T
HE HOUSING STOCK OF
E
EMLAND
W
ONEN
:
A
NEW FUTURE WITH GROUND SOURCE HEAT PUMP
(GSHP) AND GEOTHERMAL ENERGY AS
ALTERNATIVE HEATING SOURCES
AUTHORS:
BAS CAMMERAAT (11301066)
KIM VAN WIJNGAARDEN (11268131)
NINA BOUWMEESTER (11064595)
RONJA BOSSEN (11032685)
SUPERVISOR:
JORDY WILLEMS
INTERDISCIPLINARY PROJECT
1ST SEMESTER 2018/2019
1 ABSTRACT
Eemland Wonen is a housing corporation in Baarn in the Netherlands which’ houses currently depend almost entirely on non-renewable energy sources. Because of policy plans by the Dutch government, the housing stock should be completely dependent on renewable energy sources (RESs) by 2050. This interdisciplinary research will focus on how a new energy system consisting of RESs can be integrated into the (complex) energy network of Eemland Wonen. The RES that this project will initially focus on are ground source heat pumps (GSHPs) and geothermal energy, and the possibilities of implementing these alternative energy sources will be discussed. The results of a literature study indicated that currently only GSHP would be sufficient for the implementation of a RES to the energy network of Eemland Wonen. Ultimately, this research provides five recommendations for the implementation of GSHPs into the energy network of Eemland Wonen. This also includes management strategies on how to enable this transition better and how to make the social housing of Eemland Wonen more sustainable overall.
ABBREVIATIONS
GHG Greenhouse Gas
GSHP Ground Source Heat Pump MLP Multi-level Perspective nZEB nearly Zero Energy Building RES Renewable Energy Source
2 INDEX Abstract ... 1 Abbreviations ... 1 Introduction ... 3 Theoretical framework ... 5 Multi-level perspective ... 5 Technical management ... 7 Policy management ... 7 Social management ... 8 Problem Definition ... 9 Interdisciplinary integration ... 10
Selected method and data ... 11
Analysis ... 13
Outside influence and adjustments ... 13
The two alternatives: technical specifications ... 13
Difficulties of the implementation of GSHPs and geothermal energy to the energy network ... 15
Conditions of the implementation of geothermal energy ... 15
Usage in the Netherlands: comparison with existing literature ... 15
Costs comparison of the two alternatives ... 16
Inside influence and adjustments ... 17
Part of the regime: Subsidy Schemes ... 17
Distributional energy justice: the advantaged and disadvantaged of the energy transition ... 18
Procedural and recognition energy justice: the co-operative society ... 18
Energy-efficient behaviour ... 19
Recommendations ... 20
Discussion and conclusion ... 23
References ... 24
Appendix ... 29
A Data Management Table ... 29
B Energy-Index ... 31
3 INTRODUCTION
The current housing stock in the Netherlands depends almost entirely on non-renewable energy sources (RESs) and is therefore a big contributor to total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The building sector contributes for 36 per cent of total GHG emissions in the European Union, of which space heating with mainly fossil fuels accounts for 40-60 per cent (Carvalho et al., 2015). Therefore, the Dutch government set two future energy goals for the housing stock in the Netherlands. Firstly, in 2021 the average social housing stock has to make the transition to nearly zero energy buildings (nZEB) and must reach energy label B. Secondly, by 2050 the housing stock should be completely dependent on RESs. In the Netherlands there are 2,4 million corporation homes that have to make the transition to CO2-neutral (Nieman, 2017). Eemland Wonen is a Dutch housing corporation with 2700 houses in Baarn
that also has to make the transition to a more sustainable housing stock to comply with the future agreements (Eemland Wonen, 2017). To achieve these goals alternatives for natural gas and other fossil fuels should be implemented.
The current network infrastructure of the energy system is very complex and controls energy flows to distribute electricity from producers to consumers. The integration of RESs to this network requires technological consideration to meet the challenge of coordinating fluctuating and intermittent renewable energy production into the energy system (Franco & Fantozzi, 2016). Especially RESs such as solar, wind and water energy are sources that are weather dependent and therefore supply energy to the network intermittent. Ground source heat pumps (GSHPs) can function as a RES with a constant supply of energy to the network, which can improve the efficiency of the whole system (Franco & Fantozzi, 2016). In addition, geothermal energy could also be utilized as a RES, although it still emits a minor amount of carbon dioxide. However, it is applicable on a large scale and it is not influenced by the weather, so it can be used throughout the whole year (Platform Geothermie, n.d.). The difference between GSHP and geothermal energy is that the GSHP absorbs heat and stored energy from the sun at shallow depths (0-300 meters), while geothermal energy uses heat and stored energy from the Earth’s core at lower depths (below 300 meters, typically below 1500 meters in the Netherlands (Platform Geothermie, n.d.; KensaHeatPumps, n.d.). Both energy sources have great potential to provide the housing stock in the Netherlands of renewable energy. The challenge is to implement these geothermal energy sources in an already existing system on a short time scale, in order to meet the energy goals of the Dutch government.
The implementation of new energy sources to a housing stock that is already connected to the current energy network brings along costs and raises the question who is responsible for the costs. Eemland Wonen aims in their report of 2014 to make 1600 residences more sustainable between 2015 and 2021 to comply with the nZEB goal by improving isolation. The cost for isolating the residences will be passed on to the tenants by increasing the rent, but is supposed to be balanced out by a decrease in energy costs (Eemland Wonen, 2014). By 2050 however, a RES, such as GSHP or geothermal energy, should be implemented to the housing stock. The government has subsidies available, but these will only partly cover the costs. All stakeholders will have to cooperate to determine who is going to pay for the remaining amount.
The aim of this research is to determine how Eemland Wonen can make effective policy in which all stakeholders are satisfied, for the implementation of a RES to their housing stock to comply with future agreements. Because of a limited budget and a short time scale effective policy have to be arranged in order to fulfil this aim. The implementation of the sustainable energy sources GSHP and geothermal energy will be the main focus of this research. In chapter 3 a more detailed description of the problem definition and research questions is given.
This paper is an interdisciplinary paper, as it includes several academic disciplines which will complement each other. These academic disciplines are earth sciences, human geography and political science. Herein lies the scientific relevance. The connection and integration of these different academic disciplines and viewpoints is essential to draw a more complete perception of the situation.
4 A combination of technical knowledge about the RES and social knowledge about the people and politics involved in the project will be made. Because of this, any conclusions will be more usable as more aspects will be considered. The same can be said for the social relevance, the outcomes of this paper will be more usable for the government and housing corporations because of the interdisciplinary character of this paper. Furthermore, this research focuses on the housing corporation Eemland Wonen. There are however, 338 more housing corporations in the Netherlands that also have to make the transition to a more sustainable housing stock to comply with the energy goals of the Dutch government (Aedes, 2016). This research can therefore play an important role not only for Eemland Wonen, but also for the other housing corporations in the Netherlands in reaching the sustainability goals.
This report will start with a theoretical framework in which relevant theories and concepts are explained and integrated into one framework. The theory of multi-level perspective is introduced as the overarching theory because it is a way of looking at transitions such as the sustainable transition of Eemland Wonen faces. Secondly, the research problem is stated. Then, in the interdisciplinary integration a visualization is given on how the three disciplines are combined in this research. This is followed by the methodology and the use of data, in this research a literature study with secondary data. Subsequently, the analysis of the research problem is given. Eventually, this results in five recommendations for Eemland Wonen. Ultimately, important discussion points are reflected upon.
5 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
In this chapter the theoretical framework is discussed, which consists of theories and concepts of the disciplines that are relevant for this research. Explanations of the contrasts and overlaps between these concepts are argued. These perspectives are all integrated into this framework. As a result, the complex problem of the research can be better understood and this way it becomes the basis of this research. It is a way to make sense of the complexities of the reality of our case.
This chapter begins by explaining multi-level perspective (MLP) as the overarching theory that is being used in this research. Then the technical management is discussed by explaining GSHP and geothermal energy. Thirdly, the policy management is discussed which includes the concepts of energy justice and responsibility. Finally, social management is being discussed by explaining the concepts of energy-efficient behaviour, the demand side management strategies and involving tenants in decision-making processes.
MULTI-LEVEL PERSPECTIVE
Before it is described how the RESs can be used to enable a transition from gas to renewable energy in the analysis section, it is important to first understand what transitions are and how transitions happen. In this paper the term transition is defined as the change from one sort of practise or system to another one. An example of that would be the change from an unsustainable to a sustainable energy supply (Grin, 2012).
Transitions, as one may understand, do not happen out of nowhere. They are not only a matter of a new innovation being invented and developed and the whole system suddenly shifts, because some innovations fail while other succeed. Because transitions are complex and multilayer processes, one needs to find a theory to understand them and make sense of them. The theory that is used to do that in this paper is the theory of the MLP. It is a theory also used by the Dutch national government for enabling a sustainable energy transition in The Netherlands. In its Dutch National Environmental Policy Plan, the Dutch national government states that it seeks to achieve a ‘system innovation’ to solve environmental problems, and thus the MLP theory was chosen to be adopted by the Dutch government and implemented in policy plans (Kern & Smith, 2008).
MLP, however, is not only a policy tool, but a theory that can be incorporated in all the disciplines, and it will be used as one of the overarching theories of this paper. It is a way of looking at transitions, and a local energy transition is what this research hopes to be able to make possible. As put by Miller (2014), what MLP describes is that:
“Energy transitions, therefore, are not simply shifts in fuel or the technological basis of energy production and/or consumption. Instead, these technical changes occur in parallel, and in relation to and exchange with, changes in values, decisions, behaviours. Past transitions make clear, in fact, that often the most important aspects of major energy transitions are the accompanying social, economic,
and political reorganizations.” (p. 75)
In this next paragraph the main ideas and concepts of the MLP theory are explained. As Grin (2012) states, the MLP describes the world of transition as a socio-technical system, with three different levels: the exogenous landscape, regime and niches (figure 1). There exists a lot of interference between these levels (Grin, 2012). The niches are where the innovative practises are located (the new inventions and start-ups). The regime is the overall structure, so structure in policy, science, culture and markets. The final level is that of the landscape, which refers to the long-term overarching trends, like climate change or individualization (Grin, 2012). The landscape puts pressure on the workings of the existing regime. The niches also put pressure on the working regime, trying to ‘break it open’ so that the system adapts to the niches and the innovations can be put into practise (Grin, 2012).
6 The higher the level the slower these dynamics are between actors. Between these different levels there is a lot of interference and in the policy science field there exists a special focus on the power relations that exist within but also between these levels (Grin, 2012). Transition management tries to change the aspects of the regime (policies, laws) so that it becomes better adapted to sustainable niches (Grin, 2012).
FIGURE 1: A SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF THE MULTI-LEVEL PERSPECTIVE THEORY, WITH THE THREE DIFFERENT LEVELS AND THEIR INTERACTIONS (GEELS, 2002).
One concept that stems from the MLP is the transition theory. It is a special kind of governance and management approach, used not only to alter and influence governmental policy aspects of the regime like laws but also other aspects like corporate policies, cultural norms, infrastructure and other elements of the regime. It is however used widely in policy fields and is also used in the Dutch National Environmental Policy Plan (Grin, 2012; Kern & Smith, 2008). Simply put, the aim is both changing the regime by altering the different aspects of it, so it is more fitted to any niches and also modifying the niches so that they can be easier adapted to the regime (Grin, 2012). Later on in the analysis, it will be discussed how the governmental policy (subsidies), costs, technological adaptations (demand-side management) and changes to civil society (representation and cooperative society) can aid the transition to sustainable energy for Eemland Wonen.
In the rest of this theoretical framework the different management parts in line with the MLP will be discussed. What is meant by this is that the niches and changes to the niches (outside in) are discussed, which includes the technological management. After this, the regime aspects are discussed, as well as different ways how to change the regime (inside out). These are the policy and social management.
7 TECHNICAL MANAGEMENT
Making the social housing of Eemland Wonen in Baarn more sustainable can be carried out in various ways. As mentioned in the introduction, this research focuses on the applications of geothermal energy and GSHP as alternatives for natural gas and other fossil fuels. These RESs have the potential to reduce GHG emissions of the housing stock drastically. Bayer et al. (2012) estimated a reduction of 30 per cent of emissions of residential spaces and water heating with the implementation of GSHPs. This reduction could even be increased with an improvement of the performance of heat pumps. Compared to natural gas, geothermal energy reduces carbon emissions by 88 per cent. If a geothermal company uses RESs for electricity, the emissions could be nearly zero (Platform Geothermie, n.d.). Besides, heat pumps and geothermal energy are environmental friendly and relatively cost-effective sources of energy (Ansari et al., 2018; Franco & Fantozzi, 2016), which makes them attractive energy sources to incorporate in the corporation homes of Eemland Wonen. Besides, both GSHPs and geothermal energy can function as relatively constant sources of energy to compensate for the variability of other RESs (Carvalho et al., 2015). The implementation of geothermal energy or GSHPs is one of the concepts that is considered while researching the feasibility of these energy sources to be incorporated into the housing stock of Eemland Wonen. Multiple factors influence the implementation, such as the state of the energy network, the permeability of (rock) layers in the crust of the Earth, and the condition of presence of aquifers and cost-effective technologies for geothermal energy. Without an investigation to these factors, the implementation can result in a loss of efficiency.
The utilization of geothermal energy is already possible and adapted in the Netherlands. Currently 20 doublet geothermal systems, typically at a depth of approximately 2000 meters with aquifer temperatures of 75 °C, are being used (Platform Geothermie (n.d.). According to research of Platform Geothermie (n.d.), the area in which Eemland Wonen is located has some serious potential for geothermal energy. However, within the province of Utrecht there has never been done sufficient research about the different layers in the Earth’s crust. Some initiators like TNO, Engie, Eneco, the University of Utrecht, the Province of Utrecht will conduct research on the suitability of geothermal Energy in the province of Utrecht in the forthcoming years (Province of Utrecht, 2017; Utrecht Nieuws, 2017). Therefore it is unknown if geothermal energy can be applied yet. Several possible techniques for geothermal energy are possible for implementation. However, most technologies for (ultra-deep) geothermal energy such as the deep borehole heat exchanger and enhanced geothermal systems have to improve in order to implement it as a cost-effective RES (Platform Geothermie, n.d.; Alimonti et al., 2018). In order to implement either GSHPs or (deep) geothermal energy in the current energy system of Eemland Wonen, the two RESs have to be compared on technical aspects.
POLICY MANAGEMENT
As said before, one aspect that influences transition are costs. The transition to the sustainability of the housing stock of Eemland Wonen will be an expensive investment and this is an important issue for every discipline. The average GSHP or geothermal energy system is estimated at a total cost of at least 10.000 euros for GSHP (Vereniging Eigen Huis, n.d.; Omer, 2008). The question: who should be
responsible for these costs? indicates that responsibility is an import concept in this research. There
are already subsidies available, like the SDE+ program subsidy. Besides, the energy bill for the tenants will decrease because of the investments, but there is a possibility that together with the subsidy this will not cover all the costs (Rijksdienst voor Ondernemend Nederland, n.d.). If the tenants of the housing stock of Eemland Wonen are presented with the bill of the energy transition, this will be a form of social inequality, because the tenants are often obliged to do so and these people often have a lower social position. The tenants of the housing stock of Eemland Wonen are especially vulnerable to rent increases because the rent and energy bills form a large percentage of their monthly income (Moser, 1998; Jenkins et. al, 2016). Large increases in rent may lead to the worsening of social
8 inequality because of this. Energy Justice is an important concept that can be taken into account in this case of Eemland Wonen when finding a solution.
Energy justice consists of three different parts. Firstly, it represents a call for an equal distribution of benefits across all members of society regardless of e.g. income and race, this is being addressed as ‘distributional justice’ (Heffron & McCauley, 2014). Secondly, there is ‘procedural justice’ which states that all stakeholders should be able to participate in decision-making processes and that their contribution should be taken seriously. There should also be full information disclosure for them, so that they have the ability to be fully informed in the policy participation process (Jenkins et. al., 2016). ‘Recognition justice’ is the final part, this states that all individuals must be treated equality with the same political rights and without forms of cultural or political domination (Heffron & McCauley, 2014). Sovacool and Dworkin (2015) add to this by concluding that energy justice can be specifically used as a decision-making tool to assist energy planners and consumers as well as an analytical tool for energy researchers.
The concept of energy justice researches power relations regarding Eemland Wonen, to search for injustice and then try to solve this injustice (Jenkins et. al, 2016). It also specifically looks at which sections or social groups of society are ignored, and which groups are most affected by energy insecurity (Jenkins et. al., 2016). One important concept embedded in this theory is energy security, which includes a secure supply of energy as well as the absence of emergent insecurities such as availability and price increase (Jenkins et. al., 2016).
SOCIAL MANAGEMENT
From Hayles & Dean (2015) it appears that the sustainability of social housing also carries an important social aspect. First of all, they state that the goals set by the government in the field of sustainability cannot be achieved without a focus on human behaviour. Energy-efficient behaviour is an important concept for Eemland Wonen, which can be approached from all three disciplines. From a human geographic point of view, the effect of sustainability can be lost if the tenants do not show energy-efficient behaviour. Think of well insulated windows of which the effect is lost when the tenants leave the windows open and the central heating on. For sustainable housing to be widely accepted it must become the preferred housing choice of consumers (Buys, Barnett, Miller & Bailey, 2005). It is therefore essential to discover the actions of the tenants, because it is the tenants themselves who decide how they deal with their sustainable home.
However, technical modifications can also be implemented to change the consumption behaviour of tenants. Demand side management strategies can reduce primary energy consumption by changing peak energy demand. As a result, less energy is consumed during peak periods when energy is more expensive. Demand side management strategies will be further described in the analysis.
In addition to a focus on energy-efficient behaviour of the tenants, it is important for Eemland Wonen to look at the wishes of the tenants. Making the district more sustainable can best be achieved in collaboration with the local tenants. In this research the term ‘co-operative society’ is used which means that tenants work together with the housing association and other stakeholders for the common purpose of making their homes sustainable. In their efforts to improve the neighbourhoods, housing corporations are increasingly looking for bottom-up participation and involvement, so that tenants themselves take a more active role and responsibility for their neighbourhood (Mourik, Breukers, van Summeren, Verbong, 2015). It is often tenants of social rental housing where policymakers see little effort. By creating a co-operative society, local tenants are actively involved in making their homes more sustainable. In this way they are looking for a way to connect different goals of different stakeholders (Mourik et al., 2015). It is not about achieving full consensus, but about clarifying shared goals and wishes where the transition can be built on.
9 PROBLEM DEFINITION
From every discipline, the question is how the energy transition of the social housing stock in Baarn can take place as sustainable as possible. The theoretical framework shows that there are two different ways to make this possible: GSHPs and geothermal energy. However, both ways are associated with uncertain factors in the area of implementation, such as connection to the energy network and the permeability of the rock(layers).……….
In addition to these technical knowledge gaps that exist when implementing these RESs in Baarn, there are also issues in the human geography and political science domains. The concept of energy justice requires an equal distribution of the benefits of the energy transition, an equal opportunity to participate in the decision-making process and equal treatment of all stakeholders involved. For this reason creating a co-operative society is a must. However, the behaviour of the tenants must also be taken into account, since this determines the extent to which technological implementations can succeed. ……….
Finally, there is the question of who will be responsible for the costs of these technological implementations. It is important that the tenants are protected against increased costs. The challenge of this research lies in the cooperation between earth scientific knowledge and the more social knowledge from human geography and political science. The social disciplines function as the 'but’ on the proposals from the earth scientific disciplines. The knowledge gap therefore lies in particular in how the knowledge from the various disciplines can be brought together into an interdisciplinary policy plan. Together, the concepts from the disciplines must lead to an effective policy plan that Eemland Wonen can implement in their social housing stock in Baarn. This leads to the following research question:
How can Eemland Wonen in Baarn make effective policy for the
implementation of a sustainable energy source in which all
stakeholders are satisfied by 2050?
This research question is supported by three sub-questions that specify this research and combines the knowledge from the different disciplines.
• How can Eemland Wonen implement geothermal energy as an alternative energy
source for residential heating to make their social housing stock comply with future
agreements?
• How can Eemland Wonen implement ground source heat pump (GSHP) as an
alternative energy source for residential heating to make their social housing stock
comply with future agreements?
• How can an effective (policy) plan be implemented in collaboration with the tenants of
Eemland Wonen to make the social housing stock of Eemland Wonen in Baarn more
sustainable?
10 INTERDISCIPLINARY INTEGRATION
In this interdisciplinary research multiple stakeholders are involved and interact between fields. The complexity of this research can therefore not be approached from the perspective of solely one discipline. The differences of the disciplines must be recognized and overcome by integrating the findings in a sufficient way. This results in an interdisciplinary research that can offer a framework in which insights of all disciplines are included and connected, in order to identify the complexity of the issue (Menken & Keestra, 2016). A visualization of an integrated framework is given below, in which the different concepts are processed.
11 SELECTED METHOD AND DATA
Within this research the investigation of the different disciplines on the implementation of GSHPs and geothermal energy into the housing stock of Eemland Wonen are combined to connect the knowledge of multiple stakeholders or variables that are involved. Subsequently recommendations for the implementation of a RES into the current housing stock of Eemland Wonen that are feasible for all disciplines can be proposed.
For this research, secondary data will be used. No primary data from Eemland Wonen by interviews or questionnaires is obtained for this research. Since this research will consists of multidisciplinary knowledge, this research will contain both qualitative (from the technical dimension) and quantitative data (from both the socio-political dimension and the technical dimension) (Walliman, 2011). In the scientific literature there is an abundance of research about geothermal energy and GSHPs. What is lacking however, is research in which multiple disciplines are integrated to draw a more complete perception of the situation, which is the aim of this research (Menken & Keestra, 2016).
The use of secondary data can be advantageous for this research for a couple of reasons that are described by Bryman (2016). Firstly, it provides the opportunity to do longitudinal analysis. For this research, studies that have already been done for the performance of GSHPs in both the short and the long term are important to determine whether GSHPs are a feasible option for Eemland Wonen to implement to their housing stock. Secondly, the data that are collected in studies which are used as secondary data, are often of high quality, for the reason samples are taken strictly. Thirdly, it gives the opportunity to spend more time on data analysis. Especially in this interdisciplinary research in which multiple perspectives are combined, it is important that the analysis is done thoroughly.
For the earth sciences discipline secondary data is used to analyse the performance of GSHPs and geothermal energy. Because of a lack of literature regarding the implementation in the Netherlands, case studies from other countries will be used as research material.
The human geography discipline will investigate what the tenants themselves think of making their homes more sustainable, so determining the tenants wishes is necessary. Due to the limited time it is not possible to carry out a qualitative research in Baarn ourselves and unfortunately, Eemland Wonen does not own any public information about the tenants' wishes (Walliman, 2011). Therefore, similar cases in the media and scientific literature will be researched. The same applies for investigating the behaviour of the tenants and what the economic consequences are of the transition. This ties together with the topic of energy justice, where the interests of the tenants will be discussed. This will be a topic present in the disciplines of both human geography and political science.
Furthermore, for the political science part, it is important to look at the existing policies made by the government, the European Union and local government. The policy dimension within the regime will be investigated, through aspects like subsidy schemes. This will be mostly done through a literature study on (policy) documents from the Dutch government and municipality of Baarn and other stakeholders involved. Furthermore, another focus of the political science discipline is on energy justice and ways to improve representation of the tenants. This will also be done through a literature study of scientific articles on energy justice.
The analysis chapter of this paper will be modelled after the MLP theory and the two parts of that theory that are interesting for this research, namely the regime and the niches. The goal is to ultimately change the regime so that it better fits the niches that are implemented and adjusting the niches (the two alternatives) so it fits into the regime (Grin, 2012). To model this goal, it was chosen to split the analysis in two different parts which was done in the theoretical framework: the inside influence and adjustments and the outside influence and adjustments that can be made there. The inside influences means changing the regime from inside out, so this is changing the structure that is currently used. To this the aspects of changing and influencing cultural norms and behaviour, rules and regulations, markets and user preferences, industry and policy in general. The subsidies, energy justice,
12 sustainable behaviour and demand side management sides belong to this part. The other form of influence is that from the niches to the regime, as they figuratively ‘break open’ the regime and changing from the outside. This section will be all about the two different alternative energy sources, which one better fits the regime and its aspects like energy grid and costs. It is about how to adapt the niches so that it fits the regime better, so that the niches in turn can change the regime. To this part belong the themes of the two alternatives, the energy network, permeability, condition, costs and cost effectiveness.
13 ANALYSIS
In this chapter an analysis is made based on the theoretical framework on the main question and corresponding sub-questions. As mentioned earlier, this is done with the use of MLP. The analysis starts with influences and adjustments from the outside in which a technical comparison between GSHPs and geothermal energy is made. Secondly, the analysis will focus on inside influences and adjustments in which the concepts subsidy schemes, energy justice, energy-efficient behaviour, responsibility and co-operative society are being discussed. Based on this, recommendations are made in the next chapter.
OUTSIDE INFLUENCE AND ADJUSTMENTS
THE TWO ALTERNATIVES: TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS
In order to make effective policy for Eemland Wonen to implement a new sustainable energy source for their housing stock, the technical aspects of these alternative sources have to be investigated. Subsequently, it can be discussed whether the implementation of GSHPs or geothermal energy can be applied in the Netherlands, thus which niche has the best chance of changing the regime.
GSHPs extract thermal energy from the ground at shallow depth (<400 meters) and move the heat from a source with a low temperature (heat source) to a source with high temperature (heat sink), consuming the drive energy (Bayer et al., 2012; Sarbu & Sebarchivici, 2014). The ground, which functions as the heat source or sink, behaves as a constant temperature medium and is relatively independent of weather conditions (Soltani et al., 2018). The performance of GSHPs are however influenced by multiple other factors that are location dependent, such as depth of the borehole, soil type, water velocity in the pipes, thermal conductivity of grout and the thermal resistance and heat exchange (Carvalho et al., 2015).………
The GSHP system consists of a borehole heat exchanger, which makes the energy in the heat source accessible, and the heat pump, which is needed to enable heating (Bayer et al., 2012). A system of closed loops in which the heat is exchanged, is buried vertically in the ground by means of boreholes, or occasionally horizontally if there is enough space (Wood et al., 2010)
FIGURE 3: DIAGRAM OF A HEAT PUMP. THE ELECTRO-COMPRESSOR ELEVATES LOW TEMPERATURE HEAT TO OVER 38 ˚C AND TRANSFERS IT INDOORS, WHICH INVOLVES A CYCLE OF EVAPORATION, COMPRESSION, CONDENSATION AND EXPANSION (SARBU & SEBARCHIVICI, 2014). A REFRIGERANT IS
USED AS HEAT TRANSFER MEDIUM.
GSHPs have the potential to reduce primary energy consumption with demand side management strategies (Carvalho et al., 2015b). However, it is still discussed whether GSHPs actually reduce GHG emissions, since heat pumps themselves only avoid additional emissions of fossil fuels (Bayer et al., 2012; Rybach, 2008). Besides, electricity is needed for the heat pump to function. To actually achieve
14 a decrease in GHG emissions, the implementation of GSHPs should include the deinstallation of fossil-fired burners (Bayer et al., 2012).………
Geothermal energy is the energy that is being extracted from the Earth core’s heat. At lower depths in the Earth’s crust, the temperature increases. This is called the geothermal gradient. On average, the geothermal gradient is 25 to 30 °C/1000 meter (Dickson & Fanelli, 2013). However, in the Netherlands the average geothermal gradient is 31 °C/1000 meter (Thermogis, n.d.) For example, in the Netherlands the temperature of the aquifers at 2000 meter depth would be around 75 °C. Heated water in these aquifers at low depths in the Earth’s crust can be extracted with boreholes, wells and ground pumps. The warm water is being extracted to a centralized location (district heating) which provides heat to buildings. Usually geothermal energy is being applied at depths of 0.3 to 4 kilometre, which is sufficient for heating buildings, as seen in figure 4 (Manzella, n.d.). Four major types of geothermal energy are being described.
FIGURE 4: SUMMARY OF DIFFERENT FORMS OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY AND GSHP. (MANZELLA, N.D.). GSHP TECHNIQUES ARE BEING APPLIED AT SHALLOW DEPTHS AND CAN BE USED FOR HEATING SINGLE HOUSES AND BUILDINGS. GEOTHERMAL ENERGY IS BEING APPLIED AT LOWER DEPTHS. THEREFORE MORE HEAT AND ENERGY CAN BE EXTRACTED. THIS MAKES IT POSSIBLE TO HEAT AND PROVIDE ENERGY
TO RESIDENTIAL AREAS AND EVEN POWER PLANTS.
An open loop geothermal system extracts heat from a deep aquifer by the use of a two well system (doublet) (Lokhorst & van Wees, 2005). After heat extraction the cooled down water is being injected back into the reservoir in which the water will eventually warm up again. This type of geothermal system allows the water to be stored again in the reservoir and warm up again (Johnston et al., 2011). This is the most used type of geothermal energy for district heating.……….
The following three types geothermal energy are relatively new and currently expensive to implement. Moreover, more research is needed in order use them. But for future applications the methods can be useful:………
The deep borehole heat exchanger is similar to the application of GSHPs, but at lower depths. The heat that is being extracted from these depths are sufficient for district heating. (Śliwa et al., 2018, Lokhorst & van Wees, 2005) In some areas, the low abundance of water or the permeability of geothermal systems is not sufficient for heat and energy extraction. In these cases, an enhanced geothermal system can be created by high-pressure water systems that cause artificial fracturing (Dickson & Fanelli, 2003; Lokhorst & van Wees, 2005; Manzella, n.d.). Ultra-deep geothermal energy utilizes heat that is being extracted from depths below 4 kilometres. This type of geothermal energy can be used for providing large power plants with energy. Eventually these large power plants could provide Eemland Wonen with energy (Platform Geothermie, n.d.; Dickson & Fanelli, 2003).
15
DIFFICULTIES OF THE IMPLEMENTATION OF GSHPS AND GEOTHERMAL ENERGY TO THE ENERGY NETWORK
To remain the efficient energy production of heat pumps, technical analysis of how the energy production of GSHPs and geothermal energy can be integrated into the current system (regime) and what the effects are on other parts of the system are required (Franco & Fantozzi, 2016). The energy infrastructure should be designed to transport and integrate both heating and electricity within a network of pipes connecting the buildings, which will be supplied from centralized plants or heating units (Lund et al., 2014). Multiple literature refers to these types of systems as smart energy systems (Gelanzanskas & Gamage, 2014; Lund et al., 2014; Mathiesen et al., 2015). Besides, when renewable energy production exceeds energy demands, energy needs to be artificially consumed or stored (Gelazanskas & Gamage, 2014). In order to ensure the integration of intermittent RES, decentralized energy storage systems have to be implemented (Carvalho et al., 2015).
CONDITIONS OF THE IMPLEMENTATION OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
Beside the difficulties with regard to the implementation of GHSPs and geothermal energy to the energy system of Eemland Wonen, more difficulties occur with regard to the implementation of geothermal energy itself. GHSPs are prone to less conditions for implementing it to an energy system than geothermal energy, which extracts from a lower depth. This can cause some difficulties (Thermogis, n.d.). Firstly, the abundance of water has to be ensured in the aquifer. This is only possible if the rocks in the layer have a good permeability. Moreover, the layers have to be connected to each other. In optimal conditions, it is desirable to not have barriers between the layers. Lastly, layers have to be homogeneous. According to Lokhorst & van Wees (2005) the aquifer also needs a thickness of at least 30 meters. Within the province of Utrecht there has never been done sufficient research about the different layers in the Earth’s crust. Therefore it is currently unknown whether geothermal energy is a suitable option for Eemland Wonen.
Moreover, some other conditions for the implementation of geothermal energy has to be considered as well. First, the temperature within the aquifer has to be high enough (70 °C for district heating). Second, the application of geothermal energy has to be the cost-effective. The latter is an important issue as of today, since many types of geothermal energy such as deep borehole heat exchangers, ultra-deep geothermal energy and enhanced geothermal systems need more research before it can be applied on a large scale. Therefore only open doublet geothermal systems can be implemented as of now. With the current situation in which it is unknown whether the conditions in the Earth’s crust are sufficient, implementing geothermal energy is highly difficult. However, the aim is to implement geothermal energy or GSHPs in the energy system of Eemland Wonen for the year 2050. Within this timeframe, it is expected that the process of the possible implementation of geothermal energy will comply with the necessary conditions. Notwithstanding, currently GSHPs have less technical obstacles compared to geothermal energy for implementing it to the energy system of Eemland Wonen.
USAGE IN THE NETHERLANDS: COMPARISON WITH EXISTING LITERATURE
Many social housing buildings of Eemland Wonen in Baarn are connected to the current energy infrastructures that are still reliant on natural gas and fossil fuels, which is logical as the current regime system still prefers these types of energy sources. It is therefore important that Eemland Wonen finds an optimum between reduction of energy demand and generation of energy demand (Ritzen et al., 2016). According to a report of Eemland Wonen (2014), Eemland Wonen their strategies to meet nZEB agreements by 2021 are by isolating their houses, in order to decrease energy demand. They have not yet included a change in energy generation into their current plants, since the costs of implementing GSHPs to houses, or geothermal energy to a residential area are extremely high. The implementation of heat pumps in new buildings or in those buildings where not yet natural gas infrastructures are built, is less difficult and has lower costs (Van Heekeren & Koenders, 2010). By 2050 however, their entire
16 housing stock must fully rely on RES.………
In the Netherlands the implementation of GSHPs is mainly done in projects for commercial and office size buildings, but since 2009 more projects that focus on the implementation of heat pumps for small scale buildings are in operation (Van Heekeren & Koenders, 2010). According to a soil map created by Nederlands Instituut voor Toegepaste Geowetenschappen and IF Technology (2001) (Appendix A.3), the Netherlands has great potential for the production of vertical geothermal energy. In the area of Baarn there are multiple areas that are highly suitable for the implementation of GSHPs. Besides being appropriate for GSHPs, the area also seems to be suitable for geothermal energy according to the Nationale Energieatlas (n.d.). However, within the province of Utrecht there has never have been done sufficient research about the different layers in the Earth’s crust. Therefore it is currently unknown whether geothermal energy is a suitable option for Eemland Wonen. However in the coming years multiple initiators will start with researching the suitability of geothermal energy in the province of Utrecht (Province of Utrecht, 2017; Utrecht Nieuws, 2017).………
In the case of Eemland Wonen technical factors have to be determined before geothermal energy can be applied for space heating. Currently, it is unknown if geothermal energy is a suitable option for Eemland Wonen, since no sufficient research about the different layers in the crust in the Province of Utrecht has been done (Province of Utrecht, 2017). The implementation costs are in the case of Eemland Wonen most likely higher than GSHPs. Moreover, many types of geothermal energy such as deep borehole heat exchangers, ultra-deep geothermal energy and enhanced geothermal systems need more research before it can be applied on a large scale. Only open geothermal systems using doublets, which are already being used the most in Netherlands for district heating, seems like a reliable type of geothermal energy as of now. However, this research is being focussed on the possibility of the implementation of geothermal energy in the energy system of Eemland Wonen for the year 2050. Research about the different layers in the Province of Utrecht will be done in the forthcoming years and technical innovations and improvement are likely to happen with regard to the implementation of geothermal techniques. Furthermore, geothermal energy will become more cost effective as well as carbon emission prices will increase (Cozijnsen, 2017). Therefore it is likely that geothermal energy can play a major role in providing Eemland Wonen with heat and energy in the long term.
However, considering that currently research of the implementation of geothermal energy in the Netherlands is lacking, the risks of implementing deep geothermal energy for space heating of the housing stock of Eemland Wonen are too high in the short term. From multiple case studies the implementation of GSHPs showed to be successful in the short term and in the long-term lead to both a reduction in costs and a significant decrease of GHG emissions by the building sector. This indicates that GSHPs as a niche better fit to be adapted to the regime. Since the multiple factors on which the performance of GSHPs rely differ per region and country, it is difficult to compare the performance of heat pumps on different locations. However, considering that the Netherlands is suitable for the production of vertical geothermal energy, implementing heat pumps to housing units seems to be a suitable alternative for Eemland Wonen to comply with future agreements in both the short term and the long from both a technical, social and political perspective.
COSTS COMPARISON OF THE TWO ALTERNATIVES
One aspect that needs to be taken into account and is also important for Eemland Wonen is the total costs of the two alternatives. It is an important part in the evaluation of which alternative might be the most fit for implementation. There are significant costs differences, mainly because in the instalments and maintenance. In this section a more thorough comparison of the GSHP and geothermal energy in cost is given.
The instalment costs for GSHP and geothermal energy are very high. The total installation cost is often around 12.800 euros for a GSHP installation, including drilling costs and implementation. However, this price varies according to conditions and can go up to 25.000 euros. This is generally for one house.
17 There is a recoupment period of 12,2 years, if you assume that there is a yearly benefit of 925 euros (Duratherm, n.d.). This seems a lot of money and a long recoupment period, however, the GSHPs have a long lifespan and low maintenance costs. The GSHPs can be expected to provide energy for more than 20 years (Omer, 2008). To compare, a standard boiler has a lifespan of 15 years (Duratherm, n.d.). The costs of geothermal energy are vaguer. The same terms for low maintenance cost and long durability apply to geothermal energy. However, the implementation cost is higher due to for example the drilling that needs to go much deeper (Fridleifsson, 2003; Smekens & In ‘t Groen, 2017). One geothermal energy installation can however provide for more households than one GSHP installation, which means that there will be more installation costs for one installation but also less installations needed (Fridleifsson, 2003; Smekens & In ‘t Groen, 2017). Often one installation is enough for a neighbourhood.
In conclusion, it can’t be said for certain which of the two is more profitable exactly. It is a case of a trade-off, as the GSHP requires less costs per installation but you need more of them while the geothermal energy requires more costs per installation but you often need only one of them.
INSIDE INFLUENCE AND ADJUSTMENTS
PART OF THE REGIME: SUBSIDY SCHEMES
For transition management to be implemented successfully, one needs to know the aspects of the regime. One important aspect for Eemland Wonen are subsidies. There are three main subsidies that can be used as a way to reduce costs for the purchase and implementation of the RES that will be mentioned below. These are the ISDE, STEP, EIA and will now be discussed separately.
The ISDE, or the Investment Subsidy Sustainable Energy is offered by the Rijksdienst voor Ondernemend Nederland (RVO). This government service gives a subsidy between 1100 and 2500 euros per pump varying according to what kind of heat pump is used. The higher the kW output and the better the energy label of the pump, the higher the subsidy (RVOa, n.d.).………
The second available subsidy is that of the STEP, the Incentive Scheme Energy Performance Housing Sector, also offered by the RVO. This subsidy is meant for social housing that is interested in investment in energy saving, so that the energy label will go up to at least level B (which is the aim of Eemland Wonen). The amount of subsidy available depends on the steps in labels the housing goes up and can range from 1500 to 9500 euros per house (RVOb, n.d.). One of the conditions, however, is that the improvement of the energy performance will not lead to an increase in the total housing costs (RVOb, z.b.). The RVO advices to make use of a Housing Cost Guarantee, an instrument for making agreements between the housing corporations and the tenants to reassure that the total rent increase is justified and eventually lower than the decrease of the energy bill (Nederlandse Woonbond, 2014; RVOb, n.d.). ……….
Another option is the Energy-Investment Allowance ( EIA), which gives a tax benefit of an average of 13,5 per cent for investment in sustainable energy (including heat pumps). This applies to the technical purchase and instalment costs (RVOc, n.d.). This description of one part of the regime is not complete and not representative for the total regime and will be extended in the final report. With these subsidies, there is no clear distinction between GSHP and geothermal energy, as the subsidies apply either to sustainable projects/energy or heat pumps in general. For the subsidies, thus, there is no better alternative. However, there is a distinction between costs, which will be discussed below.
18
DISTRIBUTIONAL ENERGY JUSTICE: THE ADVANTAGED AND DISADVANTAGED OF THE ENERGY TRANSITION
As explained in the theoretical framework, the concept of distributional energy justice is an important factor. It requires an equal distribution of the advantages and disadvantages of the energy transition on all stakeholders (Jenkins et al., 2016). The reality differs with this insight, as it are often the poorer and less powerful social groups that are disproportionately affected by the energy transition as stated in a report about the Dutch energy transition (Straver et al., 2017). This means that the tenants of Eemland Wonen will be disadvantaged by the energy transition, and because of their lower social position and its restrictions, this is a form of distributional injustice.
Despite the fact that Aedes (2018) states in their report that the investments in sustainability must not be at the expense of building new social homes and the affordability for the tenants, Hulshof & Straver (2018) mention the risk that the energy transition will create a split in society. This process is called the “Mattheüseffect”, in which the rich become more rich and the poor more poor (Straver et al., 2017).
It seems like the tenants of Eemland Wonen are not the disadvantaged of the energy transition but naming them the winners is a step to far. Aedes (2018) mentions that the housing associations cannot carry out the energy transition on their own, they need more money from the government (Hulshof & Straver, 2018). This can come in the form of subsidies directly targeted at GSHPs and geothermal energy, for example. Concrete plans are also being made whereby parties such as energy companies and municipalities are being brought together to enable the sustainability of their social housing stocks (Aedes, 2018). Until then, it remains unclear to what extent Aedes can prevent the tenants from becoming the disadvantaged of the transition.
PROCEDURAL AND RECOGNITION ENERGY JUSTICE: THE CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETY
As argued before, procedural and recognition justice, the degree of access to the decision process, are also important (Straver et al., 2017). Eemland Wonen is obliged by the government to invest in the sustainability of their homes, but this does not oblige them to investigate the interests of their tenants and to involve them in the process. In addition, does Eemland Wonen have enough recognition for the cultural differences of their tenants in the energy transition?
To provide for these forms of justice there is only one solution: making the district more sustainable can best be achieved in collaboration with the local tenants (Mourik et al., 2015). In the form of a co-operative society, Eemland Wonen can trace the wishes of their tenants about making their homes more sustainable through representation. From an investigation into the thoughts of tenants in Lochem about the sustainability of their homes, it turned out that only 10 per cent of the respondents consider energy-efficient homes important (Van der Lof & Tempelman, 2011). Half of the respondents are willing to pay more for an energy-efficient home, but only when this leads to benefits in the energy costs. For the other half it is not financially possible to pay more rent. This shows that the creation of the co-operative society is necessary to analyse all the wishes of the tenants and to actively involve local tenants in making their homes more sustainable. In this way they are looking for a way to connect different goals of different stakeholders (Mourik et al., 2015). It is not about achieving full consensus, but about clarifying shared goals and wishes where the transition can be built on. This can be done by organizing meetings with the tenants.
Another way of achieving procedural and recognition justice is through a so-called Housing Cost Guarantee. This incorporates prior informed consent of the tenants for new energy projects that is needed for energy justice according to Sovacool and Dworkin (2015). Additionally, procedural and recognition justice can be achieved by ensuring that the low-income groups such as the tenants of Eemland Wonen housing are represented in institutions such as the municipality of Baarn and Eemland Wonen itself (Jenkins et. al, 2016). This will also decrease chances of resistance and rejection of the implementation of the RESs by the tenants, as mentioned by Straver et. al. (2017). This resistance often
19 comes from a feeling of not being included in any decision-making processes. Sovacool and Dworkin (2015) add to this by concluding that energy justice can be specifically used as a decision-making tool to assist energy planners and consumers as well as an analytical tool for energy researchers.
ENERGY-EFFICIENT BEHAVIOUR
Hayles & Dean (2015) state that the goals set by the government in the field of sustainability cannot be achieved without a focus on human behaviour, because the effect of sustainability can be lost if the tenants do not show energy-efficient behaviour. Think of well insulated windows of which the effect is lost when the tenants leave their windows open or the central heating on. For sustainable housing to be widely accepted it must become the preferred housing choice of consumers to let it become effective (Buys, Barnett, Miller & Bailey, 2005). Thus, there has to be a cultural and behavioural change in the regime for new niches to be accepted thoroughly and efficiently. However, it turned out from the wishes of the tenants which are discussed earlier, that this has not been the case. And because it is the tenants themselves who decide how they deal with their sustainable home, Eemland Wonen has to take these loses into account while making a policy plan.
The use of ‘community-based social marketing’ is a way in which psychological knowledge is used in combination with social marketing to change behaviour. According to McKenzie-Mohr (2000) this is a good way to encourage sustainable action and could be implemented in the policy plan of Eemland Wonen. In this method they look for the barriers of people to, for example, not close the windows, and then search for a way to overcome these barriers (McKenzie-Mohr, 2000). In the article they state that the use of ‘prompts' appears to be effective in reminding people to close their windows after departure. But this can conflict with the fact that social housing associations have the core task to provide housing for low incomes and not a care task for their tenants (Bouwend Nederland, 2017). Therefore it is necessary to create a plan in which multiple stakeholders work together to reach the sustainable goals by 2050. One of these parties are for instance energy companies. Some of these companies, such as Eneco, use a smart meter by which tenants can keep track of their energy consumption and costs. But most importantly, the meter also tells how to reduce the energy consumption. Hu (2017) examined that these meters are actually effective in reducing the energy consumption. So, this way of community-based social marketing could be implemented in the policy plan of Eemland Wonen by which the behaviour of their tenants would become more energy-efficient and the social housing association can focus on their core task.
In addition, the behaviour of energy consumption by tenants can be regulated using technical alterations, as explained in the theoretical framework. This can both be seen as an inside influence, in which the energy consumption is decreased by a change in behaviour of the tenants, and as an outside influence, in which the technical alterations that change energy demand can be seen as a niche. Demand side management strategies are used to achieve this, in which tenants change their energy consumption in response to changes in electricity prices over time (Arteconi et al., 2013). This can be done by preheating buildings during off peak periods to reduce the energy consumption for heating during peak periods (Reynders et al., 2013). Another strategy is to use the energy that is stored in the walls during peak periods to maintain the temperature. A study of Carvalho et al. (2015) demonstrates that surplus energy that is generated during the night and morning can be absorbed in walls for between 19-30 per cent. Both of these strategies lead to a decrease in energy consumption and as a result a decrease in energy costs for the tenants.
20 RECOMMENDATIONS
This research investigated how Eemland Wonen can make effective policy for the implementation of a sustainable energy source in which all stakeholders are satisfied. The implementation of two alternatives was examined and evaluated in the perspectives of three different disciplines. From the results, multiple recommendations can be made for Eemland Wonen to make their housing stock comply with future agreements by 2050.
• It is recommended that the tenants will be represented in the policy-making process and
negotiations with the different parties. This can be in the form of a co-operative society and/or a representative of the tenants who participates in the meetings.
Creating a co-operative society is essential to meet the procedural and recognition form of energy justice. Research was carried out into the possible wishes of the tenants of Eemland Wonen. This showed that the creation of a co-operative society is desirable in order to ensure that the tenants can speak out their wishes.
• In meetings with the tenants or representatives of the tenants the different parties must
investigate who will be responsible for the costs of the energy transition and document the results in a Housing Cost Guarantee, in this the associations must do everything to prevent the tenants from becoming disadvantaged in the transition.
In the theoretical framework the question was raised who should be responsible for these costs? Because it was detected that it are often the poorer and less powerful social groups that are negatively affected by the energy transition. Who ultimately pays the bill is very dependent on the cooperation between the associations and other stakeholders such as the government and companies. Therefore it is recommended that the associations and the tenants work together to create a Housing Cost Guarantee that will include an answer to who will be responsible for the costs and prevent the tenants for becoming disadvantaged.
• In the cooperation between the associations and energy companies, a smart meter must be
installed in all residences so that community-based marketing energy can stimulate efficient behaviour.
In the theoretical framework it was stated that the goals set by the government in the field of sustainability cannot be achieved without a focus on human behaviour, because the effect of sustainability can be lost if the tenants do not show energy-efficient behaviour. Therefore the concept of ‘community-based marketing’ has been introduced which is a way in which psychological knowledge is used with social marketing to change behaviour. This resulted in the recommendations of implementing the smart meter as a ‘prompt’ that will help the tenants to reduce their energy consumption.
• Eemland Wonen should make use of Demand Side Management strategies to change and
regulate the energy consumption behaviour of tenants by technical adjustments.
This results in both a decrease of energy consumption and a decrease in energy costs for tenants.
• GSHPs can be implemented in 1500 single-family houses of Eemland Wonen in the short term.
In the long term GSHPs can be implemented into both existing flat apartments and newly constructed apartments.
The implementation of GSHPs to houses requires space in or outside the house where the heat pump can be installed. Often they are situated on the ground floor in the garage or utility room, for the reason they require approximately one square meter of space and make considerably noise (Mondelaers, 2011). Besides, there has to be space around the house to perform the boreholes. Eemland Wonen has 2700 houses in total, of which 1500 are single-family houses (“Algemeen”, n.d.). A single-family house is characterised as a house that is on the ground floor with no other houses or apartments above or below. They exist in terraced houses, semi-detached houses and detached
21 houses. This means that the implementation of GSHPs in 1500 houses of Eemland Wonen can be done more easily than in case of flat apartments. Implementing heat pumps to flat apartments brings along challenges and higher costs when they have to be installed to apartments that are already connected to the current energy network. Multiple boreholes with higher depths have to be drilled at one site that connect all the heat pumps to the apartments (figure 5). However, companies that specialise in the installation of heat pumps to flat apartments exist, such as Livios (Livios, https://www.livios.be/nl/) and WP (WP, https://www.vakbladwarmtepompen.nl/). Besides, in newly constructed buildings the implementation of GSHPs can be done immediately with the construction.
FIGURE 5: THE INSTALLATION OF GSHPS IN SINGLE-FAMILY HOUSES (LEFT). THE INSTALLATION OF GSHPS IN FLAT APARTMENTS (RIGHT). RETRIEVED FROM HTTPS://WWW.KENSAHEATPUMPS.COM/.
All the recommendations that are given in this report are summarised in Figure 6, in this way Eemland Wonen has a clear overview of the steps that are necessary to take if they want to reach their goal of achieving Energy Label B in their social housing stock by 2050.
22
23 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
In this research the implementation of GSHPs and geothermal energy was investigated from three perspectives: human geography, political science and earth sciences. This resulted in a more complete perception of how this implementation can actually be realised. The conclusion is drawn that GSHPs are recommended, for the reason there are many uncertainties about the geothermal energy as an alternative source. This research showed that GSHPs are a suitable alternative energy source within the housing stock of Eemland Wonen, both in the long and the short term. However, this does not mean that geothermal energy is not suitable for implementation, but more research should be conducted on the implementation of geothermal energy in the future. The thesis of this conclusion is that ethically responsible policy in the form of a co-operative society will ensure fewer disadvantaged tenants and at the same time accelerate the energy transition by stimulating energy efficient behaviour. In this way there will be energy justice in all three parts of the definition. Besides, more uncertainties about the energy transition exist, e.g. it is recommended that all stakeholders discuss who will be responsible for the costs, but this does not mean that in the end the tenants can become the disadvantaged after all.………
However, this research does have some shortcomings. For this research there has not been done any fieldwork and no primary data was obtained. In further research, the implementation of GSHPs to private houses in the Netherlands could actually be carried out in order to examine the efficiency in both the short and long term. Moreover, there are many types of GSHPs. Not all of the types are being discussed in this paper. Therefore, more research about implementing the most suitable type of GHSP for the implementation into the housing stock of Eemland Wonen has to be applied. Besides, since no research has been applied about the geological layers in the Province of Utrecht and many types of geothermal energy, there is a chance that geothermal energy could be more efficient than GHSP. Therefore it is also important to monitor the technological and economical improvements and suitability of geothermal energy for possible future application. Furthermore, the willingness of the tenants and housing corporations to make the transition to a more sustainable housing stock should be investigated. As a final note, this paper implemented only earth sciences, political sciences and human geography as disciplines. This paper does not include research from an economic perspective. The costs of the transition towards an energy neutral environment for the energy system of Eemland Wonen is a very important issue to take into account. Therefore it is important to include the economic discipline in further research to really understand how to make the transition towards an energy neutral environment.
Nevertheless, it is important to realize that big changes like the energy transition require big risks. And even though there are uncertainties, there is time until 2050 to take these away. This will require hard work and discipline, but it will be worth the effort resulting in all tenants of Eemland Wonen living in a sustainable social housing by 2050.
24 REFERENCES
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