Agent Orange Cleanup in Bien Hoa,
Vietnam
Julia van Heeswijk, Jippe van Roon, Thirza Tiel & Daan van Zelm | Interdisciplinary Project, Future Planet Studies (UvA) | Anneke ter Schure | 11-3-2018 | Wordcount: 7560
Fig. 1: A work of art from ‘The Silent Lake Project’ by Le Phi Long, a Vietnamese graphic artist who raises awareness for Dioxin pollution and its consequences in Vietnam (Le Phi Long, 2015).
Abstract
During the Vietnam War, over 72 million liters of herbicides have been spread over the vast jungles of Vietnam, with the defoliant Agent Orange being the most destructive. Recent studies have shown relationships between environmental and health issues and the Agent Orange pollution. Especially the three former US air bases of Da Nang, Bien Hoa and Phu Cat are heavily polluted and have been identified as dioxin hotspots. In 2007 the US financed an environmental
remediation project at Da Nang air base. In this research an interdisciplinary approach is used in order to assess the possible outcomes of a TCDD remediation project at Bien Hoa. By combining a literature study with a socio-ecological system analysis, new light is shed on the Agent Orange related issues in the region of Bien Hoa. It becomes clear that the ecological and economic systems in Bien Hoa significantly complicate a substantial and realistic clean-up that would improve the lives of the people in the communities in the long term.
Table of Contents 1. Introduction 2. Theoretical Framework 2.1 Complexity Theory 2.2 Central Theories 2.3 Problem Definition 3. Selected Methods & Data
3.1 System Diagram & Literature Study 3.2 Socio-ecological System
4. Results
4.1 TCDD Contamination 4.2 Exposure Pathways 4.3 Bioaccumulation of Toxins 4.4 Case Study Analysis 4.5 Socio-ecological System 5. Discussion
6. Conclusion & Recommendations 7. References
1. Introduction
Six years into the Vietnam war, in the year 1961, the United States along with South Vietnamese air forces implemented the deployment of tactical herbicides on Vietnamese foliage using military transport planes (Stellman et al., 2003). During the next ten years, more than 72 million liters of herbicides were sprayed, among which the most destructive one code named Agent Orange (Dwernychuck et al., 2001). The intent behind the use of these tactical herbicides was defoliation and crop destruction (Dwernychuck et al., 2001). However, the consequences of the spraying turned out to be excessively more devastating than intended.
Already at the end of the sixties there was enough research done to support the claim that contaminants in Agent Orange were potentially damaging to animals as well as humans (Stone, 2007). The compounds in the herbicide were proven to cause birth defects in mice and initial reports on birth defects in humans in Vietnam were beginning to come into focus (Stone, 2007). Despite this disturbing intel, the use of Agent Orange continued well into the last years of the war. The most toxic compound within the this herbicide is the dioxin TCDD (Stone, 2007). Furthermore, increased TCDD concentrations in a soil decline slowly over time, after 70 years only a 6% decrease can be expected (Vasquez, 2004).
Nowadays, the dioxin TCDD is still present in several areas of the country (Dwernychuk, 2001). In particular at former US air bases, where Agent Orange used to be stored, dioxin levels are problematically high. These areas, Da Nang, Bien Hoa and Phu Cat, have been recognized as dioxin hotspots (Hatfield Consultants, 2009) and have been identified as the priority areas for remediation by the Government of Vietnam (Sorenson et al., 2011). In areas were Agent Orange was applied aerially TCDD has photodegraded on the surface of the vegetation. (Young et al., 2004). However, on the three former US air bases Agent Orange has entered beneath the soil surface as a result of spills, moving into the environment and persisting there for decades (Young et al., 2004). Thus, these areas have been declared as priority areas for remediation by the Government of Vietnam (Sorenson et al., 2011).
The increased dioxin concentration in these hotspots still poses a threat for the Vietnamese population (Hites, 2011). Associations between birth defects and Agent Orange-polluted sites have already been established (Ngo et al, 2006). Also a large-scale 27-year study on veterans that have worked with Agent Orange during the Vietnam war has proved sufficient evidence of an association between herbicide exposure and incidence of soft-tissue sarcoma, non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma, Hodgkin’s disease, chronic lymphocytic leukemia, and chloracne (Hites, 2011).
Consequently, extensive research has been done on this subject. Literature has been written on human health issues (Hites, 2011), on remediation plans (USAID, 2016, USAID, 2010) and on social vulnerability (Ngo et al., 2013, Mont & Cuong, 2011). However, existing literature has so far failed to explicate all aspects of the problem as described above. Therefore there is a need for research that considers multiple aspects of the problem and their interconnectedness. A second problem concerns potentially biased sources, as reports describing potential remediation plans for the hotspots are from one sided, mostly US funded, sources (USAID, 2010, USAID, 2016). The potential bias in these researches could cause neglect of certain parts of the problem. An example of such neglect is that by only researching hotspot areas, peripheries may be overlooked and not given the same amount of attention.
In conclusion, there is need for an extensive, overarching literature review on the subject. In addition, research is required considering the problem as a whole instead of only single aspects of the problem. This research will attempt to approximate such a review, albeit with limited time and resources.
According to Boivin et al. (2007) Bien Hoa is the severest contaminated of the three hotspots. It is therefore necessary that environmental remediation is also set in motion in Bien Hoa, in order to prevent further health risk for the population of the area. Therefore, this research aims at answering the following question: ‘How would cleaning up the Agent Orange pollution in Bien
will be used in order to answer this research question. This interdisciplinary integration is expressed in the term Human Wellbeing and Prosperity, which is used to describe as well the environmental and human health aspect of the problem as the social aspect of the problem. In order to answer the research question firstly an extensive literature study will be done. Thereafter, the case area of Bien Hoa will be analyzed. In addition, a case study will be done concerning Da Nang. In this Hotspot, a remediation project has already been set in motion by United States Agency for International Development (USAID). This remediation project provides a usable example upon which the area of Bien Hoa can be reflected. Thereafter, a socio-ecological system will be drafted for as well Da Nang as Bien Hoa. This provides a structured view to compare both areas and make a conclusion concerning the applicability of remediation in the way it has been done in Da Nang for Bien Hoa.
2. Theoretical Framework
To analyse the problem as described in the introduction, a well-defined theoretical framework has been set up. This section displays the theoretical framework with the addition of visual support and includes complexity theory, the integration of disciplines and a problem definition.
2.1 Complexity Theory
Complexity theory leans on the overarching idea that the world is fast-changing, complex and uncertain (Boulton & Allen, 2007). In order to be successful in such a world, a perspective is required that opposes the more common worldview of it being linear, measurable and controllable (Boulton & Allen, 2007). When a system is approached as being complex, it is accepted that relations and interactions can occur that are not easily visualized in a mechanical approach (Boulton & Allen, 2007).
Within this research, several indicators for a complex system, as defined in a lecture by Crelis Rammelt (2018), are present. At the base of our definition of the system stands Path Dependency. Increased dioxin concentrations in a soil decline slowly over time, after 70 years only a 6% decrease can be expected (Vasquez, 2004). The increased TCDD concentration in the soil relates to several other elements within the framework, which means there is connectivity. However, the consequences can not be linearly connected to the increased concentration of the dioxin. This can be seen as non-linearity, another complex system indicator. Resilience and instability are also present, however the system has this far not caused any major changes or shifts.
The complex viewpoint as described above calls for the need of an integrated, interdisciplinary approach (Boulton & Allen, 2007). In order to address the problem of TCDD contamination in Bien Hoa, research from multiple disciplines is combined and integrated. The discipline biology contributes to the process of problem solving by addressing the effects of the dioxin on the ecosystem. An example of such an effect is bioaccumulation of TCDD in fish, which will prove to be an important process to consider in this research. The discipline of chemistry is relevant for this research because this approach enables the identification of important features and properties of the dioxin. It also sheds light on how the chemical interacts with and affects its environment. Earth scientific expertise is requisite as the dioxin adheres to soil and sediment particles. By combining the knowledge about ecosystem effects and the properties of TCDD, the discipline of earth science can be used to identify exposure pathways of the dioxin to human beings. In addition to these bèta disciplines, the discipline of social geography is necessary in order to understand the effects on the overall human-wellbeing and prosperity in the case areas, and to assess the important governmental relations.
After determining the relevant theories and assessing the complexity, a brainstorm session was held to visualize all the processes of our Agent Orange case study. This has resulted in a system diagram which not only incorporates the theories from the theoretical framework, it also includes elaborated social and physiological processes. This system diagram is displayed and further discussed in the Methods section. Multiple integration techniques from the working group of Crelis Rammelt (2018) were then applied to integrate these elaborations into the diagram. First and foremost the technique of redefinition proved useful to create a common conceptual language for the chemical, geographical and biological concepts. These were gathered in the concept of exposure pathways and dichotomized into a direct and indirect category. The system diagram will be further discussed in the method section.
Furthermore, the integration technique of organization was used multiple times. Firstly, it was used in a central concept of human wellbeing, which is comprised of a physical and a mental side. Secondly, it was used to associate different elements of foreign relations into a concept of
foreign dependency, which relates to the dependency theory described in the theoretical framework. Moreover, various concepts of socio economic change were collected to show the relation between foreign dependency and social vulnerability without having to rely on a systems diagram approach. Thus, the current integrated framework still has elements of a systems diagram but is easily applicable to analyze both scenarios.
Fig. 2: Venn-diagram of the used theories and how they are related.
2.2 Central Theories
The research has been set up based around multiple fundamental theories. Figure 2 provides a visual representation of the relations between some relevant concepts upon which the research question has been based. The concepts provided in figure 2 are explained below.
Human Wellbeing & Prosperity is the central concept within this research. It is chosen as it
concerns not only health concerns, but also related economic issues, social status and quality of life (McGillavray, 2007). In short, human wellbeing is a description of the state of an individuals’ life situation (McGillavray, 2007). Because this research highlights both health issues and social vulnerability and dependency, it is a perfect concept to use to answer the research question. To elaborate, the use of this overarching term which consists of separate concepts reflects the interdisciplinarity of this research.
An important part of human wellbeing is Human Health. Within this research, human health is seen as the physical wellbeing of individuals within the contaminated area and its surroundings (Bien Hoa city, local communities and fisheries). Human health can only be affected by a contaminant when an exposure pathway from the source of the contamination towards a means of contact to the population is present. The exposure pathway describes the way in which a chemical is transported from the contaminated site to the point of contact (USAID 2010). Common exposure pathways for dioxins are for example background contamination or consumption by accumulation in the food chain (Travis, 1991).
When countering human health issues related to TCDD, the Dependency on Foreign Aid that Vietnam has been dealing with for the last couple of decades plays an important role. According to a book on US-Vietnam relations by Martin (2010), the trade relations between Vietnam and the US have had a negative impact on the amount of aid Vietnam was willing to ask. From this, a classical dependency theory has been extrapolated. The problem with this theory is that foreign aid does not always automatically lead to economic and social stagnation as described by the theory. An example of this is the case of foreign investment in Taiwan, where the heavy foreign investment did not lead to a core-periphery dependency but instead aided self reliance (Barret and Whyte, 1982). Moreover, the US has largely been deciding where the research and aid goes, instead of having Vietnam and local populations play a role. Within the diagram this occurring controversy has been included as Social Vulnerability vs. Agency.
Within figure 2 a triangular relationship between Contamination, Remediation and Foreign
Dependency is identified. An environmental contamination or pollution that does not resolve itself
on a realistic timescale needs to be remediated in order to minimize possible negative effects for human health. In the specific case of TCDD pollution in Vietnam, foreign dependency is not only connected to contamination by Agent Orange usage in the past, but also to foreign-funded remediation programs. These fundings allow for governmental structures in which the financier to some extent gains influence over the setup of the remediation process. An example of this is the USAID remediation program in Da Nang.
2.3 Problem Definition
The government of Vietnam has declared that the three hotspots, being the former US air bases at Bien Hoa, Phu Cat and Da Nang, are priority areas for soil and sediment remediation (Sorenson et al., 2011). The severeness of the pollution in the three areas is a result of careless storing and transport of Agent Orange by the US army during the Vietnam war (Boivin et al., 2007). As mentioned before, in contradiction to areas where Agent Orange entered the environment aerially, in the former US air bases the dioxin has persisted (Young et al., 2004). The effects of TCDD contamination, such as birth defects, are perceptible in large areas of Vietnam (Hites, 2011). However, as the contaminant has persisted in the dioxin hotspots contamination still occurs in these areas (Young et al., 2004)
In 2007 the US financed an environmental remediation project in Da Nang. However, it was derived from literature that due to several Agent Orange spills Bien Hoa is the most contaminated of the three hotspots (Boivin et al., 2007). It is therefore necessary that environmental remediation is also set in motion in Bien Hoa, in order to prevent further health risk for the population of the area.
The research question was then formulated in the following form: ‘How would cleaning up
the Agent Orange pollution in Bien Hoa affect the human wellbeing and prosperity of the case area?’. The term Human Wellbeing and Prosperity includes on the one side human health, while it
also covers quality of life and economic status. The research question also confines the research to the specific location Bien Hoa, which is the most Agent Orange contaminated area in Vietnam (Boivin et al., 2007; Sorenson et al., 2011; Young et al., 2004).
3. Selected Methods & Data
As has been mentioned in the introduction, in the process of answering this research question three different methods has been used. Firstly, an extensive literature research has been done, including all the disciplines of this research. The structure of this literature study will be described by means of a system diagram in section 3.1. Secondly, a case study analysis will be done of Da Nang air base. The existing Da Nang remediation project provides an usable example upo n which the area of Bien Hoa can be reflected. This case study analysis is based on the literature study as will be described in section 3.1. Finally, a socio-ecological system will be drafted in order to systematically compare both areas.
Fig. 3: System diagram of the TCDD contamination in Bien Hoa and its related issues.
3.1 System diagram & Literature Study
In order to structure an efficient literature research process a systems diagram was created (Figure 3). In the beginning phase of the research multiple brainstorms sessions were held to identify individual theories and concepts coming from our own respective disciplines. From this starting point, several integration techniques were applied to approach a more interdisciplinary technique. As mentioned before, a venn diagram was also created to better explain our theoretical framework. For this the integration technique of redefinition was used, where to definitions are redefined to create a common terminology. For the system diagram seen above, the integration technique of organisation was important. Elements of the different disciplines still remain in the diagram, which can be seen in the colors used to signify them. By mapping out exposure pathways as well as the implications of remediations, it became more comprehensible to relate very specific chemical
research to qualitative research. Lastly, this system diagram was also used to help bring more structure in the results of the different dub systems in the socio-ecological system.
3.2 Socio-ecological System
Socio-ecological systems analyze human-environment dynamics with a structural approach (Cote & Nightingale, 2012). A big pioneer of socio-ecological systems is political economist Elinor Ostrom. Generally speaking social-ecological systems, or SESs, are an intertwined systemization of a defined areas social system with the ecological system. Within these systems there are always multiple subsystems, which each have their own internal variables. Within the SES there are interactions between resource systems (livestock farm), resource units (cows), users (farmers) and governance systems (rules and institutions that govern farming). In turn one SES might also interact with other smaller or bigger SESs (Ostrom, 2009).
In order to make a quantifiable overview of the systems and subsystems within case area, a socio-ecological system of the case area will be set up. The biggest challenge in analyzing a SES is knowing the complexity of relationships between multiple levels of the system at differentiating spatial as well as time scales. It is therefore necessary to research the complexities of a system, rather than simplifying such factors. Furthermore, different SESs contain various second-level variables which fall under the previously mentioned four subsystems. Examples of these are predictability of system dynamics under Resource systems, network structure under governance systems, resource unit mobility under resource units and socioeconomic attributes of users under users. This framework is useful in providing a set of possibly relevant variables to analyze sustainability of an SES (Ostrom, 2009). Moreover, the SES developed by Ostrom includes a list of interactions and outcomes within a SES that have been empirically proven. Most critiques on the theory have been focused on the wide scale in encompasses. Moreover, researchers have emphasized the difficulty to evaluate every component empirically. To add onto this systems-based conceptualization can limit the types of social research that lean more towards interpretive quantitative traditions. Nevertheless, SESs do still provide a valuable insight into the dynamics between humans and the environment (Stojanovic et al., 2016).
4. Results
This section provides the results that were found after executing the previously mentioned methods. Firstly, the findings on the toxicity of the pollutant and the severeness of the contamination are provided, which leads to a detailed description of the exposure pathways. Next, the case study of Da Nang is discussed and the findings are compared to the area of Bien Hoa.
4.1 TCDD contamination
This paragraph describes the most important properties of TCDD and the means by which the dioxin contaminates the case area. The herbicide Agent Orange consists of a 50/50 mixture of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and 2,4,5- trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4,5-T). The herbicide was often contaminated with the dioxin TCDD (2,3,7,8-tetrachloridodibenzo-p-dioxin). The TCDD concentration varied between different Agent Orange manufactures, according to multiple sources it ranged between between < 0,05 mg/l and 50 mg/l (Dwernychuk et al., 2002; Stellman et al., 2003).
It has been identified that TCDD is the toxic chemical within the Agent Orange herbicide accountable for most of the issues within the socio-ecological systems of the case areas (Sorenson et al., 2011). Internationally, TCDD is recognized as one of the most toxic man-made chemicals (Hites, 2011). The dioxin has a lethal dose to 50% of the population (LD50) of 0.6 ug/kg body mass for male guinea pigs (Hites, 2011). For both case areas research has confirmed that Agent Orange is the main source of contamination by measuring the toxic equivalents (TEQs). In Da Nang TCDD amounts to 90% of the TEQ (Sorenson et al., 2011). In Bien Hoa TCDD amounts to 75.3% to 98% of the TEQ (Hatfield Consultants, 2009).
An important feature of TCDD is that its water solubility of 0,2 - 0,317 ug/l at 25 oC is very low (Geyer et al., 1986). The Log KOW of TCDD has an experimentally determined value varying between 6,145 and 6,19 (Kenaga, 1980). This makes the compound highly lipophilic, meaning it has the capacity to accumulate in fatty tissue. The compound is therefore susceptible for the process of bioaccumulation, which will be further elaborated and related to the case area in paragraph 4.3.
Another important feature is the mobility of the TCDD in the soil and groundwater. This feature is determined by measuring the Log KOC which is the organic/carbon coefficient. In order to determine the Log KOC of TCDD, a phenomenon called “the solid’s concentration effect” needs to be taken into account (Lodge & Cook, 1989, McKinley & Jenne, 1991). This means that the Log KOC of compounds, especially of those with high Log KOW values, is dependent of the contaminants concentration (Lodge & Cook, 1989, McKinley & Jenne, 1991). For this reason, the Log KOC values found in literature vary due to different TCDD concentrations on certain locations. The mentioned Log KOC values lie in a range between 5,69 - 7,59 (Lodge & Cook, 1989). However the exact Log KOC value would have to be measured specifically on the site.
Based on the above mentioned features of TCDD it can be concluded that the dioxin is not soluble in water yet adheres to soil particles. The dioxin is stored in and distributed by soil and sediment particles (USAID, 2010). For the case area of Bien Hoa the exact levels of contamination have been determined by analyzing soil and sediment samples (Boivin et al., 2007, Hatfield Consultants, 2009). These contamination levels were compared to the globally acceptable TEQs, which are 1000 ppt (pg/g) for soil and 200 ppt (pg/g) for sediment (Boivin et al., 2007, Hatfield Consultants, 2009). The contamination levels in Bien Hoa were up to 185 000 ppt, which is 185 times the globally acceptable maximum TEQ (Hatfield Consultants, 2009).
Based on the above mentioned TEQ values zones within the areas are identified in which remediation is necessary (USAID, 2010, USAID, 2016). The identification of such areas is based
TEQs. These standards are 1000 ppt (pg/g) for soil and 150 ppt (pg/g) for sediment (USAID, 2010).
4.2 Exposure pathways
Whereas, during the Vietnam war the Vietnamese were exposed to TCDD by the direct spraying of Agent Orange, over the past 30 years the exposure to the dioxin mainly resulted from contacts with soils, sediments, dust and food products near the dioxin hotspots (Hatfield Consultants, 2009). To elaborate, the dioxin adheres to soil particles (USAID, 2010), and then is transported from soils and sediments into the aquatic system and bioaccumulates in fish (Boivin et al., 2007).
Based on an extensive study in the area of Da Nang, USAID (2010) has identified several exposure pathways to TCDD. The first pathway is through localized transport, in which surface soil is transported into waterways and wind by means of erosion and runoff. Secondly there is exposure as a result of dietary ingestion, in which humans are exposed by the ingestion of fish from the area. Pathways of exposure also involve ingestion, dermal absorption and inhalation of soil particles. Table 1 (US AID, 2010, p. 4-22) represents the exposure pathways in relation to the exposed humans.
Table 1. Exposure pathways in relation to exposed humans (USAID, 2010).
USAID (2010) determined that in the area of Da Nang soil particles move through a drainage ditch into Sen Lake and nearby areas. In Sen Lake contamination levels have been measured up to 12 393 ppt (USAID, 2010). Hence, the highest contamination levels have been found in the blood of individuals who harvest fish and plants from this lake (Boivin et al., 2007). In Bien Hoa similar exposure pathways exist, this will be further elaborated in paragraph 4.5. In as well Da Nang as Bien Hoa it can be concluded that the most important exposure pathway involves consumption of fish and other aquatic organisms (USAID, 2016).
4.3 Bioaccumulation of toxins
As mentioned in the previous results, the toxins accumulate in the fatty tissue of the fish. When these fish are eaten by the locals the toxins will accumulate in their bodies. This paragraph will briefly clarify the processes of bioaccumulation and biomagnification.
In a recent study (United States Environmental Protection Agency & Thornton, 2003) it has been found that, toxins accumulate in organisms, the concentrations in each trophic level are different. In the lower level the toxin concentration is spread out over a large biomass. If the toxins for example, accumulate in to phytoplankton the concentration is relatively low(0.025ppm). Then The phytoplankton gets eaten by the zooplankton the biomass decreases while the toxin concentration increases(0.123ppm). The toxins from the phytoplankton are absorbed through the food chain in to
the zooplankton. While the zooplankton also get an extra dose of toxins because they ingest it through the contaminated water. Then the smelt eat the zooplankton and ingests the accumulated toxins and ingests toxins rough the water(1.04ppm). And so on until the final level in the food web has a high toxin concentration in their body.
Fig. 4: Bioaccumulation or biomagnification effects (United States Environmental Protection Agency & Thornton, 2003)
4.4 Case Study Analysis
The aim of this research is to assess how cleaning up the Agent Orange pollution in Bien Hoa will affect the human wellbeing and prosperity of the case area. This assessment will be partly based on a case study analysis of Da Nang. As has been mentioned before, along with Bien Hoa and Put Cat, Da Nang has been identified as a dioxin hotspot. In order to remedy high TCDD concentration at the Da Nang airfield, USAID is currently performing a program in which soil and sediment is cleaned from dioxins. The Da Nang remediation project provides an usable example upon which the area of Bien Hoa can be reflected.
The Da Nang remediation project was set into motion in 2008, it was financed by the US government and carried out by USAID (USAID, 2010). Before the start of this project, the contamination levels in the area of Da Nang were determined to be up to 365 000 ppt, which is 365 times the globally acceptable maximum TEQ (Boivin et al., 2007). The project involved removing the dioxin from large quantities of soils and sediments in the area of the Da Nang hotspot. This has been done by excavating the site and cleaning the soil using In-Situ/In-Pile Thermal Desorption (ISTD/IPTD). Divided over two phases, a total of 90.000 cubic meters of soil from a 167.000 square meter area was treated and tested by 2017. The site is currently being restored, which should be finished by mid-2018 (USAID, 2016). The project was estimated to cost around 40 million USD, but costs have exceeded 100 million USD (USAID, 2016).
Prior to the USAID clean up program at Da Nang airport, a study was done to investigate the most effective and efficient method to clean the soil. The chosen techniques were In-Pile and
In-Situ Thermal Desorption (IPTD/ISTD), which are two known techniques to clean contaminated soils of dioxins. In IPTD, the contaminated soil is excavated and heated in an oven to 335 °C for 21 days. In ISTD, heating wells are dug and a constant heat flow of 700 - 800 oC is applied to guarantee a minimum temperature of 335 °C in the soil (Sorenson et al., 2010).
The site at Bien Hoa airfield is far less convenient than Da Nang airfield. USAID has filed a report on the site at Bien Hoa in which the site and possible clean up methods are evaluated and elaborated upon. The airfield covers an area of around 1.000 hectares and is currently still in use as an active military airfield. The amount of soil that needs to be treated is estimated to be over 400.000 cubic metres, of which 95% lies on the airfield. Furthermore, Bien Hoa is a large city and the area surrounding the airfield has a population density of 3.400 persons per square kilometer (USAID, 2016).
Also the airfield houses 1.200 permanent residents, with a maximum of 2.200 during operations at the military base. The USAID report summarizes by suggesting that a similar approach as in Da Nang is the most preferable (USAID, 2016). However, due to high TCDD concentrations in organisms in nearby ponds and water basins, this would include the destruction of all aquatic life to decrease accumulation of TCDD and the consumption of TCDD-contaminated food (USAID, 2016).
During the USAID remediation program in Da Nang contaminated soil has been dug up with average depths of 0.53 meter (USAID, 2016). The vertical dioxin distribution in the soil at Bien Hoa air base has been measured by Dang et al. (2015). According to this research the dioxin concentrations at certain locations are highest at depths of around two to four meters (Dang et al., 2015). The USAID (2016) estimate of the amount of contaminated soil at Bien Hoa mainly encompasses soil at depths of up to 1 meter, with only two exceptions at the locations called Southwest Area and Pacer Ivy area, where soil with depths of 1.5 - 2 meter and > 2 meter is included. This discrepancy is further discussed in the discussion.
The case study analysis of Da Nang will be continued in the following paragraphs. In these paragraphs the SESs of both Da Nang as Bien Hoa are drafted and compared.
4.5 Socio-ecological system
In the figure above there is a visualisation of the socio-ecological system of the city of Bien Hoa that has been largely derived from the previous paragraphs. The basic elements of the two cities, when visualised, appear very similar. For this reason the choice was made to only show one simplified version. As taken from Ostrom’s simple model four subsystems were identified, that were present in both areas. The resource units were identified to be fish stock, agricultural land and the biodiversity the area has to offer. Furthermore, the users can also encompass the fish, which get consumed by residents. To add onto this fisherman and other residents of the city belong to the users. Following from this, the resource system that will be examined are the fisheries of both towns, the pastures, forests and ultimately also the urban soil that has been contaminated. Lastly, In both areas, the governance is largely the same on the top level with only minor differences in local levels. In the continuation of this paragraph all four subsystems will be elaborated on, while emphasizing the differences.
The available data comes largely from the 2015 census from the General Statistics Office of Vietnam. Unfortunately, data specific to the cities was not available from a reliable source. This subsystems will therefore describe the differences on the level of the two cities respectable provinces Dong Nai (Bien Hoa) and Da Nang (Da nang).
Table 2: Land use by province in thousand ha (As of 31 December 2015). (census General Statistics Office of Vietnam, 2015)
Resource System and Units
Da Nang is situated in central Vietnam in a marshland area near sea with the Han river flowing through the city. The ecosystem that is most important to Da Nang which are the Ba Na Nui Chua nature reserves, consist of two types of forests: lowland evergreen forest and lower montane evergreen forest. The lowland evergreen Forest is characterized by the tree species Dipterocarpaceae, while lower montane evergreen forest are characterized by the Lauraceae, Fagaceae and Podocarpaceae species (Thoa, Son & Yen, 2015). Since Vietnam is home to 20% of the world’s 25 most endangered species it is important to minimise the effects of the dioxins on the natural reserve to protect the endangered species living here (Brockman, Harrison & Nadle, 2009).
Bien hoa on the other side, is situated in the south of Vietnam in the Dong Nai river delta, and has the natural reserve park Cat Tien closeby. According to Vandekerkhoeve, Wulf & Chinh (1993) Cat Tin national park mainly consists of pure bamboo stands and bamboo mixed with trees. However, most of the forest in Cat Tien national park is degraded. Only the primary forest which covers about 15 to 20% is considered unaffected. The economic value of the Timber in the forest is partially responsible for the degradation of the forest. The eastern part of the forest is mainly covered in primary and secondary forest. The western part of the forest is mainly degraded and filled with mixed bamboo.
As can be seen in table above, it becomes clear that in terms of size the province in which Bien Hoa lies is significantly larger. The portion of land which is used for agriculture is also much larger. When looking at fisheries, approximately 1,5% of the land in Dong Nai is used for aquaculture compared to 0,39% in Da Nang (General Statistics Office of Vietnam, 2015).
To add onto this, in the year 2015 Dong Nai produced 52,2700.00 tons of fish, while Da Nang province produced 34,981 tons. Moreover, a study conducted in 2003 on the dioxins found in different kinds of food In Bien Hoa added a comparative element by also looking at levels found in Da Nang. Measurements were taken from places of aquaculture as well as marketplaces (Schecter et al., 2003). As can be seen In the table below, it becomes evident that duck in Bien Hoa is on average six times more contaminated than in the Aloui Valley in which Da Nang lies. Most importantly however, is that fish in Bien Hoa is more than 300 times more contaminated when compared to the Aloui Valley. Even though the data is from 2003, it can still be used to gain insight into the differences, due to the fact that dioxins do not easily leave the ecosystem.
Users and Governance
Bien Hoa is not only larger in terms of actual size but also has a population density which more than three times higher than that of Da Nang. According to the 2015 census Bien Hoa has an average of 4182 inhabitant per square kilometer, while Da Nang only holds an average of 1100 (General Statistics Office of Vietnam, 2015). The poverty rate is virtually the same at 0,8 percent (General Statistics Office of Vietnam, 2015). Nevertheless the unemployment (workers of 18 years and above) rate is 41.6% in Da Nang and only 18.4% in the province of Dong Nai (General
As mentioned before, governance systems in both cities are fairly comparable. Unfortunately, NGO’s like VAVA (Vietnam organisation for victims of agent orange/dioxins) do exhibit a preference for creating projects in the southern regions of the country near Ho Chi Minh city.
Table 3: Dioxin TEQ levels in ppt (Schecter et al., 2003).
When comparing the two socio-ecological systems, it becomes clear that the two cities are significantly different in terms of land use and inhabitants. Not only is Bien Hoa more densely populated, it also has a large dependence on aquaculture which is a main source of dioxin poisoning for users such as fisherman and their families and other inhabitants across the province of Dong Nai. Moreover, the water acts as an exposure pathway to Bien Hoa’s periphery and the province of Dong Nasi which depends on the Dong Nai river. Lastly, the contamination in fish is much higher in Bien Hoa. Even though USAID has plans for addressing this issue, the effects on the economy and livelihoods need to be taken into account more (USAID, 2016).
5. Discussion
While writing this report, some uncertainties and points of discussion have come to light. In this section some debatable points are stated and the research is reflected upon with a critical mindset.
To start with, the larger part of the conclusion is focussed on exposure through dietary ingestion. However, as has been described in the results, exposure through direct contact with soil and sediment also occurs. This is an important issue that may have been overlooked within this research, as it is less easy to investigate.
There is also a discrepancy within the found literature about the depth at which the TCDD contamination has settled. Within section 4.5 a research by Dang et al. (2015) is mentioned where it is stated that the contamination is actually located much deeper in the soil than stated in the USAID report about Bien Hoa (Dang et al., 2015; USAID, 2016). On top of this, Boivin et al. (2007) state that the most worrisome contamination is only in the upper 10 cm of the soil. This creates doubt on whether the USAID accurately identified all the TCDD contaminated soil, thus increasing the amount of soil that needs treatment and consequently driving up the cost of any potential remediation projects.
On another note, remediating the TCDD contamination only on the previously mentioned air bases might be seen as a narrow-minded approach, especially when considering the amounts of Agent Orange that has been sprayed over forests in Vietnam. However, young et al (2007) emphasize the importance of cleaning Agent Orange hotspots like Bien Hoa. When Agent Orange was aerially applied to an area, the TCDD supposedly would photodegrade on the surface of vegetation in a matter of hours (Young et al., 2007). But as soon as the contaminant leaks into soil the TCDD remains for decades (Young et al., 2007). This leaking into the soil only happened when spills of Agent Orange occurred at the air bases. This theory is supported by Karch et al. (2004).
Remediation of dioxins comes with a lot of ethical concerns. The first and foremost is the dependency on the United states it causes. The issue of reparations for Agent Orange contamination was pushed to the back of Vietnam’s geopolitical agenda. This was largely the cause of fear that asking for help would inhibit trade opportunities. Later on, during the Reagan administration, the government was skeptic when it came to US veterans claiming medical problems due to exposure to the herbicide. This effectively silenced Vietnam's concerns in return (Martin, 2010). Only in March 2000, nearing the end of the Clinton administration, the Defense secretary of the US promised more cooperation in the Agent Orange problems. A joined Memorandum of understanding was signed in 2002 and a US advisory council was established to oversee collaborations between the two nations (Martin, 2010). From early on it became clear however, that it was not the intention of the United States to provide extensive clean-up efforts. Nevertheless, relations between the two nations bettered during the Bush administration, partly due to the lift on the trade embargo. Unfortunately, the cooperation took a downfall when the research projects into the health risks of dioxin exposure were terminated by the US in 2005. Small compensation projects existed during this time but only for U.S. Vietnam veterans, and not for citizens (Martin, 2010).
Throughout the first decade of the 21 century the United States government has been adamant in its claims that there was not enough scientifically based evidence that dioxins caused multiple illnesses and birth defects. Only during the latter half of the decade do the first Vietnamese centered projects begin to take shape. These have mostly been through research grants and joint workshops with Vietnam. Since 2007 plans were starting to come to the foreground for the remediation of Da Nang airport and in 2009 the United Nations Development Program organized a roundtable meeting with the US. Out of this discussion came two goals, the first being immediate
containment of hotspots and the second being long term planning to eliminate all dioxins from contained soils and sediments (Martin, 2010).
However, a vital point that was discovered during this research project is the potential United States bias of the literature. This means that the focus on cleaning up ‘Agent Orange Hotspots’, which is often suggested by American sources (Young et al., 2007; Karch et al., 2004), may be somewhat more controversial than it seems at first glance. What is adamant is that projects considered for clean-up are exclusively on former United States air bases. The efforts are localized and contain limited Vietnamese cooperation. To add onto this, long term solutions to actual societal crisis are controversial in US politics and the distribution of information is done from a western perspective favoring an exclusively positive role for the US programs and limiting information on the shortcomings of remediation. Lastly, most research comes from USAID itself or US universities like the university of Wyoming (Pham et al., 2015).
6. Conclusion & Recommendation
This research aims at answering the following question: ‘How would cleaning up the Agent Orange
pollution in Bien Hoa affect the human wellbeing and prosperity of the case area?’. This question
will be answered by combining the results of the literature study, case study analysis and the SES, by means of an interdisciplinary approach.
TCDD is a highly toxic chemical causing health problems in Vietnam. By analyzing the properties of the dioxin it has been found that the dioxin is badly soluble in water and adheres to soil particles. In addition the compound is susceptible for the process of bioaccumulation. The TEQ values in soil and sediment in Bien Hoa exceed the globally acceptable values as well as the acceptable TEQ values set by the government of Vietnam. Therefore, remediation is necessary in Bien Hoa.
By analyzing exposure pathways to the dioxin it has been found that the most important exposure pathway is through dietary ingestion of fish and other aquatic animals. However, there is also exposure through direct contact with soil and sediments.
The case study analysis has resulted in the conclusion that the exposure pathways in Da Nang and Bien Hoa are similar. From the SESs it can be concluded that there are significant differences in terms of population as well as geography between the two areas. Most important, it has become evident that Bien Hoa has a bigger stake in aquaculture compared to Da Nang, and that the fish in the Dong Nai river are contaminated at much higher rates than in Da Nang. Eventhough USAID has plans to exterminate all the fish in the river, these plans do not take the economy and population that depends on the fish into account, especially in the periphery.
In conclusion: Cleaning up Agent Orange pollution in Bien Hoa like it was performed in Da Nang would lead to little actual problem solving for the current residents of the city and the province. This is due to the fact that the main exposure pathway is through the fish in the river. To add onto this, long term dioxin poisoning problems like birth defects can last for multiple generations and are not addressed in social and monetary aid programs. Furthermore, remediation in the form of exterminating the fish population does not take the economy and society of Bien Hoa and Dong Nai province into account.
We have determined a few possible recommendations based on the literature reviews of this research and the socio-ecological system of Bien Hoa. As already mentioned there is a lack of data and in field work samples. To solve this, future research is needed to gain a better comprehension of the case area. This is needed to be able to find the best remediation method for the specific location. Finding an alternative cleanup method is also an interesting focus for further research, this will give us the ability to choose the best remediation method for different contaminated sites. Also it is recommended to have more independent researchers working on the contaminated area to prevent a biased view in the problem.
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