like to th a n k Dr. Ted Aoki w ho provided encouragem ent a t cru c ia l tim es.
Finally. 1 w ould like to th a n k m y flEunily for th e ir s u p p o rt—G lenn. S h a n n o n . Mike. Tanya, a n d wee T aylor for p u ttin g a song in m y h eart.
Disrupting the Dominant Discourse
that M arginalises Music In Education
b y
situ a tin g M yself in th e BOdst o f th e R esearch
T his in tro d u ctio n lays th e groundw ork for m y rese arch Journey. It, therefore, co n ta in s p erso n a l reflections on m y m u sical p a th th ro u g h life a n d th e n speciflcally fo c u sse s o n m y c irc u ito u s ro u te to a re se a rc h q u estio n a n d fltting m eth o d for inquiry. i
Lbftng UMisiaiJUy
For m any y ears, I hav e lived o u t m y convictions a b o u t th e value of m u sic In everyday life by teach in g m usic b o th privately a n d In th e public sch o o l system . M ost recently, I have been tea c h m g m usic ed u c atio n In th e F aculty of E d u catio n a t th e U niversity o f Victoria. My m usical values hav e been sh a p e d by a lifetim e of m usic-m aking. My D ad tells m e th a t I begged to ta k e piano le sso n s a t age 5. Not long afte rw ard s I began th e weekly routine o f w alking u p th e ro ad to th e h o u se o f th e neighbourhood m u sic teach e r for lessons every S a tu rd a y m orning. This ritu a l co n tin u ed u n til I g rad u ated from high school.
In th e se w eekly p ia n o le sso n s I, like th o u s a n d s o f ch ild re n all a c ro s s th is co u n try , le a rn e d to perform th e ap p ro v ed repertoire o f th e Royal C onservatory o f M usic, b ase d in Toronto. I also stu d ie d voice in th e sa m e way. tak in g w eekly lesso n s w ith m y s is te rs from a local teach e r w ho co u ld guide u s th ro u g h th e conservatory’s perform ance requirem ents for singing.
m yself a n d playing a n d singing for v ario u s com m unity fu n ctio n s usu alfy c e n tre d a r o u n d o u r fam lty’s involvem ent w ith th e c h u rc h . A lthough I received so m e s a tis fa c tio n fro m perfo rm in g a n d sc o rin g w ell o n th e v ario u s conservatory ex am in atio n s, m y m a in rea so n for playing w as th e em o tio n al release^ l ex p erien ced w h en e x p re ssm g m yself th is way. I reflected o n th is p h en o m en a In m y m aster’s th e sis (Sim, 1995):
As a ch ild I s p e n t m a n y h o u rs a t th e p ian o u n til m y n e c k w as stiff o r It w as tim e to give one of m y sis te rs a tu rn . This Uttle w orld o f nUne m th e c o m e r of th e living room w a s a very sp e c ia l place for m e. Even th o u g h th e s o u n d s w ould p erm e ate th ro u g h th e e n tire h o u se , I w as in a w orld o f m y ow n. .. Som e d ay s m y playing w as c ris p a n d b rig h t. .. My fingers w ould ffy over th e keys w ith a sp e ed th a t am azed me. The s o u n d o f ru sh in g six tee n th notes w ould deUght my e a rs a n d allow m y h e a rt to so a r, befylng m y soUd position o n th e p ian o b en c h w ith feet flrm ty p la n te d o n th e floor. It w as a m o m en t of b reak m g firee from th e th o u g h ts a n d w orries th a t w eighed m e dow n, even a s a ch ild .... At o th e r tim es I th rew m yself into wlldty d ram a tic m usic so u n lik e th e d em ean o u r I projected. T h u n d erin g aw ay a t R a c h m a n in o ffs “P relude in C# Minor" allow ed m e to p lay o u t a n g e r a n d hostUity t h a t I could never express verbally. B u t here, it w as accepted, even rew arded . . M usic. In th is way. allow ed m e to play o u t th e em o tio n al d ra m a t h a t w as m y life, escap in g for a m o m en t from m y poUte. placid, self. T his w as w here I felt tru ly aUve. (p. 87)
In th ese p erso n a l experiences o f m uslc-m aklng. I becam e th e m usic. 1 did n o t th in k th a t I w as in te rp retin g B ach o r B eethoven—In fact It w as a n effort for m e to rem e m b er th e p a rtic u la r n a m e s o f pieces a n d th e ir com posers. The m usic gave form to m y feelings a n d allowed me to express w ho I w as w ith a rich n e ss t h a t w ords could n o t convey.
T h is k in d o f In tim a te m e a n in g in m u s ic a l e x p e rie n c e n ev er 2 “Emotion'' lite ra l^ m ean s “a moving out" (Rudhyar. 1982. p. 10).
n o n e x iste n t. D uring th e la te 1 9 5 0 s a n d earfy 1960s, I a tte n d e d a two ro o m c o u n try sc h o o l in r u r a l s o u th e r n O n ta rio . 1 d o n ’t h a v e a n y recollections o f m usic in school d u rin g th e se elem entary y ea rs, n o t even o f sin g in g for re c re a tio n a l p u r p o s e s . In th e regional h ig h s c h o o l 1 a tte n d e d , a b a n d a n d c h o ra l p ro g ra m w ere offered a s electives, b u t 1 d id n ’t h av e m u c h in te re s t in m u sic -m a k in g th a t w as g e a re d to w a rd s p ublic perform ance. My experience o f m u sic w as m uch m ore p riv ate a n d p erso n a l. In fact, m y frien d s d id n ’t h e a r m e play, a n d I often re s is te d perform ing o n cue for relatives a t th e re q u e s t o f my p a re n ts . I vaguefy rem em b er trying a b a n d in s tru m e n t o n e y ea r in a n after sch o o l c lu b —a b arito n e—in o rder to get a r ts c re d its for a school letter, b u t th is ex trin sic rew ard w a s m y only m o tiv atio n for Jo in in g th e clu b . I rec a ll feeling fru s tra te d w ith the dism al re s u lts I achieved a s a beginning w ind player. My p lay in g ab ility seem e d p a rtic u la rly in e p t w hen c o m p a re d to th e expertise I h a d developed o n th e piano. T his lim ited experience w ith th e b arito n e confirm ed for m e th a t th e p ian o su ite d me m u ch b etter.
H igh sc h o o l g ra d u a tio n w a s f a s t a p p ro a c h in g , y e t I h a d no p a rtic u la r vision for m y fu tu re . I d id n ’t serio u sly co n sid e r m y love for p ian o playing a s th e b a sis for a p o te n tia l profession, even th o u g h I w as alread y teach in g piano privatety a fte r school a n d o n S a tu rd ay s. T his p a th seem ed too predictable, too easy, too com fortable. I w anted m ore.
I d id realize, however, th a t 1 loved to teach, so I decided to p u rs u e te a c h in g Home Econom ics w h e n o n e o f m y te ach ers e n c o u ra g e d m e In th a t direction. It w as m u c h la te r in life th a t I realized I sh o u ld be doing w h a t I m o st loved to do a s m y “work" a n d w en t back to u n iv e rsity for a m u sic degree. D uring th is tim e. I s ta rte d to com pose, im provise, a n d generally experience m usic In a m u c h b ro a d er way. 1 also s ta rte d to w rite c h o ir a n th e m s a n d p ian o p ieces for b eg in n e rs—fu n ctio n al m u sic th a t enlivened m y w ork a s a ch o ir d ire c to r a n d piano teacher. As well, I h a d th e o p p o rtu n ity to te ach m usic a s a n itin e ra n t specialist in sev eral Hew B ru n sw ick public schools a n d o n c e a g a in com bined my love o f te a c h in g w ith m y love for m usic.
kn ew n y ch an ces o f se c u rin g a n elem entary m usic position were slim so 1 tu r n e d m y a tte n tio n to th e o p p o rtu n itie s for g ra d u a te s tu d ie s In m usic e d u c a tio n available a t th e U niversity o f Victoria. S oon th e re after 1 began a M aster o f A rts program In M usic E d u catio n a n d eventually got my feet w et te a c h in g u n d e r g r a d u a te c o u r s e s In th e facu lty . In 1996, th e o p p o rtu n ity to te a c h ME 2043—"Music for G eneral C lassroom T eachers,” th e co m p u lso ry full y e a r m u sic c o u rse for s tu d e n ts In th e elem en tary e d u catio n program —becam e available.
A lth o u g h 1 e n jo y e d th e c h a lle n g e o f te a c h in g o th e r m u sic e d u c a tio n co u rse s to y o u n g a d u lts In th e u n iv ersity s e ttin g a n d h a d privately ta u g h t p ian o a n d voice to a d u lts for m any y ears, I w as nervous a n d u n se ttle d a b o u t th is p a rtic u la r course. I h a d been told by colleagues t h a t It w a s d iffic u lt to te a c h . T he v a rie ty o f s t u d e n t s ' m u s ic a l experiences, ranging from th e novice to som e highly tra in e d perform ers, m ad e th e co u rse c o n te n t d ifficu lt to p lan w ith o u t b o rin g som e a n d fru s tra tin g o th ers. How co u ld I engage everyone? Even w ith th e h elp o f colleagues who h a d ta u g h t th e co u rse before a n d regular com m unication w ith th o se who were te a ch in g It a t th e time, I struggled w ith th e vision o f th e co u rse a n d its ex p ectatio n s. I rem em ber in p a rtic u la r one colleague's re m a rk —"We really d o n ’t w a n t th e se people te a c h in g m u sic anyway!" T his Incongruity w as n o t m y onty concern.
A 1994 B ritish C o lu m b ia College of T each ers (BCCTj Survey o f
R ecen t G raduates o f BC T eacher E ducation Program s Report ra te d th e
effectiveness of th e m e th o d s c o u rs e s in te a c h e r e d u c a tio n p ro g ram s acco rd in g to su b je ct a re a s. M usic E ducation received th e "lowest rating" w ith onty 58.9% o f re s p o n d e n ts ra tin g th e c o u rse a s e ith e r “helpful" o r “very helpful" (p. 6). 1 w as also tro u b led l y m any s tu d e n ts ' overwhelm ing in se c u ritie s a n d In h ib itio n s a b o u t m u slc-m ak ln g F u rth e rm o re . I w as fru stra te d th a t th e prevailing a ttitu d e am ong s tu d e n ts seem ed to be th a t 3 ME 2 0 4 w as the m ethods c o u rse in m usic education for elem entary education m ajors a t th e University of Victoria u n til 2 0 0 0 /2 0 0 1 when it w as renam ed EDUC 3 06 due to a re s tru c tu rin g of th e program . T his co u rse, however, rem ain s th e requ ired m ethods c o u rse in m usic for elem entary ed u catio n m ajors. For simplicity. I will continue to refer to th is c o u rse a s ME 204. w h e th e r before o r after th e nam e ch an g e, a s m ost o f th e narrative accounts were recorded prio r to th e nam e change.
en tertain m en t. How co u ld I com m unicate its d eep er values?^
And flnalfy, I w as m ystified by th e d is ju n c tu re betw een th e c e n tra l place esta b lish ed for m u sic a n d th e a rts in c u rric u la r guidelines, while in practice m u sic w as reg u larty side-lined a s a frill t h a t could be c u t In a p in c h . F u rth e rm o re , n o a m o u n t of ad v o cac y b y s tu d e n ts , p a re n ts , professional gro u p s, o r b u sin e sse s seem ed to c h a n g e th is reality. W hy is m usic in e d u c a tio n positioned o n a fau lt line? My d esire to u n d e rs ta n d m ore fulty w h a t w as h ap p e n in g h ere created th e m otivation for p u rsu in g th is inquiry, w herever it m ight lead.
F o llo w in g th e R e se a rc h P a th
W hen u n d e rta k in g s u c h a stu d y , th e s ta n d a r d a p p ro a c h is to c o n d u c t a review o f th e lite ra tu re to find o u t w h a t re se arc h e rs alread y know a b o u t th e topic (Rainbow & Froehlich, 1987; A tterbuiy, 1991). A se arch of th is type is In ten d ed to help identify w h a t ad d itio n al rese arch m ig h t m ak e a v a lu a b le c o n trib u tio n to th e field. P roceeding In th is m an n er, 1 cam e to believe th a t th e m o st p ro m isin g way to re se a rc h my a r e a o f in te re s t w as to ex am in e beliefs a n d v a lu e s a b o u t m u sic a n d m u sic e d u c a tio n . A lth o u g h a d d re s s in g a b ro a d a re a , th e d ire c tio n s o u n d e d fairly straig h tfo rw ard . The p ath w ay c arv e d o u t for m e In th e re se a rc h lite ra tu re , how ever, p e rs is te d in m oving dow n a tra il t h a t seem ed to be a d ead -en d . The Journey t h a t follows is a reflection o f m y struggle w ith th e d o m in a n t rese a rch p arad ig m in m usic ed u catio n , m y own im m ersion in it. a n d my desire to move aw ay from it in order to a d d som ething new to o u r u n d e rsta n d in g o f beliefs a n d v alues in m usic a n d m usic education.
The d o m in a n t re s e a rc h p arad ig m in m u sic e d u c a tio n h a s b een borrow ed from psychology, a n d therefore scientific / positivistic v alu es perm eate th e m usic ed u c atio n literature. A lthough th ere h a s been a sh ift in m u sic e d u c a tio n re se a rc h in th e p a s t 15 y e a rs from q u a n tita tiv e to more qu alitativ e studies.^ th e em pirical a s su m p tio n s a n d v alues rem ain. 4 For a phenom enological s tu d y o f th e experience o f living m usically see Sim ( 1995). Musicfo r Being: The Nature o f Living Musically.
a n d v alu es th a t e x is t in m u sic e d u catio n re se a rch , for th e se are rarely a rtic u la te d . T h is la c k o f d isc lo su re m a y n o t be p ro b lem atic if o n e c o n tin u es to bu ild o n th e s ta tu s quo. b u t if atte m p tin g to move from one re se arc h p arad ig m to a n o th e r, th e n epistemologicalG q u e stio n s a b o u t knowledge a re p a ra m o u n t. Indeed, m an y rese arch ers w ould say th a t even if one re m a in s w ith in th e d o m in a n t d isc o u rse , th e n a s a q u e s tio n o f v a lid ity a n d rig o r o n e s h o u ld be a w a re o f th e lim ita tio n s a n d a ssu m p tio n s o f th e m odel being used. Indeed, m usic ed u catio n rese arch h a s been criticized b o th from w ithin? a n d w ith o u t» for falling s h o rt in th is area.
W hen I lo c ate d re s e a rc h th a t w as c o n c e rn e d w ith th e m u sic a l v a lu e s a n d b eliefs o f p re-se rv ic e g e n e ra lis t te a c h e rs . I fo u n d t h a t r e s e a r c h e r s c o m m o n ly a s s e s s e d t h e i r s u b j e c t s ’ a t t i t u d e s a n d assum ptions.» Typical of th e research co n d u cted in th is euea d u rin g the 1950s. ’6 0 s. a n d 7 0 s w as t h a t o f Slagle (1967). w ho investigated th e effects o f m e th o d s o f in s tru c tio n o n th e m u s ic a l a c h iev e m e n t a n d a ttitu d e s o f e le m e n ta ry e d u c a tio n m a jo rs, a n d T u n k (1973). w ho m e a su re d th e a ttitu d e s o f pre-service e le m e n ta ry g e n e ra list te a c h e rs tow ards m usic. The u se o f th e Likert-type scale w as pervasive (C utietta.
1992). y e t th e r e s u l t s o f th e s e s t u d i e s w ere o fte n c o n fu s in g , con trad icto iy . a n d inconclusive, w ith Uttle o f th e re se a rc h influencing 6 ’’Epistemology.'* w hich co m es from th e G reek “eplsteme" m ean in g knowledge, is concerned w ith th e o rie s o f know ledge a n d q u e stio n s a b o u t its origin, the place of ex p erien ce in know ledge c o n s tru c tio n , its lim its, a n d th e re la tio n sh ip betw een knowledge, reason, a n d tru th (B lackburn. 1996). As well. B lackburn ( 1996) pointed o u t th a t ‘fem inist epistem ology h a s a sk e d w hether different ways of knowing, for in stan ce with different criteria o f ju stificatio n , a n d different em p h asis on logic a n d im agination, characterize male a n d female a tte m p ts to u n d e rstan d th e world" (p. 137).
^ In th e H andbook o f Research on Music Teaching a n d Learning, V errastro a n d Leglar ( 1992) criticize re se a rc h in m u sic teach er ed u catio n a s ‘unfocused, methodologically u n certain , a n d n o t clearly conceptualized" (p. 676). a n d a s a resu lt, th is research h as h ad little influence o n practice. O th e r ed u cato rs s u c h a s M ark (1992) have offered a variety o f explanations for the lack o f usable research in m usic education.
® T u in m an ( 1994). P rofessor o f E ducation. V ice-President (Academic) a n d Pro Vice- C hancellor a t M em orial U niversity in N ew foundland. a fte r reviewing Our Research in
Music Education: A Festschrift f o r Dr. Allen CUngman rep o rted th a t ‘am ong th e m any
fields of cu rricu lu m stu d y , re sea rc h in m usic education, a t least on the stren g th o f th is volume, is am ong th e least [my em phasisj well-informed" (p. 31).
psychological d isc o u rse w ith o u t acknow ledging its theoretical g ro u n d in g a n d in h e r e n t c la im s o f v a lu e a n d a u th o rity . A re c e n t ex a m p le o f p ^ c h o lo g ic a l re s e a rc h in m u sic e d u c a tio n follows to sh o w h o w its preem inence co n tin u es.
A u stin a n d R e in h a rd t (1999) a s s e s s e d th e philosophical beliefs o f pre-service m u sic te a c h e rs th ro u g h a s ta tis tic a l an a ly sis o f a 75 item q u e s tio n n a ir e u s in g a MANOVAio p ro g ra m . T he r e s p o n s e s by p a rtic ip a n ts in th is s tu d y su g g ested th a t “m an y individuals m ay e n te r college w ith w ell-developed beliefs a b o u t m u sic e d u c atio n , a n d th e n , d esp ite th e b e s t efforts o f m u sic te a c h e r e d u c a to rs, sim ply c o n tin u e to 'th in k a s th e y w ere ta u g h t " (p. 28). A lth o u g h A u stin a n d R e in h a rd t (1999) en c o u rag ed o th e r re s e a rc h e rs to rep lic ate th e ir stu d y , th e y did su g g e st th a t “new Insights m ig h t be gained lay u sin g alternative m eth o d s to a s s e s s stu d e n ts ' beliefs” (p. 28).
T he re s u lts o f th is re s e a rc h (A u stin & R e in h ard t. 1999) w ere rep o rted In th e Journal o f R esearch in M usic Education, a periodical o f th e M usic E d u c a to rs N ational C onference, w hose p u rp o se, a s s ta te d o n th e b a c k cover of th e Jo u rn al, is to “en c o u ra g e a n d im prove th e quaU ty of s c h o la r s h ip a n d re s e a rc h w ith in th e p ro fe ssio n .” In fact, a ll se v en s tu d ie s reviewed in th is in flu en tia l A m erican jo u rn a l were em pirically- b a s e d . A u stin a n d R e in h a rd t’s re s e a rc h w a s a lso p re s e n te d a t th e “In n o v a tio n s in M usic T e a c h e r E d u c a tio n S y m p o siu m ” In N o rm an . O k lah o m a . A pril 10-12. 1997. T h ese v a lid a tin g p ra c tic e s give so m e in d ic a tio n o f th e p ro m in en ce psychological re se a rc h receives in m u sic e d u catio n circles.
A ss e s s in g a t t i t u d e s a n d a s s u m p tio n s fro m a p sy c h o lo g ic a l perspective is o n e w ay o f u n d e rs ta n d in g th e “problem ” m u sic faces in ed u c a tio n , b u t it is a w ay t h a t h a s n o t been veiy helpful to e d u c a to rs (V e rra s tro & L eglar. 1992). D is s a tis fie d w ith th e r e s u l t s o f th e p ^ h o l o g l c a l perspective. I becam e m ore a n d m ore Interested In th e role so c ie ty p lay s in m e a n in g m a k in g —th e so c ia l c o n te x t o f know ledge c o n s tru c tio n a n d how th e ex p erien ces we have in daily life s h a p e o u r
u n d ersta n d in g of m u sic a n d m usic education.
L o ca tin g M y se \f a t th e B o r d e n o fD ia c ip lin a ry B ou m fories
It h a s b een d ifficu lt for m e to find a place w here th is re s e a rc h m ig h t reside. As w ith a ll disciplines, m usic h a s b ee n co rd o n ed off in to v ario u s fields o f sc h o la rs h ip n t h a t d en o te a p a rtic u la r sp a c e w hose b o u n d arie s a re d e te rm in e d by th e c a n o n t h a t s ta n d s a t its c e n tre . 12 P erh ap s th e discipline in m u sic th a t com es clo sest to m y in te re st in th e r e la tio n s h i p b e tw e e n m u s ic a n d s o c ie ty is e th n o m u s ic o lo g y . E thnom uslcologists s tu d y m usic in p artic u la r c u ltu re s! 3 a n d a re keenly in tereste d in th e ex perience a n d pro cess of m usic-m aking. R a th e r th a n fo c u s s in g e x c lu s iv e ly o n th e m u s ic its e lf, e th n o m u s lc o lo g is ts acknowledge th e significance of m u sic's context. 1 have b een p articu larly in trig u ed by th e w ork o f so c ial a n th ro p o lo g ist J o h n B lack in g (1973,
1995). B la c k in g h a s b e e n c a lle d o n e o f th e m o s t im p o r ta n t ethnom uslcologists o f th e century, exploring th e relatio n sh ip o f m usic to biology, psychology, a n d politics. H is fieldw ork am o n g th e V e n d a of S o u th Africa m ade c lea r th a t, alth o u g h m usic-m aking is a fu n d am e n ta l a n d u n iv e rsa l a t tr i b u te o f th e h u m a n sp ecies, it is p ra c tic e d a n d u n d e r s to o d w ith in p a r t i c u l a r s o c ia l a n d c u l t u r a l m ilie u s . E thnom uslcologists. how ever, have been a lm o st exclusively co n c e rn ed w ith c u ltu re s a n d m u s ic s o u tsid e th e W estern trad itio n . W e ste rn a r t m u sic h a s n o t been critiq u e d for its social significance u n til th e 1980s.
W estern a r t m u sic is th e dom ain of m usicologists who an afy se the form a n d s u b s ta n c e o f th e m u sic itself. O nly recently h a s th e sco p e of m usicology b ro a d e n e d to in c lu d e c ritical h isto ric a l p ersp e c tiv e s th a t ex am in e th e so c ia l c o n s tru c tio n o f m u sica l m e an in g in W e ste rn a r t
1 ! For example, see B ergeron's ( 1992) description o f th e se various fields a s site s of surveillance—m etaphorical spaces—In DfscfpUnlng Music: Musicology a n d its Canons.
! ^T tie "canon." a s Its G reek etymology^ (fcnnon—model o r standard) m akes clear, supplies th e w orks th a t becom e th e s ta n d a rd o r m e asu rin g s tic k a g a in s t w hich a ll o th e r compositions are m easured.
13 C ulture Is defined l y S m all ( 1987) a s "a s e t of attitu d es, assu m ptio n s, a n d v alues by m ean s of which a person o r g ro u p o f people is able to find m eaning in. o r give m eaning to. not only th e objects a n d ev en ts of th e environm ent b u t also to In n er experiences, a n d to c o n stru c t from th e m a c o n s is te n t a n d u sab le p ictu re o f th e w orld a n d of relationships within it" (p. 1 19).
d e c o n s tru c t th e m u sic a l c a n o n a n d u n ra v e l th e a s s u m p tio n s , v alu es, a n d paradigm s t h a t it su p p o rts, b u t th is p rocess is still in th e form ative stage a s th e following calen d er o f ev en ts suggest.
K erm an's (1983) “A Few C an o n ic V ariatio n s” w as o n e o f th e first significant explorations o f m u sic a l canonicity. The following y e a r C itron (p u b lish ed m u c h la te r in th e Journal o f M usicology, 1990) ex ten d ed th e ex p lo ra tio n to in c lu d e w o m en in "G ender, P ro fessio n alism a n d th e M usical C anon.” T hese 2 p ap e rs s e t th e stage for a n explosion of in te re st in fem inism a n d m usicology a t th e 1988 a n n u a l m eeting o f th e A m erican M usicological S ociety. S ig n ific a n t in te r e s t in fem in ism a n d m u sic ed u catio n is even m ore recent. Lam b (1993) a n d Maidlow (1998) indicated th a t m u sic e d u c a tio n 's in te re s t In fem inism is d ecad es b e h in d fem inist criticism in U terature a n d th e v isu a l a rts . In 1994, The Q uarterly JoumcU
o f M usic Teaching a n d Learning devoted a n en tire iss u e to "Sex E quity in
M usic E d u c a tio n .” Lam b (1994), o n e o f th e c o n trib u to rs, co m m en ted th a t "Uttle o r no fem inist theory h a s heretofore been p u b lish ed in m usic ed u catio n jo u rn a ls ” (p. 5).
As w ell, so m e so c io lo g ists s u c h a s V ulliam y (1 9 7 6 , 1977), S h ep h erd (1991), a n d S h ep h erd a n d Wicke (1997) have been in terested in th e social c o n s tru c te d n e ss o f m u sical experience a n d have in clu d ed a n an a ly sis of p o p u la r m usic in th e ir stu d ie s. C a n ad ia n s EUiot (1995) a n d W alker (1989, 1996, 1998) hav e a lso c ritiq u e d c o n te m p o ra ry m u sic c u ltu re in th e W est. In p a rtic u la r, two re se a rc h e rs s tu d ie d th e social w orld o f u n iv ersity schools o f m usic: N ettl (1995), a n d R o b erts (1991a, 1991b, 1993), w hile K ingsbury (1988) critiq u ed th e socied w orld of th e conservatory. B u t generally, m u sic ed u c a tio n re se arc h e rs, p a rtic u la rly d o c to ra l s tu d e n ts , h a v e u n fo rtu n a te ly given Uttle a tte n tio n to th e sociology o f m u sic e d u c a tio n (H u m p h re y s. 1996-97). A ccording to H u m p h r ^ s (1996-97), m ost o f th e sociological research rela ted to m usic e d u c a tio n h a s b ee n co m p leted by n o n -m u sic ia n re s e a rc h e rs in o th e r fields.
I have located m y re se arc h som ew here a t th e b o rd ers o f m ultiple For exam ple see G reen (1988. 1997): C itron (1990. 1993): McClary (1991): Sm all (1987. 1998); a n d Kerman (1983. 1991).
fields o f sc h o la rsh ip (sociology, m usicology, a n d ethnom usicology) a n d a m In terested In how t h ^ in te rse c t w ith m usic e d u c a tio n . This te n u o u s In te rd is c ip lin a ry s p a c e is f u r th e r com pU cated th e m arg in a lized location o f m u sic e d u c a tio n Itself, being a "step child” to b o th m usic a n d e d u catio n . My p o in t in b rie f^ describing th is dilem m a is to c o n v ^ how I a m im m ersed in a disenfiranchisem ent of so rts a s I stru g g le to locate th is re s e a rc h som ew here in th is m aze o f co m p a rtm e n ta liz atlo n . I feel very m u c h "on th e borders" o r "in th e m argins" a s Ted Aoki w ould say.
Approochlng a Space
D u rin g m y exploration o f vario u s disciplines t h a t m ig h t inform my re se a rc h , I a lso tu rn e d to a r t ed u c a tio n b e c a u se a r t a n d m u sic sh a re so m e c o m p a rab le c h a lle n g e s in th e m arg in alized s p a c e b etw een o u r p a r e n t disciplines a n d ed u catio n . B u t in sp ite o f som e p arallels between a r t a n d m u sic in th e classroom , a r t teach er ed u c atio n co u rse s in British C olum bia have fared b e tte r th a n m usic teach er ed u c a tio n co u rse s in the eyes o f s tu d e n ts a s th q r p rep are to becom e teach ers. Pre-service teachers re p o rte d feeling m u c h m ore co n fid en t a b o u t te a c h in g a r t th a n m usic after com pleting th e ir u n iv ersity m ethods co u rse s in e d u c a tio n . iS w h a t d id th is collective n eg ativ e re a c tio n to m u sic e d u c a tio n m e a n ? W as s tu d e n ts ' discom fort related to th e in h e re n t n a tu re o f th e a rt, th e way it w as ta u g h t, o r o th e r facto rs s u c h a s th e social m ean in g s of th e a r t th a t a re s h a re d in society?
As I c o n tin u e d to stru g g le w ith a research q u e stio n , I tu rn e d to a book called No More Secondhand A r t A w akening th e A rtist W itiiin (London. 1989) a n d b e ^ m to feel a reso n a n ce betw een London’s w riting a b o u t a rt a n d m y ex p erien ce o f m u sic. H is co n cern for th e d ev a lu in g o f a r t in society seem ed to parallel m y u n re s t w ith th e d im inishing value o f m usic in so c iety . A lth o u g h L o n d o n 's (1989) w ork is a b o u t crea tiv ity a n d n u rtu rin g th e cap acity for v isu al expression in ourselves a n d o th ers, his w ords p o in ted to th e problem I w an ted to explore. Allow m e to elucidate so th a t th e direction o f m y th in k in g m ay be followed a s I attem p ted th e
^ 5 This rem ark Is verified by th e 1994 “Survey o f G raduates o f BC Teacher Educatton" (British C olum bia College o f Teachers. 1995). a n d t y the research o f Hanley (1993. 1994) a t th e University o f Victoria.
difficult tra n sitio n firom one rese a rc h paradigm to an o th er.
L ondon (1989) a rtic u la te d th e deep m eanings t h a t peoples o f th e p a s t h a v e fou n d In v isu a l a r t w hile o u r p re s e n t so ciety s e e m s to be c o n te n t to u s e a r t for d eco ratio n a n d en tertain m en t:
We se e m to h a v e lo s t c o n ta c t w ith th e e a rlie r, m o re p ro fo u n d functions o f a rt, w hich hav e alw ays h a d to do w ith p e r s o n a l a n d collective em p o w erm en t, p e rs o n a l grow th, c o m m u n io n w ith th e w orld, a n d th e se a rc h for w h a t lies b e n e a th a n d above th e world, (p. 4)
T he s a m e co u ld b e s a id a b o u t th e s ta te o f m u sic in o u r so ciety . S u b s titu te “m u sical” for “v isu a l” a n d “m u sic” for “a r t” in th e following e x c e rp t a n d I beUeve th e s ta te m e n t rin g s tru e for m a n y people in o u r society:
We have le arn ed to b e e m b a rra sse d by o u r efforts. We have le a rn e d to feel so in e p t a n d d ise n fran c h ise d from o u r ow n
visual expressions th a t we sim pty cease doing it altogether....
T here are som e disabling n ty th s a b o u t w h at a rt is, how to do it. w h a t is good art, a n d w h a t art is for, t h a t hav e gagged g e n e ra tio n s, d ep riv in g th e m o f a signifrcant a n d n a tu r a l
m e a n s of expression, (p. xiii)
I know th e s e sta te m e n ts d escrib e m an y o f th e s tu d e n ts I e n c o u n te r in m u sic ed u c atio n classes. M any are afraid o f m usic, e m b a rra ssed to sing, a n d u n a w a re of w h a t a pow erful a n d transform ative experience m u sic - m ak in g c a n be. The following selectio n o f s tu d e n t co m m en ts from ME 204 s u p p o rt th is statem en t:
I th in k I am m usically inept.
I a m extrem ely lacking In any so rt o j m usical ability. I like to sing b u t only If no one can hear me.
I u se d to th in k th a t m u sic w a s intim idating—th a t m usic w a s only fo r talented people.
I u s e d to th in k m u sic ed u ca tio n could be a traum atic a n d d iscouraging exp erien ce, (u n p u b lish e d s tu d e n t reflectio n s
firom ME 204, 1997)
London (1989) urg es u s to rem ove th e b arriers th a t keep u s a t a d istan ce from th e p ro fo u n d fu n c tio n s o f a r t a n d s e t a sid e everything th e w orld h a s to ld u s a b o u t w h a t a r t is. S e t asid e everything th e world h a s to ld u s a b o u t w h a t a r t is? How Is th is possible—especially w h en for th e m o st p a r t we a re u n a w a re o f th e beliefs a n d v a lu e s t h a t we su b sc rib e to a s p a r t o f o u r m e m b e rs h ip In a p a r tic u la r so c iety ? B efore we c a n In d iv id u ally la y to r e s t a n y “d isa b lin g m yths" we m ig h t have a b o u t m usic, we first need to b rin g th e se beliefs to conscious aw areness.
W h a t Is It t h a t o u r c u ltu r e , th r o u g h its s o c ia l p ra c tic e s , c o m m u n ic a te s a b o u t m u sic ? It seem ed m ore p ro d u ctiv e to move my re se a rc h o u t o f th e p ^ c h o lo g lc a l paradigm , w hich is a deductive m odel, to a n in d u c tiv e m odel w h ich m ig h t in te rp re t how in d iv id u als “m ake" m e a n in g r a th e r th a n “take" m ean in g . If 1 were to move aw ay from th e te n e ts o f b eh av io u ral psychology a n d theories of c a u se a n d effect, th e n 1 co u ld u n p a c k th e c o n stru c tio n o f knowledge o n a m acro level—n o t In th e
m ind—b u t in public w ays th ro u g h sh a re d experiences in society'.
M aking co n scio u s th e v a lu es a n d beliefs th a t sh a p e a n d s u p p o rt o u r collective u n d e rs ta n d in g o f m usic a n d how society s u p p o rts a n d m a in ta in s th e s e v alues m ay well b e critical to o u r u n d e rsta n d in g of th e p o sitio n m usic ed u c a tio n is in to d ay —m arginalized, p recario u s, emd a s M onk (1996) sa y s—"lost in th e d u s t o f colliding value system s" (p. 12). F u rth e rm o re , a so cially -g ro u n d ed u n d e rs ta n d in g o f m usic a n d m u sic e d u c a tio n m ig h t provide th e grou n d w o rk to d is r u p t a n d ch allen g e th e m e ch an ism s th a t serve to m a in ta in th e s ta tu s quo.
F ra m in g a R e sea rch Q u e stio n
As 1 stru g g le d to u n d e r s ta n d g en e ra list te a c h e rs ' beUefs a b o u t m u sic a n d m u sic e d u c a tio n a n d th e ir fre q u e n t re lu c ta n c e to en g ag e p e rso n a lly in m u sic -m a k in g a n d lead m u sic-m ak in g activ ities in th e c la ssro o m , 1 becam e m o re a n d m ore c o n v in ced o f th e n e c e s s ity to exam ine th e social s tru c tu re s t h a t sh ap e o u r thinking, o u r speaking, a n d
o u r acting.
A ccording to H u b b a rd a n d Pow er (1993), q u a lita tiv e re se a rc h q u e stio n s in ed u catio n firequentfy com e firom real-w orld observations a n d d ile m m a s. As th e te n s io n s involved in te a c h in g a n d le a rn in g a re explored, th e focus often tu r n s to la rg er is s u e s o f cu ltu re , learning, a n d s c h o o l s tr u c tu r e t h a t im p a c t w h a t h a p p e n s in th e c la ssro o m . T his s ta te m e n t re so n a te d w ith m y exp erien ce. I decided to explore society’s in flu e n c e s o n o u r beUefs a n d v a lu e s re la te d to m u sic a n d m u sic ed u catio n . Therefore my re se a rch q u estio n w as "How d o s o c ie ta l b eliefii
INQUIRY APPROACH
C h oosin g a T h eo retica l B a sis and M ethod
W h a t th eo ry a n d m ethodology w ould be th e m o st v a lu ab le for exploring so cially -co n stru cted m eaning? There a re several th eo ries th a t w ould co n trib u te to a n u n d e rsta n d in g of th e socially-constructed beliefs th a t affect m u sic a n d m u sic ed u c atio n , th eo ries t h a t w ould focus th e re se a rc h in a p a rtic u la r w ay a n d se n d m e looking for e x p la n a tio n s of th o u g h t a n d b eh a v io u r in d iffe re n t places. I explored 3 th e o rie s th a t co u ld be u se d a s a b a s is for th is research : c o n s tru c t theory, symboUc in teractio n theory, a n d linguistic a n d discourse theory (Sim, 1998c). How w ould e a c h o f th e s e th e o rie s m e sh w ith m usic a n d m y goals for th is r e s e a rc h ? 1 c h o se d is c o u rs e th e o ry a s th e le n se b e s t illu m in a tin g d ifferen ce in h u m a n e x p e rie n c e by a n a ly s in g th e so c ia l, c u ltu ra l, political, a n d histo rical s tr u c tu re s in society (F oucault 1971; Fairclough
1989; W eedon, 1997).
D isc o u rse a n a ly s is is in te rp re tiv e w ork. W hen th e re s e a rc h e r critiq u es a specific disco u rse, s / h e attem p ts “to investigate how it w orks, w h a t c o n d itio n s m a k e i t p o ssib le a n d how it in te rs e c ts w ith n o n - discursive practises" (Pinar. 1995, p. 462). A d isco u rse h a s been defined
h y S a rd a r a n d V an Loon (1997) a s a
c u ltu ra lly o r socially p ro d u ce d g ro u p o f id e as c o n ta in in g tex ts a n d rep rese n tatio n s w hich describe pow er in relation to o th e rs. As a w ay o f th in k in g , a d isco u rse often re p re se n ts a
s tr u c tu r e o f know ledge a n d pow er. A d isc u rs iv e a n a ly sis ex p o ses th e s e s tr u c tu r e s a n d lo cates th e d isc o u rs e w ith in w ider historical, c u ltu ra l, a n d social relatio n s, (p. 14)
D isco u rse a n a ly sis is p artic u larly co n cern ed w ith m ean in g th a t is m a d e th ro u g h la n g u a g e, b o th w ritte n a n d o ra l. A ccording to Fow ler (1985), th e ro le of la n g u a g e is to c o n tin u o u s ly a rtic u la te ideology.is L anguage s h a re s th is ta s k w ith o th e r sem lotic sy stem s s u c h a s d ress, th e a rts , sp o rt, decor, a n d so forth b u t it is th e “m o st im p o rta n t ^ rs te m of sig n s in society, so richty im pregnated is it w ith conventional m ean in g s” (Fowler. 1985, p. 64). F u rth e r. Fowler (1985) claim ed th a t
th e v ocabulary o f a language co u ld be co n sid ered a k in d of lexical m ap o f th e p reo ccu p atio n s of a c u ltu re . W hatever is im p o rta n t to a c u ltu re is richty lexicalized; D etailed sy stem s o f te rm s develop for th e a re a s o f ex p e rtise, th e fe atu re s o f h a b ita t, th e in s titu tio n s a n d re la tio n sh ip s, a n d th e beliefs a n d v a lu es of a co m m u n ity . .. U sing th e m [th e term s] in d is c o u rs e k e e p s th e id e a s c u r r e n t in th e c o m m u n ity ’s co n scio u sn ess, h elp s tra n sm it them firom g ro u p to g roup a n d gen eratio n to g en eratio n . In th is way ideology is rep roduced a n d d is s e m in a te d w ith in so ciety —ideology in th e n e u tra l se n se o f a worldview, a largely u n co n sc io u s theory of th e way th e w orld w orks accepted a s com m onsense. (p. 65)
L anguage, th e n , is n o t tr a n s p a re n t b u t, in fact, ca rrie s w ith it socially a c c e p te d views o f w h a t is norm al, n a tu ra l, a n d com m o n sen se. B u t a s well a s language, d isc o u rse an a ly sis e n c o m p a sse s w hatever signifies o r h a s m ean in g in o u r experience. F o u c a u lt (1971) describ ed d isc o u rse s, n o t a s lin g u istic sy ste m s, b u t a s p ra c tic e s . He p o in te d to m e a n in g e m b o d ie d in te c h n ic a l p ro c e s se s, in s titu tio n s , p a tte r n s o f g e n e ra l b e h a v io u r, o rg a n iz a tio n a l sy s te m s , a n d m u c h m o re. A ccording to M acdonell (1986), any p ractice w here th e so cial p ro d u ctio n of m ean in g ta k e s p lace m ay be c o n s id e re d p a r t o f d is c o u rs e . T hese signifying p ra ctic e s indicate a n underly in g sy stem o f v alu es th a t work to g eth er to
Ideology is a "generic te rm for th e p ro c e sse s by w hich m ean in g is p ro d u c e d , ch allen g e d , rep ro d u ced , a n d tran sfo rm ed " (B arrett, 1980. p. 97). T his c o n ce p t is d iscu ssed more fully in the following pages.
s u p p o rt th e beliefs o f v a rio u s g ro u p s. 17 T hese g ro u p s, how ever, do n o t alw ays agree. The political n a t u r a l o f ideologies becom es m ore obvious w h en we see different g ro u p s vying for pow er to m a in ta in th e s ta tu s quo o r c h a n g e it. It is m y h o p e t h a t a n ex p lo ra tio n o f th e d isc o u rs e t h a t sh a p e s o u r ideas a b o u t m u sic will bring a m u c h needed, fresh perspective to m usic ed u c atio n research .
O rg an ixin g th e R e se a rc h
I refer a g a in to a s ta te m e n t by M onk (1996) w ho su g g e sted t h a t m usic ed u catio n Is c u rre n tly "lost in th e d u s t of collidm g v alu e system s" (p. 12). My In ten t is to organize th is rese arc h by identlfym g th e ideologies t h a t s u r r o u n d m u sic in o u r society. W h at is a n ideology? J o h n s to n (1997), A d ju n c t P ro fe ss o r in P o litical S c ie n ce a t th e UniversiQr o f Toronto, defines a n ideology a s "a m ore o r less c o n s is te n t s e t o f beliefs a b o u t th e n a tu re o f so c iety in w h ich in d iv id u als live, a n d a b o u t th e p ro p er role o f th e s ta te in e sta b lish in g o r m a in ta in in g t h a t society" (p.
13). S arg en t (1987) defined ideology a s
a v alu e o r belief sy stem ac ce p ted a s fact o r tr u th by som e group. It is co m p o sed o f s e ts o f a ttitu d e s to w ard s v a rio u s in stitu tio n s a n d p ro cesses in society. It provides th e believer w ith a p ic tu re o f th e w orld b o th a s it is a n d a s it sh o u ld be, a n d , in so doing, it o rganizes th e tre m e n d o u s com plexity of th e world in to so m e th in g fiadrly sim ple a n d u n d e rsta n d a b le . (p. 2)
A ccording to J o h n s to n (1997), th e re a r e c e rta in co m m o n alities in th e m an y definitions of ideology. Firstly, ideologies a re sy stem s—organized o r p a ttern e d beliefs th a t co h eren tty y et often incom pletety co n n e ct beliefs to m any o th e r facets o f society.
Secondly, ideologies a re p o litical—t h a t is th e y e ith e r g u id e o r in c ite a c tiv ity to p ro te c t a v a lu e d w ay o f life o r se e k to c h a n g e it. M usicologist G reen (1988) defined ideology a s
17 Signifying practices have b een defined t y Weedon ( 1997) a s “sig n s w hich are ways o f com m unicating m eaning...open to plural interpretations’ (p. 12).
a collective m e n ta l force w h ich b o th s p rin g s from , a n d p e rp e tu a te s , o u r m a te ria l, so c ia l re la tio n s . A long w ith producing objects, societies produce ideas. T hese form bodies o f knowledge, a n d c e rta in o f th e m ta k e a n e s s e n tia l role for th e m a in te n a n c e o f th e society. .. Ideology is n o t sim ply c o n stru c te d b y o n e c la ss o r g ro u p o f people a n d believed by a n o th e r, b u t ra th e r, w ro u g h t from th e to ta l so cial relatio n s in a society. N evertheless, th a t it ex p lain s th in g s in a w ay th a t is to th e ad v a n tag e o f ce rtain social s tr a ta a n d th e ill of o th e rs, is o n e o f its m o st no tab le ch aracteristics, (p. 2)
Id e o lc ^ e s th en , exist a t m an y organizational levels o f society, su p p o rtin g p a r tic u la r g ro u p s t h a t h a v e specific in te re s ts , a n d o v erla p p in g a n d com peting w ith th e acce p ted v alu es a n d n o rm s of larger, m ore pow erful groups.
S h ap iro (1990) s tre s s e d how Im portant it is to co n sid e r schools a s s ite s o f ideological conflict. E d u c a tio n a l policies a n d p ractices, h e said, a re full o f political a n d ideological conflicts w ith “co m p etin g v isio n s of s o c ia l re la tio n s , m o ra l n o rm s, a n d "so lu tio n s' to th e p ro b le m s o f econom ic a n d c u ltu ra l life” (S hapiro. 1990. p. xv). W eedon (1997) also id e n tifie d in s titu tio n s a s “s ite s o f c o n te s t.“ w h ere th e “d o m in a n t d isc o u rses governing th e organization a n d practices o f social in stitu tio n s a r e u n d e r c o n s ta n t c h a lle n g e ” (p. 105). S ch o o ls a r e m icro c o sm s o f society, legitimizing th e s ta tu s q u o a n d reproducing th o se a s p e c ts o f th e w id er so ciety t h a t c o n trib u te to a v ariety o f in ju s tic e s . O ne o f th e significant locations th e n for th is research h a s been th e school.
A nalysing th e ideologies th a t a re p re se n t In m u sic ed u c a tio n will in te r p r e t th e d iffic u ltie s we face a s m u sic e d u c a to rs , n o t from a p ^ c h o lo g ic a l perspective, b u t a s a re su lt o f v alu es a n d beliefs t h a t are s u p p o rte d a n d m a in ta in e d in society. T h is re s e a rc h will a lso d ra w a tte n tio n to w h at Is excluded b ecau se o f o u r Im m ersion In th e d o m in a n t discourse.
Stibjeetiaity in DwuUistic Thought
a u t o n o m o u s ly c o n t r o ll e d m e a n in g a n d a u t h o r e d k n o w le d g e , p o s tm o d e rn is m h a s rec o g n iz ed how p o w er in te rs e c ts w ith so c ially c o n s tru c te d kn o w led g e. A p o s tm o d e rn d is c o u rs e a n a ly sis , th e n , is in te re ste d in su b je ctiv ity a n d how difference is c o n s titu te d , is p e rso n s a re d escribed a s "subjects" a s th is te rm "helps u s to conceive of h u m a n reality a s a c o n stru c tio n , a s a p ro d u c t o f signifying activities w hich a re b o th c u ltu ra lly specific a n d generally u n co n scio u s" (Sarup, 1988, p. 2). In o th e r w ords.
how th e su b je c t’s o p in io n s, ideas, d esire s, com petitiveness, s u c c e s s e s a n d fa ilu res, a n d so on, g a in m e an in g for th e s u b je c t w ith in "society" is c e n tr a l to u n d e r s ta n d in g th e s u b je c t a s e n d o w e d w ith a c o n s c io u s n e s s t h a t form s, recognizes, a n d conform s to ideas a n d v alu es. (Kanpol. 1992, p. 41)
Weedon (1997) described subjectivity a s
th e c o n scio u s a n d u n c o n s c io u s th o u g h ts a n d em otions of th e in d iv id u a l, h e r s e n s e o f h e r s e lf a n d h e r w ay s o f u n d e rsta n d in g h e r relatio n to th e world. .. P o ststru ctu ra lism p ro p o ses a su b je ctiv ity w h ich is p re c a rio u s, co n trad icto ry a n d in pro cess, c o n s ta n tly being re c o n s titu te d in d isco u rse e a c h tim e we th in k o r sp e ak .... F em in ist p o s ts tru c tu ra lis m goes fu rth e r th a n th is to in s is t th a t th e individual is always th e site o f conflicting form s o f subjectivity, (p. 32)
In p articular, th ro u g h lan g u ag e
we le a m to give voice—m ean in g —to o u r experience a n d to u n d e r s ta n d it a c c o rd in g to p a r tic u la r w ay s o f th in k in g , p a r tic u la r d is c o u rs e s , w h ic h p r e - d a te o u r e n tr y in to la n g u a g e . T h e s e w a y s o f t h i n k i n g c o n s t i t u t e o u r c o n s c io u sn e ss, a n d th e p o sitio n s w ith w h ich we identify. 18 Senyshyn a n d O'Neill (2001) reported:
It is im p o rtan t to acknowledge, however, th a t th e re is tension a n d debate am ong research ers w ho have defined discursive ap p ro ach es in a variety o f ways a n d th ere is no agreed recipe for how to anafyze discourses. Despite th is re c o g n itio n , a k ey a s s u m p tio n u n d e rp in n in g a ll d is c u rsiv e ap p roach es Is th a t subjectivity Is c o n stru cted o r em bedded In language, (p. 43)
s tru c tu re o u r se n s e of self, o u r subjectivlly. (Weedon. 1997, p. 32)
How is th is u n d e r s ta n d in g o f su b je c tiv ily a n d so c ia l le a rn in g different from "socialization" o r "e n cu ltu ratlo n ?” In socialization theory, th e focus is o n th e p ro cess th a t in d iv id u als engage in to influence each other. For exam ple, p a re n ts a n d te a c h e rs socialize ch ild ren into c e rta in beliefs a n d w ays o f behaving. As well, "socialization" is a n arro w er term th a n " e n c u ltu ra tlo n " a n d is u n d e rs to o d by so cio lo g ists a s referrin g "specifically to th e p ro cess o f so cial le a rn in g a s it is c a rried o u t in th e ea rly y e a rs" (M erriam , 1964, p. 146). J o rg e n s e n (1997) d e s c rib e d "socialization" a s "the p rocess w hereby a g ro u p o r in stitu tio n m c u lca tes its beliefs, v alu es, a n d m ores in its m e m b e rsh ip a n d e n s u re s th a t its m em bers c o n tin u e to a c t in c e rta in ap p ro v ed w ays a n d hold p a rtic u la r sh a re d beliefs" (p. 18). "E nculturatlon" is a broader, m ore totalizm g term u s e d to d e s c rib e “th e p ro c e sse s by w h ic h th e in d iv id u al le a m s h is c u ltu re ...a nev er-en d in g p rocess c o n tm u in g th ro u g h o u t th e life s p a n o f th e in d iv id u al" (M erriam , 1964, p. 146). A lth o u g h p o s ts tr u c tu r a lis t th eo ry is c o n c e rn e d w ith so c ial le arn in g , its p erspective is d ifferent. P o ststru c tu ra lists a re co n cern ed w ith th e w ay people them selves actively take u p th e d isc o u rses w hich t h ^ a n d o th e rs sp e ak a n d write, a s if they were th e ir own.
S u b jec tiv ity is a lso u n d e rsto o d a s we identify b o th s u b je c t a n d object p o sitio n s—a b asic o rg an iz atio n a l c o n s tru c t in W estern d u a listic th ought. S u b je c t a n d object p o sitio n s a re identifled in d u alism s19 th a t operate In society a t large a n d s tru c tu re o u r u n d e rsta n d in g of th e world a n d how it w o rk s (F oucault, 1970; C ixous, 1989; D errida, 1981, 1991; Plum wood, 1993; SoUe, 1993). S u c h div isio n s have th e ir philosophical origin in th e w ork o f F ren ch m a th em atician a n d sc ien tist René D escartes (1 6 3 7 /1 9 5 4 ), th e so-called fa th e r o f philosophy. His fam ous C a rte sia n view th a t m in d a n d body a re se p a ra te e n titie s h a s been fu n d a m e n tal to o u r theorizing a b o u t knowledge a n d h a s d o m in ated W estern th o u g h t for 19 D ualism s (su ch a s m ind/body) a re paired opposites th a t are m utually defining a n d give th e a p p e a ra n c e o f sy m m etrical gro u p in g s: y e t in reality, dom inance o f th e first category over th e second is em bedded w ithin e a c h p air. In o th e r w ords, th e category listed o n th e left is im bued with pow er over th e "other" on th e right, w hich is often marginalized.
cen tu ries.
T h u s, d u a listic th o u g h t h a s s h a p e d o u r u n d e rs ta n d in g o f tru th , knowledge, a n d au th o rity . According to D ale (1997).
it is n o t sim p ly t h a t th e re a re d iv isio n s a n d differences. W h at is im p o rta n t is w here th e c u ts a n d incisions a re m ade a n d how th e resu ltm g p a rts a re re organized a n d re-ordered. Power, discipline, a n d h ie ra rc h y p lay a m ajo r role in th e “c u ltu re of dissection.” (p. 95)
T hese ca teg o riz atio n s also d eterm in e how we re p re se n t o u rselv es a n d otherszo in o rd e r to affirm o u r v alu e a n d define who we are. We d raw tig h t b o u n d a rie s a ro u n d o u r fixed p o sitio n s a s “s e i r a n d “o th e r” (or “su b je c t” a n d “object”) ra th e r th a n conceptualizing people a s fluid a n d ever c h a n g in g beings. T hese p o sitio n s we ta k e u p d eterm in e how we “s p e a k a n d w rite o u rselv e s in to e x iste n c e ” (Davies, 1993, p. 1). To illu strate , le t m e u se th e co n cep t o f “ta le n t.” From m y life experience in W estern society, let’s sa y th a t I have com e to see myself a s not belonging to th e gro u p o f th o se w ho are “m usicalfy ta len ted .” I am th e m arginalized “o th e r.” T his is th e position I ta k e u p a n d m a m ta ln a s I in te ra c t w ith o th e rs in th e course o f daily life.
It c a n be se e n th a t d u a lis m s s e t u p a h ie ra rc h ic a l re la tio n sh ip betw een two entities th a t are in opposition to o n e an o th er. As well, th ese p o sitio n s “a r e n ev er o n th e s a m e level;” th e seco n d , s u b o rd in a te d category is regularly excluded a n d silenced (Foucault. 1970, p. 2 6 8) . 2 1 Dale (1997) observed th a t
th e u s e o f th e incisive “s la s h ” o r oblique ca n n o t, a s som e a u th o r s p e rh a p s in te n d , r e tu r n th e te rm s to h a rm o n y o r sy m m etry , b u t r a th e r ack n o w led g es th e fo rm a tio n o f a c e rta in form o f knowledge w hich is d om inant, valued, w hilst o th e r form s are su bjugated. It is th is m etap h o r o f th e scalpel
2 0 In d u alistic thought, th e concept o f “self a n d “other" refers to “su b ject” a n d “object” positions. Fem inists use “other” to re p resen t th e objectiflcation of women (Gould. 1994). Sim one d e Beauvoir ( 1952. 1961) first u sed th e capitalized “O ther” in th is m ore specific s e n s e . T h ro u g h o u t m y re s e a rc h . 1 h av e u s e d “o th e r” in th e b ro a d e r s e n s e a s objectification o f a n y so rt in du alistic co n stru ction s.
21 As well. D errida (1981) m aintained th a t all divisions s e t up a hierarch y w here one category dom inates th e other.
