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ProQuest Information and team ing
300 North Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 USA 800-521-0600
by
Paul S tanley H o p k in s B.A., U niversity of V ictoria, 1976 M.A., U niversity of W aterloo, 1984
M .A., U niversity of V ictoria, 1991
A D issertatio n S u b m itted in P artial F u lfilm en t of the R eq u irem en ts for the D egree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in the D e p a rtm e n t of Linguistics We accept this d isse rta tio n as co n fo rm in g
to the re q u ire d s ta n d a rd
Dr. E. C zaykpw sl^-Ü Rg^ink, S u p erv iso r (D e p a r|m e n t of Linguistics)
__________________________________
Dr. B.F. C arlson, K ^p artm en tal M em b er (D e p artm e n t of Linguistics)
Dr. Th.M . Hess, D e p artilïb n tal'M ém b er (D e p a rtm e n t of Linguistics)
i. S m aarsch m id t, O u tsid e M er
Dr. G. S A a a rsc h m id t, O u tsid e M em ber (D e p a rtm e n t of Slavonic Studies)
Dr. Ch.Y. Bethin, External E xam iner
(D ep artm en t of Linguistics, State U niversity of N e w York a t Stony Bro6k)
© Paul Stanley H o p k in s, 2001 U n iv ersity of V ictoria
All rig h ts reserved. This d isse rta tio n m ay n o t b e re p ro d u c e d in w hole o r in p art, by photo co p y in g o r o th e r m eans, w ith o u t th e p erm issio n of the au th o r.
Supervisor: Dr. Ew a C zaykow ska-H iggins
A BSTRA CT
T his d is se rta tio n ex am in es the w o rd -le v e l p h o n o lo g y of the N o rth - W est S lav ic la n g u a g e K a sh u b ia n s p o k e n in E ast P o m e ra n ia (n o rth e rn Poland) p lacin g the in v estig atio n w ith in the theoretical co n tex t of O p tim ality Theory. The p rim a ry goal of the th esis is th u s to ex p lo re a n d d escrib e the p h o n o lo g y of th is la n g u a g e w h ich h a s la rg e ly e sc a p e d th e a tte n tio n of g e n e ra tiv e p h o n o lo g y , it also aim s to p ro v id e in sig h t in to th e p o ssib ilities p re se n te d a n d the c h allen g es faced by O p tim a lity T h eo ry in d e sc rib in g the pho n o lo g ical system of this language.
C h a p te r O ne gives a g en eral p re se n ta tio n of K ash u b ian . A d efinitio n of K a sh u b ia n in term s o f its p lace w ith in th e Slavic la n g u a g e fam ily is follow ed first by a b rie f h isto ry of re se a rc h into th is la n g u a g e , focussing m ainly on those lin g u ists w h o have m a d e the m o st sig n ific a n t co n trib u tio n s, an d th en b y an o v e rv ie w of the p h o n o lo g y a n d m o rp h o lo g y o f K ashubian. This c h a p te r also p re se n ts the p rin c ip le s a n d m e th o d o lo g y em p lo y e d in an O p tim ality T heo ry an aly sis, a n d p re v ie w s the m ain p o in ts to be m ad e in the d isse rta tio n .
C h a p te r Tw o ex am in es the s tru c tu re a n d p ro p e rtie s of syllable on sets in K ash u b ian , w ith focus g iv e n to fo u r topics: the a p p e a ra n c e of p ro th e tic c o n so n a n ts, th e c o n stitu e n c y of c o m p lex o n sets, fe a tu re h a rm o n y in o n set- n ucleus in te ra ctio n , a n d v o icin g a ssim ilatio n . M y in v e stig a tio n of the first tw o to p ics sh o w s th a t K a sh u b ia n en fo rc es th e u n iv e rs a l te n d e n c y fo r CV sy llab les w ith s o n o rity in c re a s in g fro m e d g e to n u c le u s , h o w e v e r it also allow s so m e form s w ith m in im a l v io la tio n o f this p re fe re n ce . In v estig atio n
of the la tte r tw o topics show s th a t w hile th ere is a clear preference for featural h a rm o n y in K ash u b ian b o th w ith in o n se t clu sters a n d b e tw e e n o n se t an d n u c leu s, th e h a rm o n y is d ire c tio n a l (rig h t to left) a n d p ro d u c tiv e ly affects only c ertain features (voice in clusters, labial in the o nset-n u cleu s interface).
C h a p te r T hree exam in es the s tru c tu re of syllable codas in K ashubian. Syllable codas are un iv ersally less com plex th an onsets, w hich m anifests itself in K ashu b ian in a n u m b er of w ays. First, m o st dialects disallow any violation of the so n o rity h ierarch y in codas. Second, intervocalic c o n so n a n ts are all syllab ified in the o n set to the p re c e d in g vow el u n less this w o u ld re su lt in syllabification across a pro so d ic w o rd b o u n d a ry , an o n set cluster v io latin g the so n o rity h ierarchy, or a v ery h eav y cluster. T hird, w h ereas the a p p ea ra n ce of u n d e rly in g laryngeal an d sec o n d a ry featu res is enforced in onsets, it is n o t in K ashubian codas, w here they n e v er app ear.
F in ally , C h a p te r F o u r e x a m in e s th e sy lla b le n u clei o f K a sh u b ia n , focussing o n th ree types of v o w el a lte rn atio n . V ow el raising, an a lte rn atio n b e tw ee n o p e n a n d closed v o w els, is p a rtia lly d e te rm in e d m o rp h o lo g ically , su c h th a t c e rta in verb stem s sh o w a n o p e n /c lo s e d a lte rn a tio n in c e rta in m o rp h o lo g ica l co n tex ts, b u t it also o ccu rs in a co n tex t largely d e te rm in e d p h onologically. A n ex am in atio n of v a rio u s contexts for a reg u lar a lte rn atio n betw een e / a a n d zero is seen as ev id en ce for the existence of laten t vow els w h ich a p p e a r o nly to a v o id th e v io la tio n of h ig h -ra n k in g c o n strain ts of the K ash u b ian g ram m ar. In c o n tra st to th ese la te n t vow els, the b rief excrescent vow els fo u n d in the p ro x im ity of w h a t w o u ld o th erw ise be syllabic liq u id s are held to lack an u n d e rly in g rep re se n ta tio n .
E xam iners;
Dr. ET'Czaykovv^èkl^Ijig^ÜTs, S u p e rv iso r (D e p artm e n t of Linguistics) (/
Dr. B .F ^ C M lso i^ ^ ^ p a rta ie ^ ^ a rM e m b e r (D e p artm e n t o f Linguistics)
Dr. Th.M . H ess, D e p a ç a p e m a r M em b er (D e p artm e n t of Linguistics)
r. G ^ c h a a r s c h m id t, O u tsid e M em b er (De
Dr. G Æ c h a arsc h m id t, O u tsid e M em b er (D e p artm e n t of Slavonic Studies)
/
^
Dr. Ch.Y. Bethin, E xternal E xam iner
Page A b s t r a c t ... i i Table of C o n ten ts ... v A c k n o w le d g e m e n ts ... v iii A b b re v ia tio n s ... x G u id e to K ashubian O r th o g r a p h y ... xi Index of C o n s tr a in ts ... xii D e d ic a tio n ... xiv C h a p te r O ne: INTRODUCTION 1.0 In tro d u c tio n to K ash ub ian ... 1
1.1 T he K ash u b ian language: p re lim in a rie s ... 2
1.1.1 A d efin itio n of K ash u b ian ... 3
1.1.2 H istory of research - sources of d a t a ... 6
1.1.2.1 M ilestones of research into the K ash ub ian la n g u a g e 6 1.1.2.2 Sources an d form of d a ta u sed in d i s s e r ta ti o n ... 14
1.2 O v e rv ie w of K ashubian p h o n o lo g y an d m o rp h o lo g y ... 16
1.2.1 P h o n em ic u n i t s ... 16
1.2.2 S u p rase g m en ta l u n its ... 25
1.2.2.1 Syllable s tr u c t u r e ... 25
1.2.2.2 Foot and W ord s t r u c t u r e ... 30
1.2.3 M o r p h o lo g y ... 32 1.2.3.1 D eriv atio n al m o r p h o l o g y ... 32 1.2.3.2 Inflectional m o r p h o l o g y ... 33 N o u n s ... 33 A d je c tiv e s ... 35 V erbs ... 36 1.3 O p tim a lity T h e o r y ... 37 1.3.1 G en eral principles of O T ... 37 1.3.2 C o n s t r a i n t s ... 40 1.3.2.1 M a rk e d n e ss ... 40 1.3.2.2 F a ith fu ln e ss ... 43 1.3.2.3 A lig n m e n t ... 44 1.3.3 OT a n d the L e x ic o n ... 45
1.4 D isse rta tio n O u tlin e ... 46
1.4.1 C h a p te r o u t l i n e s ... 46
C h a p te r Two: S tru ctu re o f th e K a sh u b ia n O n s e t ... 46
C h a p te r Four: S tru ctu re of th e K ashubian N u cleu s ... 50
C h a p te r Two: STRUCTURE OF THE KASHUBIAN ONSET 2.0 In tro d u c tio n ... 52
2.1 Zero an d Prothetic o n s e ts ... 53
2.1.1 O nset-less w o rd s in Slavic ... 54
2.1.2 O nset-less w o rd s a n d p ro th e tic onsets in K a s h u b ia n ... 57
2.2 The C o n stitu en cy of C om plex O n s e ts ... 64
2.3 O n set - N u cleu s In teractio n ... 80
2.3.1 O n set-N u cleu s In teractio n in O T ... 81
2.3.2 A llophonic Place A ssim ilatio n in K a s h u b i a n ... 82
2.3.2.1 S econdary L a b ia liz a tio n ... 82
2.3.2.2 V elar-P alatal A l l o p h o n y ... 88
2.3.3 Palatal A llo m o rp h y in K a s h u b i a n ... 91
2.4 V oicing A ssim ilatio n in C o m p lex O n s e t s ... 102
2.4.1 R egressive v o icin g a s s i m i la tio n ... 103
2.4.2 P ro g ressiv e d e v o icin g ... 110
2.5 C h a p te r su m m a ry ... 114
C h a p te r Three: STRUCTURE OF TH E KASHUBIAN C O D A 3.0 In tro d u c tio n ... 116
3.1 C oda co n stitu en cy ... 116
3.1.1 W ord-final c o d a s ... 117
3.1.2 W o rd -m ed ial c o d a s ... 121
3.2 Final co d a s im p lic ity ... 126
3.2.1 Labial s im p lific a tio n ... 127
3.2.2 Final d e v o i c i n g ... 129
3.3 C h a p te r su m m a ry ... 132
C h a p te r Four: STRUCTURE OF TH E KASHUBIAN NUCLEU S 4.0 In tro d u c tio n ... 134
4.1 V ow el r a i s i n g ... 134
4.2 V ow el-Z ero a lte rn a tio n s ... 146
4.2.1 P revious A ccounts o f V ow el-Zero A lte rn a tio n ... 147
4.2.1.1 Yers as [+lax] v o w e l s ... 147
4.2.1.2 Vers as e p e n th e tic v o w e l s ... 147
4.2.1.3 Yers as e m p ty p o s i t i o n s ... 149
4.2.1.4 Yers as flo atin g m atrices ... 154
4.2.2 V o w el-Z ero A lte rn a tio n in K a s h u b ia n ... 157
4.2.2.1 C odas w ith rising sonority ... 160 4.2.2.3 Suffixes ... 162 4.2.2.4 P rep o sitio n s ... 164 4.2.2.5 P re fix e s... 169 4.2.2.6 D erived im perfective s t e m s ... 172 4.3 M in o r s y lla b le s ... 173 4.4 C h a p te r su m m a ry ... 174
APPENDIX; The K ashubian Syllable - E xp erim en tal E v i d e n c e ... 175
A C KN O W LED GEM EN TS
M any h av e b een th o se w h o have co n trib u ted , d ire c tly o r in d irectly , to the w ritin g of this thesis, a n d I w o u ld like to th an k them all. In d eed , they are so m an y th at it is n o t p o ssib le to n am e them all here, b u t I w o u ld like to m e n tio n som e w ho h av e m a d e a p articu larly sig n ifican t c o n trib u tio n .
A special c o n trib u tio n has been m ade by m y teachers of linguistics an d Slavic lan g u ag es. My first te ach er of linguistics, Geoff O 'G ra d y , sp a rk e d m y in te re st in this sub ject an d n u rtu re d it th ro u g h fu rth e r c o u rses in p h o n etics a n d c o m p a ra tiv e In d o -E u ro p e a n , la y in g the fo u n d a tio n for m y w o rk in form al linguistics. G u n te r S c h a arsc h m id t for his p a rt a w a k e n e d m e to the charm of the W est Slavic lan g u ag es and has alw ays serv ed as m y exam ple as a sch o lar of Slavic linguistics. It w as th an k s to G u n te r an d to T hom H ess th a t 1 re tu rn e d to the U n iv e rsity o f V ictoria L inguistics D e p a rtm e n t in 1989 a fte r s p e n d in g the 1980's e x p lo rin g d iffe re n t av en u es, a n d it w as B arry C arlso n w h o g u id ed m e th ro u g h m y M.A. thesis on K ashubian stre ss a n d e n co u rag ed m e to con tin u e on w ith d o cto ral stu d ie s at UVic. I am p a rtic u la rly g ratefu l to m y su p erv iso r Ew a C zay k o w sk a-H ig g in s, w hose th o ro u g h e x am in atio n o f m y w o rk a n d in siste n c e o n c la rity a n d c o m p le te n e ss h a s e n s u r e d th a t th is d issertatio n is of a calibre w o rth y of a doctoral deg ree from this university.
T hose w h o e n a b le d m e to re a c h flu en cy in th e P o lish la n g u a g e , w ith o u t w hich th e K a sh u b ia n la n g u a g e an d the c u ltu re in w h ic h it aro se are n ig h inaccessible, are d e se rv in g of special m ention. P a rtic u la r h o n o u r in this respect is d u e to m y w ife M aria, w h o w ith her d a u g h te r A gnieszk a let m e into h e r life, th u s a llo w in g m e to le arn w h a t 'W aw el' m ean s to a Pole, a n d w h o in tro d u c e d m e to th e K a sh u b ia n c u ltu re . T h a n k s are also d u e th e m a n y K ash u b ian s w h o h a v e re a ch e d o u t m e a n d o th e rs in te re ste d in le a rn in g the specific ch aracteristics o f th e ir la n g u ag e , in p a rtic u la r E u g e n iu sz G o l^b (e)k , w ho se p assio n for th e K a sh u b ia n lan g u ag e a n d c u ltu re h as b o rn e th e literary
fru its w h ic h have m ad e no sm all c o n trib u tio n to the rev iv al of interest in the K a sh u b ia n lan gu age in recent years.
Finally, th an k s is d u e to the m a n y p e o p le, b o th in sid e a n d o u tsid e of th e u n iv e rs itie s I h a v e a tte n d e d , w h o c o n trib u te d to m y in te lle ctu al an d s p iritu a l d e v e lo p m e n t th ro u g h d iscu ssio n a n d p re s e n ta tio n s of m any kinds, in p a rtic u la r m y professors an d fellow s tu d e n ts at th e u n iv ersities of Victoria, W ate rlo o , M an n h e im an d B ritish C o lu m b ia , m y Q u a k e r F rien d s, a n d my fellow m em b ers of the E speranto d iasp o ra. M y ro a d has been a w in d in g one, a n d th o u g h this has at tim es m ad e it d ifficu lt to see the goal (or even be sure th ere w as one) it h as m ade the journey all the m o re fascinating.
A /A cc A ccusative case TopC T opoliriska 1967
CS C o m m o n Slavic V oc V ocative case
D / Dat D ative case Is first p e rso n sin g u la r
d im d im in u tiv e form IP first p e rso n p lu ra l
f / fern fem inine g e n d e r 2s second p e rso n sin g u la r
for fo rm al 2p second p e rso n p lu ra l
fu t fu tu re tense 3s th ird p e rso n sin g u la r
G / Gen G enitive case 3p third p e rso n p lu ral
I / Ins In stru m e n ta l case
im im perfective aspect
im p im p e ra tiv e m o o d
in f in fo rm a l
in fin in fin itiv e
L / Loc Locative case
m / m asc m ascu lin e g e n d e r
m p m ascu lin e p e rso n a l
N / N orn N o m in a tiv e case n / n eu t n e u ter g e n d e r
o th n o n -m a s c u lin e -p e rs o n a l
Pf perfective aspect
pi p lu ra l
ppa p ast particip le active
PPP p ast p articip le passive
Pr p re s e n t/n o n - p a s t tense Pt p ast tense sg s in g u la r Sob Sobierajski 1964 SSG S o no rity S eq u en cin g G e n e ra liz a tio n
Guide to Kashubian Orthography
colum n 1 = p h on etic realization (IPAl^
colu m n 2 = re p r esen ta tio n u sed in th is d isse rta tio n column 3 = representation used in the AJK
colum n 4 = o tfid a l K ashubian orthography (as o t M ay 1995)
oral stops fricatives affricates
P P P P f f f f Pi P' P Pl- t) fi f fi-b b b b V V w bj b' b bi- Vj v' V w i-t t t t s s s s ts c c c d d d d z z z z dz 3 3 dz J s s 5Z g'/fd c/c c /k cz 3 z z z 4 / ^ 3 § dz k k k k X X X ch 0 g 0 0 0 0 0
nasal stops liquids elides
m m m m w
\
\
i i i jm j m i m m i 1
[
1 1 w w — ' / wn n n ll r r r r
ri n n i/ n ^ 3 P r rz
hieh (oral) vowels mid oral vowels low oral vowels
i i i i/y " e é é é 0/ 3 à à ô y / u u u u E e e e a a a a a 3 3 ë 0 6 6 Ô nasal vowels 3 0 0 0 Ô Ô à à Q ? a à Notes 1 = T h e b a s ic d ia l e c t a l d i v i s i o n of N o r t h , C e n t r a l a n d S o u t h K a s h u b i a n is re f le c te d in the fact t h a t t h e r e f l e x e s o f p r e - f r o n t a f f r i c a t i o n o f / k / a n d / g / a r e [y'l a n d [ c%| in C e n t r a l K a s h u b i a n , b u t [tcj a n d [ d ? | in a d j a c e n t S o u th a n d N o r t h K a s h u b i a n d i a l e c t s a n d [k'| and [g] in a f e w c o a s t a l v i l l a g e s ; th e r e f le x e s o f V e l a r P a l a t a l i z a t i o n I a r e [ y'| a n d [ 3 ] in all d i a l e c t s . C u t t i n g a c r o s s th e N o r t h - S o u t h d i v i s i o n is a d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n c o n s e r v a t i v e G e n u i n e K a s h u b i a n A a n d i n n o v a tiv e G e n u i n e K a s h u b i a n B (To p o lirisk a 1974:129). In GK.A d ia le c ts / a, u / a r e r e a lize d a s [o, u|, b u t in GKB d ia le c ts as [o, yj.
2 = P a l a t a l i z a t i o n o f la b ia l s is m a r k e d b y a < i> u n l e s s th e f o l l o w i n g v o w e l is / i / , in w h ic h c a s e p a l a t a l i z a t i o n is n o t m a r k e d .
3 = Both / V/' a n d / f / a r e fricatives d e r i v e d fro m so n o rants, b u t / f / is p la c e d w i t h the so no r a n ts b e c a u s e it a l t e r n a t e s w i t h / r / ; / f / h a s lost its rh o tic e l e m e n t o n ly re c e n tly a n d is p r o b a b l y still d i s t i n c t f ro m / z / p h o n o l o g i c a l l y , if n o t p h o n e t i c a l l y .
4 = T h e p r e s e n c e o f a la b ial g l i d e o n s e t to / o / a n d / u / is m a r k e d b y a g r a v e a c c e n t w h e n a c o n s o n a n t p r e c e d e s a n d by <nv> w o rd - in it ia l ly .
5 - T h e p r e p a l a t a l i z e d nasal is r e p r e s e n t e d as < n i> b e f o r e a v o w e l, w h e r e b y a f o llo w in g / i / is n o t g i v e n s e p a r a t e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , a n d a s <ri> b e f o r e a c o n s o n a n t o r w o r d - f i n a l l y .
I N D E X O F C O N S T R A IN T S F irst d e f in e d in # C o r r e s p o n d e n c e c o n s tr a in ts Dep ... 28 De p(Subseg) PH 111 E x p lic it R e p r e s e n t a t io n (E x p R e p ) ph 169 Id e n t( F ) ... 28 Id e n t(La r y n g e a l) ... 102 Id e n tOn s(La r) ... 103 Id e n t(Sec) PH 130 Id e n tOn s(Sec) PH 128 Id e n t(V Pl a c e) PH 47 Ma x ... 28 Ma x( Su b seg) ... 74 M a x - |i ... PH 150 Wt-Id e n t i t y... 147 F e a tu r a l M a r k e d n e s s c o n s t r a in t s ’"Co r o n a l... 40 ■"Do r s a l... 40 ■"La b i a l... 40 *La r ... 102 ■"PjC ...PH 8 7 ■"Sec ... PH 127 *Sec(Co r) ... PH 71 "TjC ... PH 93 " V S /Co r . . : ...PH 79 ■"VS-f r o n t...PH 78 ■"H/CONSONANT ... 152 ♦ 2 S e c ...P H 73 L a r y n g e a l C o n s t r a i n t ...ph i o 5 N o Lo n g Vo w e l s... 148 P r o g r e s s iv e D e v o i c i n g ...ph n o So n o r a n t Default ... 107 P r o s o d ic M a r k e d n e s s c o n s tr a in ts ^Co m p l e x... 24
*SC)...
=1:3
Ag r e e... 104 C V -Li n k... 45 Ex h a u s t i v i t y... 56 FtBin ... 26 No-Co d a... 25 N u c ... 25O C P[-cont] ... 53 OCP[+cont] ... 53 On s e t... 25 POSS-MAR(rtOns)... 25 Po s s- On se t: R u s s ia n ... 56 POSS-NUC(71>Juc) ... 25 RhTy p e= T ... 26
S onority S eq u en cin g G e n era liz a tio n (SSG) ... 55
A lig n m e n t c o n stra in ts Alig n-L ... 36 Al ig n- R ... 116 Al ig n- Wd-Left ... 30 Al ig n- Wd-Ri g h t... 30 O th er p h o n o lo g ical c o n stra in t *SiRUC ... 23 M orp h o lo g ical c o n stra in t
SubCa tPal ...PH 85
to my patient father and
my dear mother wfio couCd not zvait
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1.0 Introduction
The stu d y of the Slavic languages is ch aracterized by a stro n g trad itio n of ex am in in g d ialectal d iv ersity a n d the historical d e v e lo p m e n t of so u n d s in the Slavic lan g u ag es. In ad d itio n , linguists w o rk in g o n Slavic lan g u ag es have long been in te re ste d in the role of speech so u n d s as u n its w ith in th e so u n d sy stem (e.g. the p io n e erin g w o rk of de C o u rte n ay , K ru sze w sk i, T ru b etzk o y and Jakobson as d iscu ssed in A n d erso n 1985) as w ell as in the in teractio n of p h o n o lo g y w ith m o rp h o lo g y , as rep resen ted by su ch m o n o g ra p h s as Halle (1959), G u ssm a n n (1980), R ubach (1 9 84 ,1993a) and S zpyra (1989).
T hese tw o tra d itio n s, h o w e v er, rarely m eet. W hile d e sc rip tio n s of Slavic d ia le c to lo g y a n d h is to ric a l d e v e lo p m e n t g e n e r a lly lim it th e ir d iscu ssio n o f sy ste m ic in te ra c tio n to an in v e n to ry o f p h o n e m e s, s tu d ie s of b ro a d e r p h o n o lo g ic a l p rin c ip le s h av e g e n e ra lly lim ite d th e ir sc o p e to d iscu ssio n of th e Slavic lite ra ry lan g u ag es a n d e v en h e re , o n ly s tu d ie s of R ussian a n d P o lish p h o n o lo g y h a v e been p u b lish e d in a n y n u m b e r for an in te rn a tio n a l (non-Slavic) re a d e rsh ip .
T h is s tu d y aim s to p a rtia lly re d re ss th is s itu a tio n b y p re s e n tin g a p h o n o lo g ical an aly sis of a lesser k n o w n Slavic la n g u ag e , K ash u b ian .i W here a p p ro p ria te , co m p ariso n s w ith o th e r Slavic lang u ag es are m ad e. In this w ay, k n o w le d g e a b o u t in te ra ctio n s in the K ash u b ian p h o n o lo g ic a l sy stem w ill be
1 The English spelling Cassubian is also found, most significantly in Lorentz, Fischer & Lehr-Sptawiriski (1935) and Stone (1972, 1993).
th e o th e r Slavic lan g u ag es gained.
P re v io u s s tu d ie s of Slavic la n g u a g e s h a v e s h o w n th em to h a v e a stro n g in te ra ctio n b etw een v a rio u s p h o n o lo g ical su b sy ste m s, su ch as syllable s tru c tu re a n d stress, as w ell as b e tw e e n p h o n o lo g y a n d m o rp h o lo g y . This seem s to be th e case for K ash u b ia n as w ell. As a re su lt, I h av e chosen to p re s e n t m y an aly sis w ith in the fram e w o rk of O p tim a lity T h eo ry , w hich has s h o w n itse lf to be p a rtic u la rly w e ll-s u ite d to c h a ra c te riz in g in te ra c tio n b e tw e e n v a rio u s linguistic system s. I also h o p e to c o n trib u te to the d e v elo p m e n t of O p tim a lity T heory in exem p lify in g h o w th e d iffe re n t p o sitio n in g of c ertain co n strain ts can ex p lain dialectal variation: this n eed s to be done if this a n a ly sis is to h old an y v a lid ity for the la n g u a g e as a w h o le, since no one sp o k e n d ia le c t of K a sh u b ia n is g e n e ra lly c o n sid e re d re p re se n ta tiv e of the lan g u ag e, a lth o u g h a literary dialect w ith loose n o rm s based p rim arily on the C e n tra l K ash u b ian dialects w as d e v elo p e d at the b e g in n in g of the 1900's an d h a s h a d p ed ag o g ical g ra m m a rs (L orentz 1919, W o siak -ô liw a & C ybulski 1992) w ritte n for it a n d m ajor w o rk s of lite ra tu re , d o c u m e n te d in D rz ez d z o n (1973, 1986) a n d N e u reiter (1973, 1991), w ritte n in it.
1.1 The K ashubian language: prelim inaries
In this section, the p re s e n t s tu d y is c o n te x tu a liz e d b y p ro v id in g basic in fo rm a tio n a b o u t the la n g u ag e v a rie ty stu d ie d , a n d in p a rtic u la r its affilia tio n w ith o th e r Slavic la n g u ag e s a n d its in tern al d iv isio n s. F ollow ing this is
1.1.1 A d efin ition of K ashubian
G en etically , the K ash u b ia n dialects b elo n g to th e L ekhitic b ra n c h of W est Slavic a n d c o n stitu te th e c o n tin u a tio n of th o se d ia le cts of P o m eran ian sp o k en on th e e a s te rn m o s t p e rip h e ry , w h ere the d ialects of P o m e ra n ia n m et those of Polish. P o m eran ian itself con stitu tes a series o f d ialects in term ed iate betw een the W est Lekhitic dialects of Polabian an d th e East Lekhitic dialects of Polish, w ith few d e fin in g characteristics of its o w n (M ajow a 1978). O v er the c en tu ries, all s p e a k e rs o f P o m e ra n ia n d ialects o th e r th a n K a sh u b ia n w ere lin g u istically a ssim ila te d b y G erm an colonizers, a n d th e K a sh u b ia n s tu rn ed in c re asin g ly to th e P o lish c u ltu ra l s p h e re for s u p p o r t. As a re su lt, the K ash u b ian d ialects, a lre a d y sh a rin g m an y featu res w ith P o lish , h av e been extensively p o lo n ized , p a rtic u la rly the so u th -e aste rn d ialects b o rd e rin g on the territo ries of tra d itio n a l P olish dialects.
A lth o u g h sig n ific a n t d ifferen ces rem ain b e tw e e n m o d e m K ash u b ian an d the Polish s ta n d a rd la n g u ag e , such th a t a s p e a k e r of P olish can u n d e r sta n d Slovak m o re easily th a n som e dialects of K a sh u b ia n (Breza 1994), the p ro x im ity of K a sh u b ia n to P o lish , co m b in ed w ith th e lo n g s tru g g le of the Polish n atio n for s u rv iv a l as a political en tity , m akes th e q u e stio n of w h eth er K ash u b ian is a P olish d ia le c t o r m erely a close re la tiv e o f th e P olish dialect co m p lex a su b jectiv e one. T rad itio n ally , Polish lin g u is ts h a v e in sisted th at K a sh u b ia n is ju st a P o lish d ia le ct (D ejna 1992), b u t m a n y S lav ists o u tsid e
D u lid e n k o 1994). This la tte r p o sitio n h a s also g a in ed g ro u n d in P o lan d in recent y ears, w ith an increasing a g re em e n t th at K a sh u b ia n s' insistence on the d istin ctn ess of th e ir lan g u ag e from Polish (M ajew icz 1986) a n d the su b stan tial b o d y of lite ra tu re w ritte n in K ash u b ian (P riestly 1997: 376) justifies calling K ash u b ian a sep a ra te language. This is also the p o sitio n a d o p te d here.
W ith in the K ash u b ian linguistic a rea th ere is g re a t d ialectal d iversity. W o rk in g a t the tu rn of th e c en tu ry , L o ren tz (1925) id e n tifie d 76 d istin c t K a sh u b ia n d ialects, g ro u p e d into the d iv isio n s sh o w n in m ap 1: m o st of these a re still ex tan t. E xtensive field w o rk a n d an aly sis by th e team w o rk in g on the A f K (see section 1.1.2.1) in the 1950's an d 1960's led to the identification of th re e m a cro -d ia lec ta l regions: the S o u th , C e n tra l a n d N o rth K ash u b ian d ia le ct g ro u p s (H a n d k e 1978).2 O f these, the S o u th K ash u b ia n dialects have the few est n o n -P o lish featu res, the C en tral K ash u bian d ia le cts have the m ost sp e a k e rs a n d c o n stitu te the basis for m o st v a ria n ts of lite ra ry K ashubian (see H o p k in s 1997), w h ile the N o rth K ash u b ia n g ro u p h as th e g re a te st in tern al d iv e rsity . As m u c h of th is d iv e rsity is q u ite re c en t - sin ce th e e ig h te en th c en tu ry (T opoliriska 1974) - this d isse rta tio n co n cen trates on the phonological featu res co m m o n to m ost dialects o f K ash u b ian , a cco u n tin g for those features w ith a m o re lim ite d d is trib u tio n w h e re th is d o e s n o t re q u ire e x ten siv e e la b o ra tio n .
2 The AJK researchers actually recognize six macrodialectal regions, dividing Central Kashubian into two subgroups, one in the w est and one in the east, and Southern Kashubian into South-West and South-East Kashubian (Handke 1978:167).
T o w n s/v illa g e s m entioned in this dissertation; a = Siavvoszyno b = Bojano c = Dobrzevvino d = C h w a szc zv n o e = Kack VVielki t = O strzv ce N o rth K ash u b ian : I S lo v in c ia n g - Kluki G = Gdarisk rn N o rth e a st K ash u b ian
II N o rth w e st K ash u b ian IV East K ashubian S o u th K ash u b ian :
V P rzed k o w o dialect IX Sulçczyno d ialect XIII S outh Z ab o ria n VI C en tral K ash u b ian X K a sh u b ia n -Z ab o rian X IV S o u th w e st K ash u b ian VII S o u th east K ash u b ian XI Parchow o d ialect XV K o ciew ian -Z ab o rian VIII W est K ash u b ian XII N o rth Z ab o ria n
T his s e c tio n p re s e n ts w h a t m ig h t be c o n s id e re d th e m ile sto n e s of resea rc h in to th e K ash u b ian lan g u age, fo llo w ed by a b rie f d iscu ssio n of the m ain so u rc es o f d a ta u sed in this investigation.
1.1.2.1 The m ilesto n es o f research into the K ashubian langu age
A lth o u g h th e scientific stu d y of K ash u b ian h as b e en traced back to the w o rk o f th e S e rb ia n sc h o la r Karl G ottlob v o n A n to n in th e late eig h te en th c e n tu ry (P o p o w sk a -T a b o rsk a 1980), the first p u b lis h e d p re s e n ta tio n of any asp ect of th e K ash u b ian lan g u ag e is th at of K rzy szto f C elesty n M ro n g ow iu sz (1823). T his sm all lexicon in c lu d e d m an y K a sh u b ia n te rm s, a lth o u g h it is d iffic u lt to s e p a ra te th e m o u t from the m a n y s ta n d a r d P o lish a n d Polish d ia le cta l te rm s also listed . The book c a u g h t th e a tte n tio n of th e scientific c o m m u n ity a n d p a rtic u la rly th a t of the R u ssian A c ad e m y o f Sciences in St. P etersb u rg , w h ic h sen t first Piotr Prejs in 1840 a n d th e n A le k sa n d r H ilferding in 1856 to co llect m ore in fo rm atio n abo u t K ash u bian .
T h e re s u ltin g re p o rt o f H ilfe rd in g (1862), w h o w a s a id e d in his in v e stig a tio n b y the first in d ig e n o u s re p o rte r o n th e K a sh u b ia n lan g u ag e, F lo rian C e y n o w a , w as th e first w id ely d is trib u te d re p o rt o n th e K ash u b ian la n g u ag e a n d in c lu d e d b o th texts from v a rio u s K a sh u b ia n d ia le cts as w ell as an ex ten siv e g lo ssary .
F lo ria n C e y n o w a w a s a m ed ical d o c to r fro m th e c o a s ta l v illage of
S la w o szy n o w h o , h a v in g b eco m e a cq u a in te d w ith th e le a d e rs o f th e C zech a n d S o rb ian re v iv a l m o v e m e n ts d u rin g h is s tu d ie s in W ro c la w (1841-1843),
W hile n o t p a rtic u la rly su ccessfu l, h is effo rts d id lead to the p u b lic a tio n of m a n y te x ts in a n d a b o u t K a sh u b ia n , in c lu d in g th e first g ra m m a tic a l d escrip tio n of a K ashubian dialect (C eynow a 1879).
T he 1880's b ro u g h t in v estig atio n s of K ash u b ian by Polish lin g uists such as A lfo n s P arczew sk i, Jozef L ^ g o w s k i a n d S te fa n R am u lt: of p a rtic u la r im p o rta n c e is the la tte r's K a sh u b ia n -P o lish d ic tio n a ry (R a m u lt 1893, 1993), w h ic h w ith o v e r 18,000 key w o rd s w as six tim es la rg e r th a n th e m o st ex ten siv e K ashu b ian g lo ssary p re v io u sly p u b lish e d (B iskupski 1891) an d w on the P olish A cadem y of Sciences' S. B. Linde lex ico g rap h y co m p etitio n s in 1889 (p art 1) an d 1898 (p art 2).3
In 1896, the G erm an sch o lar F riedrich L o ren tz b egan a fo rty -y ear career of re s e a rc h o n K a sh u b ia n . C o n c e rn e d w ith th e d w in d lin g n u m b e r of s p e a k e rs of th e S lo v in cia n d ia le c ts a n d u n d e r th e im p re s sio n th a t th ey re fle c te d th e P o m e ra n ia n p ro to -la n g u a g e m o re fa ith fu lly th a n th e o th e r K ash u b ian d ialects - his early claim (L orentz 1902) th a t Slovincian rep resen ts a v a rie ty of S lavic d istin c t fro m K a sh u b ia n w a s la te r a b a n d o n e d (L o ren tz 1925) a n d h as b een sh o w n b y S zu ltk a (1992) to rest on a m is a p p lic a tio n of e th n o n y m s by early n in e te en th c e n tu ry research ers - L o ren tz first d irected his a tte n tio n to th ese d ialects, p ro d u c in g a d e tailed g ra m m a r (L orentz 1903) an d
3 For reasons discussed by Halina Horodyska in section four (pp. xii-xviii) of her introduction to Ramult (1993), the manuscript for part two of Ram ult's dictionary was not published immediately but rather filed in the Academy of Science's archives where it stayed for over ninety years until it was rediscovered and published by Horodyska.
tu rn e d his a tte n tio n to th e o th e r K ashubian d ialects, p ro d u c in g m any articles and books on K ash u b ian in c lu d in g historical stu d ie s (L o ren tz 1905-06, 1925), the m ost ex ten siv e g ra m m a r of K ashubian yet w ritte n (L o ren tz 1927-37), and the first v o lu m e of a d e tailed K ashubian d ictio n ary (L orentz 1958).
A tte n tio n to K a sh u b ia n on the p a rt of P o lish lin g u is ts c o n tin u e d d u rin g the early years of this cen tu ry , p a rtic u la rly in the w o rk of dialecto- logists su ch as K azim ierz N itsch and c o m p arativ e S lav ists s u c h as T ad eu sz L e h r-S p la w iris k i, b u t it w as o n ly after the e n d of WVVII th a t research on K ashubian tru ly flo u rish ed. It w as then th at the In stitu te fo r Slavic Studies of the Polish A cadem y of Sciences u n d e rto o k to p u b lish a lin g u istic atlas d o c u m en tin g the state of K ash u b ian . Based on field d a ta co llected b etw een 1954 an d 1961, th e L in g u istic A tla s o f the Kashubian a nd N e ig h b o u rin g Dialects (AJK) p ro v id e s d e ta ile d d o c u m e n ta tio n of the fo rm s o f K a sh u b ia n w o rd s found in the v a rio u s d ialects, a n d the research ers in v o lv e d in its p ro d u c tio n h a v e g o n e o n to p u b lis h m a n y a rtic le s on K a sh u b ia n , b o th w ith in the c o m m e n ta ry to th e AJK a n d elsew h ere. Tw o w h o se w o rk is of p a rtic u la r im p o rtan ce are H an n a P o p o w sk a-T ab orsk a an d Z u z a n n a Topoliriska.-f
O v e r th e p a s t fo rty y ears, H an n a P o p o w sk a -T a b o rsk a h a s p ro d u c e d n u m e ro u s s tu d ie s on th e K ash u b ian language. H e r s tu d y o f th e K ash u b ian
■* Other members of the AJK editorial team with separate publications on Kashubian
include Kwiryna H andke, Ewa Rzetelska-Feleszko {née Kam inska), M atgorzata
Korytkowska, Jadwiga Majowa, Ewa Mastowska, Janusz Siatkowski, Zdzistaw Stieber, Elzbieta Wroctawska, Jadwiga Zawadzka and Jadwiga Zieniukowa (compare Handke et al 1978:359 with Treder 1991).
from w o rk on the AJK. She to o k o v e r the p o sitio n o f AJK h e a d e d ito r from Z d z ista w Stieber as of v o lu m e seven. H er extensive research o n K ashubian is reflected b o th in h er w id ely d is trib u te d su rv e y of re sea rc h on this la n g u ag e (P o p o w sk a-T ab o rsk a 1980) a n d in h e r n u m e ro u s articles, m a n y of w h ich are collected in P o p o w sk a-T a b o rsk a (1987). A c o m m o n th re a d to m ost of this w o rk is P o p o w sk a -T a b o rsk a 's in te re st in the d iv e rs ity a n d o rig in of the K a sh u b ia n lexicon, c u lm in a tin g in the p u b lic a tio n , in c o lla b o ra tio n w ith W ie sla w Borys, of a stu d y d e v o te d to c o m p a rin g th e lexicon of K ash u bian w ith th a t of o th e r Slavic la n g u ag e s (P o p o w sk a-T ab o rsk a & Borys 1996) and the K ashubian Etym ological D ictionary (Borys & P o p o w sk a-T ab o rsk a 1994ff).
Z u z a n n a T opoliriska w as also am o n g those w h o laid the g ro u n d w o rk for the AJK. H er w o rk differs from th a t of P o po w sk a-T ab o rsk a, h o w ev er, in a n u m b e r of w ays. First, T o p o lirisk a has b een m u c h m ore in te re ste d in the p h o n o lo g y of K ashubian, bo th in term s of c o n tem p o rary p a tte rn s (1958, 1966, 1967, 1969) an d th eir origins (1964, 1974). Second, w hile P o p o w sk a-T ab o rsk a's p u b lic a tio n s are alm o st ex clu siv ely in P olish (72 of 77 item s listed in T red e r 1991), T o p o lirisk a h a s n u m e ro u s p u b lic a tio n s o n K a s h u b ia n w ritte n in la n g u ag e s o th e r th a n Polish, in c lu d in g a m o n o g ra p h (1974) a n d fo u r articles
in E n g lish . T o p o lirisk a's g re a te r e n g a g e m e n t w ith the n o n -P o lish -sp e a k in g w o rld is also reflected in h e r a tte m p ts to go b e y o n d a m e re p re s e n ta tio n of basic p h o n e m e s a n d altern atio n s in d escrib in g K ash u b ian p h o n o lo g y . T his is p a rtic u la rly the case in T opoliriska (1974), w h e re all p h o n e m e s a n d ru le s of
ch an g e are d e fin e d in te rm s of d istin ctiv e featu res, e n a b lin g h e r to refer to c h a n g e in a n u m b e r o f p h o n e m e s w ith re fe re n c e to a s in g le fe a tu re . U n fo rtu n ately , the a n aly sis su ffers from b ein g o v erly ab stract, b o th in term s of rule form ulation^ a n d fe a tu re s,6 an d , like o th er an aly ses u sin g linear rules, is unable to express fe a tu re -sh a rin g in a n o n -a rb itrary m arm er. F u rth er w o rk on K ash u b ian p h o n o lo g y m ay w ell have led to m ore u p d a te d analyses,^ b u t T opoliriska's d u tie s as h ead of the Polish A cadem y of Sciences' In stitu te of the C o n te m p o ra ry Polish L an g u ag e - from 1975 - (U rbariczyk 1994: 358) an d h er e x te n siv e w o rk on M ac e d o n ian ^ h av e re su lte d in no m o re p u b lic a tio n s d ed icated to K ash u b ian com ing from her p en since T opoliriska (1980).
As n o te d above, the K ash u b ian s them selves h a v e b een e n g a g e d in the scientific s tu d y of th e ir la n g u ag e from the m id n in e te e n th c en tu ry . For the m ost p a rt, th e ir e n e rg ie s h a v e b e e n d e v o te d to e x p lo rin g K a sh u b ia n as a m eans of ex p ressio n in lite ra tu re , b u t som e d escrip tiv e a n d p re scrip tiv e w o rk on the lan g u ag e itself has also b een p u b lish ed by K ashubians.
The m o st extensive p u re ly descriptive stu d y of a n y a sp e c t of K ash u bian
5 Rules in Topoliriska (1974) are formulated purely in term of features, making it difficult at times to determine exactly which segments are being spoken of.
6 Topoliriska uses acoustic features such as [flat], [grave], [compact] and [mellow] which have generally been abandoned by generative linguists in favour of articulatorily based features. And while Topoliriska (1974:25) may be correct in assuming that one set of independently justified distinct features is theoretically as good as another in a historical description, translation between the acoustic and articulatory feature systems is difficult enough to deter all but the most persistent contemporary reader.
7 In her last article known to mention Kashubian (1985), Topoliriska uses articulatory features exclusively.
8 Topoliriska has co-authored a dictionary of M acedonian (Pianka, Topoliriska & Vidoeski 1990), has held the Polish chair at the Cyril & M ethodius University in Skopje since 1983 and is a corresponding member of the Macedonian Academy of Sciences.
by a K ash u b ian is S ychta's (1967ff) sev e n v o lu m e d ic tio n a ry of the K ashubian d ia le c ts , w h ic h - u n lik e all o th e r K a s h u b ia n d ic tio n a rie s - d e riv e s g re a t a u th o rity n o t o n ly becau se of its e x ten siv en ess, b u t also because it lists only w o rd s a tte ste d in sp o k en K ash u b ian a n d re c o rd ed by Sychta h im self d u rin g d e ca d e s of field w ork. Sychta (1967ff) c o n stitu tes the basis for fu rth er lexico g ra p h ic w o rk , in c lu d in g R o claw sk i's (1991) index a tergo a n d the K ash u b ian E tym ological D ictionary (Borys & P o p o w sk a-T ab o rsk a I994ff).
A n im p o rta n t c en tre for re se a rc h by K a sh u b ia n s on K ash u b ian has b e en the U n iv e rsity of G d a n sk 's In s titu te of P olish P hilo lo g y , led since the 1970's by E d w a rd B reza a n d Jerzy T re d e r, from th e S o u th a n d N o rth K a s h u b ia n s p e a k in g a re a s re s p e c tiv e ly . W h ile b o th h a v e m a d e th e ir in d iv id u a l c o n trib u tio n s to the s tu d y of K ash u b ian , B reza w ith 44 articles liste d in T re d e r (1991) a n d T re d e r w ith tw o m o n o g ra p h s on K a sh u b ia n p h ra seo lo g y (1986, 1989), an d 54 articles listed in T red e r (1991), p e rh a p s th eir g re a te s t c o n trib u tio n h a s b e en in p ro m o tin g th e u se o f th e K a sh u b ia n la n g u a g e as p ro o f re a d e rs , e d ito r s ,9 re v ie w e rs , te a c h e rs a n d w rite rs of referen ce w o rk s for the w riters of K a s h u b i a n . to The la tte r in clu d e their style g u id e (B reza & T re d e r 1984) d e sc rib in g th e o rth o g ra p h ic n o rm for lite ra ry
9 Breza edited the proceedings of a conference on the status of Kashubian (Breza 1992), and Labuda's (1982) Kashubian-Polish dictionary. Treder edited the Polish Hilferding translation (1990), Kamowski's Ceynowa biography (1997), Grucza's Gospel translation (1992a), the proceedings of the second Slovincian Conference (Treder 1992), and both the Labuda (1981) and Trepczyk (1994) Polish-Kashubian dictionaries.
10 Treder has recently taken on an even more active role in the development of literary Kashubian, providing the Kashubian text for all chapters of Borzyszkowski, Mordawsld & Treder (1999), a bilingual general reference w ork on Kashubian history, geography, language and literature.
K ash u b ian w h ich h a d official sta tu s from 1974 to 1995,^1 a n d th eir g ra m m a r of K a sh u b ia n (B reza & T re d e r 1981) w h ic h m eets th e n e e d s of th e n o n lin g u ist K ash u b ian w rite r b u t also contains m uch of in te re st to the linguist.
In a d d itio n to the d escrip tiv e w o rk of K ash u b ian academ ics, d escrip tiv e w o rk is also b e in g d o n e b y n o n -lin g u ists w o rk in g for a re in v ig o ra tio n of K ash u b ian . Both A le x a n d e r L ab u d a, w h o se sm all d ic tio n a rie s (1960, 1981, 1982) list on ly th o se K a sh u b ia n w o rd s d iffe re n t in form from th e ir P olish co g nates, a n d Jan T repczy k , w h o se tw o v o lu m e P o lish -K ash u b ian d ictio n a ry atte m p ts to gloss m o st Polish w o rd s an d in cludes m an y ex em p lify in g ph rases, co m p iled th eir d ic tio n a rie s p rim a rily w ith the in te n tio n of p ro v id in g a tool for w riters of K ash u b ian . A ssistin g w rite rs of K ash u bian is also the p rim a ry aim of E u g en iu sz C o lg b e k 's (1997) style g uid e, w h ich goes far bey o n d Breza & T red e r (1984) in its a b u n d a n c e of d eclen sio n al a n d c o n ju g atio n al p a ra d ig m s, ex ten siv e d iscu ssio n o f th e re la tio n b e tw ee n w ritte n a n d sp o k en form s, an d c o p io u s e x a m p le s o f th e u se o f v a rio u s K a sh u b ia n affixes; fu rth e rm o re , G ol^bek (1997) is o n ly th e seco n d p resen ta tio n of K ash u b ian g ra m m a r w ritten in K ashubian, as p o in te d o u t by the re v ie w er Breza (1998). G ol^bek also has m o re th a n the lin g u is tic n e e d s of w rite rs in m in d . W ell a w a re th a t if K ash u b ian is to s u rv iv e , th e re m u s t be m a te ria ls a v a ila b le to h e lp p e o p le learn K ash u b ian as a sec o n d la n g u ag e , h e has p u b lish e d a K ash u b ian -P o lish
11 An Orthography Commission established by the Kashubian-Pomeranian Association and chaired by Breza accepted this orthography in 1974 as the standard which all writers should use in writing Kashubian, revising it in 1981. Many writers refused to use this orthography, however, and finally a new official standard was agreed on in 1995 which seems, so far, to be respected by all writers.
p h rase b o o k (G ol^bek 1992). A so m ew h a t m ore a cad em ic a p p ro a c h to this sam e goal is ta k en b y W osiak-Sliw a & C y b u lsk i (1992), th e first pedagogical g ra m m a r of K a sh u b ia n for Poles.
W hile m o st research on K ashubian d u rin g th e p a s t fifty years has been d o n e in P o la n d , im p o r ta n t c o n trib u tio n s h a v e also b e e n m a d e by som e foreign sch o lars. F o rem o st a m o n g these is the G e rm a n s c h o la r Friedhelm H inze, w h o took on the gigantic task of com pleting L o ren tz's (1958) dictionary of P o m eran ian , an d is a re g u la r co n trib u to r of articles on K ash u b ian (47 listed in T red er (1991)), in p a rtic u la r to the journal Zeitschrift fi ir Slaivistik.
It s h o u ld n o t be s u rp ris in g th a t a n u m b e r of lin g u is ts from Slavic n atio n s h a v e sh o w n in te re st in K ashubian. T red e r (1994b) d iscu sses research by a n u m b e r of C zech scholars in terested in K ashubian, in p a rtic u la r Jan Petr. A m o n g sc h o la rs fro m th e fo rm er S oviet U n io n , th e U k ra in ia n A le k sa n d r D u lid en k o h as w o n w id e reco g n itio n b o th by activ ely fo ste rin g k n o w led g e a b o u t K a sh u b ia n in the co n tex t of his research on "lite ra ry m ic ro la n g u a g es" (D ulitîenko 1981, 1994) a n d also th ro u g h his im p o rta n t c o n trib u tio n s to the h isto ry of research o n K ash u b ian (DuliCenko 1996, 1997).
D iscu ssio n of K ash u b ian b y E n g lish -sp eak in g S lavists h a s larg ely been lim ited to c o m p a riso n s w ith o th e r Slavic lan g u ag es, b u t so m e b o o k c h ap te rs an d m o n o g ra p h s d e d ic a te d to K ashubian have also a p p e a re d . G erald S tone's c h ap te r o n K ash u b ia n in the C om rie & C orb ett su rv e y of the Slavic lan g u ag es (Stone 1993), fo r e x a m p le , is th e m o st ex ten siv e d e s c rip tio n o f K ash u b ia n g ra m m a r p u b lis h e d in E n g lish to d a te, a n d th e c h a p te r o n K a sh u b ia n in
B aerm an (1999) n o t o n ly g iv es a d e ta ile d d e sc rip tio n of K a sh u b ia n stress p a tte rn s (fo llo w in g L o ren tz 1925) b u t also seem s to be th e first p u b lish e d an aly sis of K ash u b ia n in g e n e ra tiv e p h o n o lo g y (see sectio n 1.2.2.2). Tw o m o n o g ra p h s on K ash u b ian h av e b e en p u b lish e d in A m erica a n d are w id ely accessible, P erk o w sk i's (1969) d escrip tio n of the idiolect of a seco n d -gen eratio n K ashubian in W isconsin a n d Stokof's (1973) d e sc rip tio n of the p h o n o lo g y and m o rp h o lo g y of the (now extinct) K luki d ialect of Slovincian.
1.1.2.2 Sources and form o f data used in this dissertation
G iven the g reat dialectal d iv e rsity w ith in K ash u b ian , it is im p o rta n t to be clear a b o u t w hich v ariety of the lan g u ag e is being d escrib ed here. D ue to its accessib ility a n d re p re se n ta tiv e n a tu re , I h av e ch o sen to focus on lite ra ry K ashubian as described in C ofqbek (1997).
W here the w ritte n form p ro v id e s o n ly lim ited in fo rm a tio n a b o u t the facts of K ash u bian p h o n o lo g y in areas su ch as voicing assim ilatio n , exam ples are d ra w n from d ialect texts, in p a rtic u la r Sobierajski (1964) a n d Topoliriska (1967), o rig in atin g in o r n e a r the village of C h w aszczy n o , th e h o m e village of E u g e n iu s z G o t^b ek , from w h o se w o rk s m o st o f m y e x a m p le s are d ra w n . These dialects - like the C en tral K ash u b ian dialects, w ith w h ic h T opoliriska (1967) g ro u p s them - re p re se n t in term s of p h o n o lo g y a n d lexicon a c ertain c o m p ro m ise b e tw e e n the ex tre m es of N o rth a n d S o u th K a sh u b ia n a n d are am o n g the core dialects o n w h ich literary K ash u b ian is b ased . F u rth erm o re , a s u b sta n tia l a m o u n t o f w ritte n m a te ria l h a s o rig in a te d in th is a re a, th a n k s
co lu m n p u b lish e d m o n th ly in Pomerania for five y ears, a K ashubian-P olish p h ra se b ook (1992), a style g u id e (1997), an d th ree e x h a u stiv e ly scru tin ized a n d w id e ly d is trib u te d tra n sla tio n s co n stitu tin g the b asic texts of liturgical K ashubian to d ay (G ol^bek 1993 a n d 1999) and C o lq b ek & P ryczkow ski (1999). As one of the few books d o c u m en tin g the au th en tic v o c ab u la ry of K ashubian w ith c o n sis te n t m a rk in g o f p rim a ry stre ss a n d s e c o n d a ry a rtic u la tio n s, G o l^b ek (1993) h a s b een of g reat v alu e to this s tu d y as a p rim a ry source of data, p articu larly w h en su p p lem en te d by data from G olgbek (1997).
C ertain se c o n d a ry so u rces o f in form atio n h av e b e en of p a rtic u la r use in id e n tif y in g a p p r o p r ia te e x a m p le s to illu s t r a t e th e p h o n o lo g ic a l p h e n o m e n a d is c u s s e d in th is th esis. T opoliriska (1974) h as b een u sed to id e n tify m a jo r d e v e lo p m e n ts c o m m o n to all K a s h u b ia n d ia le c ts , a n d d e sc rip tio n s of th e p ro n u n c ia tio n of K ash u b ian in su c h referen ce w o rk s as the AJK, Breza & T red e r (1981, 1984), an d L orentz (1919, 1925) h av e h elp ed identify su b tle reg u larities. Inflectional and d e riv a tio n a l p a tte rn s are rich in exam ples of the c o n so n a n ta l a n d vocalic a lte rn a tio n s of K a sh u b ia n , b u t for th e sa k e o f c o n sis te n c y , in fo rm a tio n a b o u t th e se p a tte r n s w a s d ra w n p rim arily from G ol^bek (1997) a n d the gram m atical sk etc h o f C y b u lsk i (1992) p ro d u c e d in c o llab o ratio n w ith G ol^bek. D ue to co n cern s a b o u t au th en ticity expressed in T re d e r (1992b, 1994a, 1994d, 1995, 1996), th e larg e d ictio n aries of R a m u lt (1893, 1993) a n d T rep c z y k (1993) h av e b een u s e d p rim a rily to gloss exam ples fo u n d elsew^here, w h ile Sychta (1967ff) h as b e e n u se d p rim a rily to check th e a u th e n tic ity o f q u e stio n ab le forms.
In fo rm a tio n a b o u t th e p h o n o lo g ic a l p h e n o m e n a to be ex am in ed in this d is se rta tio n can be d e riv e d from the above m e n tio n e d sources w ith one e x ce p tio n . T h e re is no p u b lis h e d in fo rm a tio n a b o u t th e sy llab ificatio n of w o rd s in K a sh u b ia n . T h ere are no ob v io u s s e g m e n ta l m a rk e rs of syllable d iv isio n in K ash u b ian , a n d , n ative speakers b ein g u n a cc u sto m ed to speaking a b o u t th e ir lin g u istic in tu itio n s, it has p ro v e n e x tre m e ly d ifficu lt to collect s ta tistic a lly re lia b le d a ta on this q u estio n . N e v e rth e le s s, so m e in fo rm an ts w e re w illin g to d iv id e a s tru c tu re d list o f K a s h u b ia n w o rd s (given in a p p e n d ix ) in to sy lla b les, p ro d u c in g re su lts g e n e ra lly c o n siste n t w ith the p a tte rn s of Polish syllabification as describ ed in B ethin (1992) an d R ubach & Booij (1990a, b). E xam ples of syllabification p a tte rn s in K ash u bian are d ra w n from th is analysis.
1.2 O verview o f the p h on ology and m orphology o f K ashubian
In th is sectio n , th e basic p h o n em ic u n its (1.2.1) a n d s u p ra se g m e n ta l u n its (1.2.2) are p resen ted an d discussed. This is follow ed b y a brief p resen ta tio n o f th e m o rp h o lo g y of K a sh u b ia n (1.2.3) a n d its im p lic a tio n s for the p h o n o lo g y of this language.
1.2.1 P h on em ic units
It h as b een a rg u e d th a t a ssu m p tio n s c an n o t be m a d e a b o u t in p u t form s in a n o u tp u t- b a s e d th e o ry like O p tim a lity T h e o ry , sin c e th e c a n d id a te g e n e ra to r m u s t h a v e access to all possible in p u ts (see 1.3.3). N ev ertheless, a set o f in p u t form s for a g iv en la n g u ag e can be in fe rre d fro m th e o b serv ab le
o u tp u t form s. The p h o n em es c o n stitu tin g these in p u t form s are here d efin ed in te rm s of a c o n strictio n -b ased m o d e l fo llo w in g C lem en ts & H u m e (1995), h e re a fte r C & H . In th is th e o ry , s o u n d s a re re p re s e n te d in term s of the c o n s tric tio n in v o lv e d in p ro d u c in g th e m , th e se c o n stric tio n s b e in g h ie r arch ically o rg a n iz ed so th a t the p resen ce o f a p a rtic u la r fea tu re , for ex am p le
[anterior], im plies the a ctiv atio n of th e features d o m in a tin g it. Like Place of A rtic u la tio n th eo ry (C lem ents 1985, H u m e 1992, Selkirk 1990), C o n strictio n th e o ry p re su m es c o n so n an ts an d vo w els to h av e the sam e se t of featu res, so th a t featu res m ay be sh ared , w ith the o n ly difference being th a t in vow els the class n o d e vocalic and its d e p e n d e n ts V-place a n d aperture in te rv e n e b e tw ee n C -place a n d the Place n o d es [labial], [coronal] an d [dorsal], as sh o w n in (1).
(1) C o n so n a n ts root V ocoids lary n g eal / / \ [nasal] / \ [lateral] \
[voice] oral cavity
± sonorant + sonorant ± ap p ro x im a n t root + a p p ro x im a n t - v o c o id + vocoid C -place [c o n tin u a n t] la ry n g e al [nasal] [voice] o ra l cavity [c o n tin u a n t] [labial] [coronal] [dorsal] [anterior] [distributed] C -place vo calic a p e rtu re V -olace [labial] [coronal] [dorsal] [-an te rio r] [distributed] [A IR ]
M y choice of th is m o del ra th e r th a n th e m ajo r a lte rn a tiv e , th e A rtic u la to r T h eo ry of Sagey (1986), is m o tiv a te d by th e s u p e rio rity of C o n stric tio n /P O A T h eo ry in a cc o u n tin g for p a la ta liz a tio n (= c o ro n a liz a tio n in th e an aly sis of H u m e 1992) w h ic h is a n im p o rta n t asp e c t of th e p h o n o lo g y of ev ery Slavic lan g u age. U nlike those w h o w o u ld g ro u p C o ro n al an d D orsal into a Lingual n o d e (B row m an & G o ld stein 1989) a n d those w h o w o u ld g ro u p Labial an d D orsal into a P erip h eral n o d e (A very & Rice 1989, C ho 1990, 1991, H all 1997), I re ta in C & H 's classification of the th ree Place n o d es as eq u al in statu s because K ash u b ian lab ializatio n p ro v id e s ev id en ce for b o th a L abial-L ingual c o n trast a n d a C o ro n a l-P e rip h e ra l c o n tra st (see also sectio n 2.3). O n th e o th e r h an d , C & H 's u se of m u lti-tie re d [open] as an a p e r tu re fe a tu re p ro v e d to be a cu m b erso m e in s tru m e n t in d escrib in g K ash u b ian vow el ra isin g (section 4.1), a n d so I h a v e a b a n d o n e d it in fa v o u r o f a m o re tra d itio n a l d istin c tio n b etw een the features [high], [low] a n d [A dvanced T ongue R oot].12
In the tables b elow , the h ie ra rc h y is su g g e ste d by th e u se of m u ltip le b u lle ts, w ith d o m in a te d fe a tu re s fo llo w in g th o se im m e d ia te ly d o m in a tin g them . Specification for p riv a tiv e featu res is m a rk e d w ith a check (V), th a t for b in a ry fe a tu re s w ith p lu s (+) o r m in u s (-). T he K a sh u b ia n p h o n e m e s are
tran scrib ed follow ing a m o d ified v ersio n of the sy stem u sed in the AJK.13
12 Use of [± ATR] seems more appropriate than [± tense] for Kashubian, because while tongue position in production of die closed low vowel / a / is certainly higher than for the open low vowel / a / , both are phonetically realized as lax vowels.
•3 My transcription differs from that of the AJK in two ways. First, in order to make the thesis more accessible I have changed some of the symbols used. For a comparison, see the reference page on Kashubian orthography (p.xii).
K ash u b ian h as b o th sim p lex c o n so n a n ts w ith a se c o n d a ry artic u la tio n a n d com plex ones w ith a se c o n d a ry articulation.
(2) Sim plex O b stru e n ts o f K ash u b ian ([-so n o ran t, -a p p ro x im a n t, -v o co id ])
P b f V t d s z c 3 5 i e (3) k g X Root Fs •Laryngeal • "voice
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
•Oral cavity ••continuant V V y V -/+ -/+ \ VV
••C -place Fs •••la b ia l VV
VV
• • "dorsalV
V
V
•••c o ro n a lV
VV
V
V
V
V
V
• • • • a n te rio rV
V
V
V
V
V
(3) Sim plex [-vocoid] S o n o ran ts of K ash u b ian ([+ so n o ran t, +voicej)
m n
ri
r t 1 1 Root Fs •approxim ant - - - + - + + •N asalV
V
V
•LateralV
V
•Oral cavity • "continuantV
V
V
V
• "C-place Fs • • • la b ia lV
•••c o ro n a lV
V
V
V
V
V
• • • • a n te rio rV
V
V
V
• • ••d is trib u te dV
V
The AJK does not represent predictable information such as labialization or word-final devoicing, however, these are being examined in this thesis and the framework being used is a theory which takes surface forms as basic, so I represent labialization w ith a raised w and devoicing with an underring. When it is necessary to discuss input forms, they are given between diagonal parentheses. Thus, the word k^oto 'wheel (Nom.sg.)' has the input form /k o to / and the w ord drüy 'trot (Nom.sg.)' has the input form /d r â v /.
In a d d itio n to th ese sim p lex p h o n em es, K a sh u b ia n h a s som e com plex p h o n em es w ith a se c o n d a ry place articulation: / p i / , / b j / , / f i / , / v i / and /m i/. F ollow ing C & H , these are tre a ted as d ifferin g from th e p h o n e m e s / p / , / b / , / f / , / v / a n d / m / only in h av in g a vocalic place n o d e ad join ed u n d e r their C- p lace n o d e , w ith V -place a n d vocalic n o d e s in te rp o la te d to p re se rv e w ell- fo rm ed n ess as sh o w n in (4) for the p h o n em e / p i / , th e in itia l co n so n a n t in w o rd s su ch as piisac 'to w rite ' a n d piâc 'five'd-*
(4) R ep rese n tatio n of p alataliz a tio n
[labial] C-place (vocalic) 1 (V -place) c o ro n a l I [-an terio r]
T he p h o n e m e / ! / su p erficially has a s tru c tu re sim ilar to th a t a d o p te d for the seco n d arily p a lataliz e d p h o n em es, in th a t it is realized in m a n y dialects as the lab io -v elar g lid e [w], w h ic h is h isto rically a resu lt of s e c o n d a r)' v elarizatio n w ith s u b se q u e n t loss o f th e p rim a ry (coronal) a rtic u la tio n . In th e p h o n o logy of K ash u b ian , h o w e v er, / 1 / beh av es as a n o n -p a la ta liz e d c o u n te rp a rt to / I / a n d th u s is b e s t re p re s e n te d u n d e rly in g ly as a s im p le c o ro n a l lateral
14 Where possible, as in the representation of piisac, the initial consonant shares the coronal specification of the following vowel. In piâc, however, there is no feature sharing. 15 In the dialects of the Hel peninsula and adjacent boglands this developm ent did not occur. Rather, here there was a context-free merger of / ( / with / I / (f -> I).
w ith o u t a seco n d ary articulator.
Som e K ashubian p h o n em es p re sen tly lacking a seco n d ary a rtic u la to r - all co ro n al fricatives an d affricates o th er th an s a n d z, as w ell as the so n o ran ts h , i a n d 1 - h av e d e v e lo p e d h isto ric a lly fro m se g m e n ts w ith a p rim a ry c o ro n a l o r d o rsa l a rtic u la to r a n d an adjo in ed se c o n d a ry (coronal) articu lato r. H o w ev e r, in these p h o n em es the ad jo in ed c o ro n a l n o d e has b een p ro m o ted (C& H , 295) to the statu s of m a jo r a rtic u la to r, re p la c in g the o rig in al place featu re a n d (usually) retaining the vocalic [-an terio r] featu re (C&H, 295). This is sh o w n for v elar p a lataliz a tio n by the c o n tra st b e tw e e n (a) an d (b) in (5), w h e re (a) re p re se n ts a p alatalized v elar - still fo u n d in a few villages of NW K ash u b ian (Breza & T red er 1981; 31) - a n d (b) re p re se n ts the c o rre sp o n d in g co ron al affricate found in all o th e r dialects.
(5) (a) palatalized velar sto p (kj) C [dorsal] C-place (vocalic) I (V-place) (b) coronal affricate (C/c) C 1 C-place c o ro n a l I [-a n te rio r] c o ro n a l I [-an te rio r]
16 The palatalization of the velar stops has, in most Kashubian dialects, produced two distinct affricates. Where stop-affricate alternation is morphologically determ ined (2.3.3) the affricate is i (phoneme: /C /) in all dialects. Where stop-affricate alternation is determined by the frontness of the following vowel (2.3.2.2), many dialects have k ~ c (phoneme: / k / ) and g ~ 3 (phoneme: / g / ) allophony. Both C and c can be represented as in (5b), being distinguished by the feature [distributed], as c has a longer constriction than g (Czaykowska-Kggins 1988:43).
Som etim es the sh ift from a n a-ty p e rep resen tatio n to a b -ty p e re p re se n ta tio n has in c lu d e d n o t o n ly elim in atio n of the original place fe a tu re a n d th e n o d es vocalic a n d V -place, b u t also the [-an terio r] fe a tu re a sso c iate d w ith vocoid segm ents. This is th e case for the coronal affricates / c / a n d / ; / , as w ell as the
lateral / I / (< *li), w h ich , h a v in g g re a ter b lade co ntact, is d is tin g u is h e d from / ! / (< *1) by the feature [distributed].
C & H 's m o d e l m ak es a basic d istin c tio n b e tw e e n [-v o co id ] seg m e n ts, d iscu ssed ab o v e, a n d [+vocoid] seg m en ts, n am ely , v o w els a n d g lid es. The latter, of w hich only tw o, / w / and / ] / , are co m m o n in K ash u b ian , d iffer from the form er o n ly in w h e re they m ay a p p e a r w ith in the s y l l a b l e , is As sh o w n in (1), [+ vocoid] s e g m e n ts g e n e ra lly h av e th e s a m e s tr u c tu r e as [-v o c o id ] seg m en ts b u t d iffer in h av in g the ad d itio n al tw o n o d es [vocalic] a n d [V-place] u n d e r the C -place node. A lso, coronal is alw ay s asso ciated w ith a [-an te rio r] node in [+vocoid] seg m en ts.
The fe a tu ra l sp ecificatio n of the K ash u b ian v o w els is sh o w n in (6): all h av e the ro o t fe a tu re s [+ vocoid, + a p p ro x im a n t, + s o n o ra n t], th e la ry n g e a l feature [+voice] a n d the o ral cavity feature [+ continuant].
1" Spreading of the vocalic coronal node results in the concomitant spreading of the features [- anterior] and [distributed]. In Kashubian, the [+ anterior, + distributed] coronal obstruents are realized phonetically as coronal affricates, and the [+ anterior, + distributed] coronal lateral as [1].
18 Thus, Kashubian / w / has the same featural specification as / u / but appears only in onsets, while / ] / has the same featural specification as / i / b u t appears only in onsets and codas. When / h / is used as a prothetic consonant to satisfy O n s e t (see 2.1) before certain stems - typically, these have an input form with an initial low vowel -, it functions as the non-syllabic equivalent of / a / , although its marginal status apparently leads some speakers to reinterpret it as a velar fricative [y] (Breza & Treder 1981).
