June 21, 2016
The CEO as a PR weapon.
How CEOs’ social media activities, image and gender exert influence on the public’s
perception of the CEO and the organization.
Student: Yvette Pelgrom Student ID: 10349758
E-mail: pelgromyvette@gmail.com
Supervisor: Dr. Hsin-Hsuan Lee E-mail: hlee@escpeurope.eu
Statement of Originality
This document is written by student Yvette Pelgrom who declares to take full responsibility for the contents of this document. I declare that the text and the work presented in this document are original and that no sources other than those mentioned in the text and its references have been used in creating it. The Faculty of Economics and Business is responsible solely for the supervision of completion of the work, not for the contents.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of figures and tables... 5
Abstract………... 7
1. Introduction………... 8
2. Theoretical framework………. 11
2.1 Personal branding on social media………... 11
2.1.1 Personal branding on social media by CEOs……… 12
2.2 The effect of CEOs’ message content on the CEO’s image……….. 13
2.2.1 Professional message content and CEO competence……… 14
2.2.2 Personal message content and CEO authenticity……….. 14
2.2.3 Societal message content and CEO empathy……… 15
2.3 The effect of the CEO’s image on the organization’s image………. 15
2.3.1 Image transfer of perceived competence……….. 16
2.3.2 Image transfer of perceived authenticity……….. 17
2.3.3 Image transfer of perceived empathy………... 17
2.4 The effect of CEOs’ message content on the organization’s image……….. 18
2.4.1 Professional message content and organizational competence…………. 19
2.4.2 Personal message content and organizational authenticity………... 19
2.4.3 Societal message content and organizational empathy………. 20
2.5 The CEO’s gender moderating the effect of CEOs’ message content on the CEO’s image……….. 20
2.5.1 Professional message content, the male gender, and CEO competence... 21
2.5.2 Personal message content, the male gender, and CEO authenticity……. 22
2.5.3 Societal message content, the female gender, and CEO empathy……… 23
2.6 The CEO’s gender moderating the effect of CEOs’ message content on the organization’s image………. 23
2.6.1 Professional message content, the male gender, and organizational competence……… 24
2.6.2 Personal message content, the male gender, and organizational authenticity……… 24
2.6.3 Societal message content, the female gender, and organizational empathy……….. 25
3. Methodology……….. 26
3.1 Research design………. 26
3.2 Respondents……… 26
3.3.1 Pretest……… 28
3.3.2 Final survey………...… 29
3.4 Measurement……….. 30
3.5 Scale validation……….. 33
3.6 Data analysis strategy………. 34
4. Results………. 36
4.1 Descriptive statistics………... 36
4.2 Manipulation and reality checks………. 37
4.3 Hypothesis 1. The effect of CEOs’ message content on the CEO’s image……… 40
4.3.1 H1a. The effect of professional message content on perceived CEO competence………. 40
4.3.2 H1b. The effect of personal message content on perceived CEO authenticity………. 41
4.3.3 H1c. The effect of societal message content on perceived CEO empathy 42 4.4 Hypothesis 2. The effect of the CEO’s image on the organization’s image…….. 44
4.4.1 H2a. The effect of perceived CEO competence on perceived organizational competence………..……….. 45
4.4.2 H2b. The effect of perceived CEO authenticity on perceived organizational authenticity………. 46
4.4.3 H2c. The effect of perceived CEO empathy on perceived organizational empathy……….. 46
4.5 Hypothesis 3. The effect of CEOs’ message content on the organization’s image 47 4.5.1 H3a. The effect of professional message content on perceived organizational competence………. 47
4.5.2 H3b. The effect of personal message content on perceived organizational authenticity………. 48
4.5.3 H3c. The effect of societal message content on perceived organizational empathy……….. 49
4.6 Hypothesis 4. The CEO’s gender moderating the effect of CEO’s message content on the CEO’s image…...……… 51
4.6.1 H4a. Moderating effect of the CEO’s gender on the impact of professional message content on perceived CEO competence………... 51
4.6.2 H4b. Moderating effect of the CEO’s gender on the impact of personal message content on perceived CEO authenticity……….……… 52
4.6.3 H4c. Moderating effect of the CEO’s gender on the impact of societal message content on perceived CEO empathy………..………. 54
content on the organization’s image……….…. 56
4.7.1 H5a. Moderating effect of the CEO’s gender on the impact of professional message content on perceived organizational competence….…….. 56
4.7.2 H5b. Moderating effect of the CEO’s gender on the impact of personal message content on perceived organizational authenticity……….. 57
4.7.3 H5c. Moderating effect of the CEO’s gender on the impact of societal message content on perceived organizational empathy………. 59
5. Discussion……… 63
5.1 Summary of the findings and academic insights on the research questions……... 63
5.2 Practical implications……….. 68
5.3 Limitations and future research recommendations………. 70
6. Conclusion……….. 72
7. References……….………. 73
Appendices………..……… 82
Appendix A: Final survey……….. 82
Appendix B: Four different scenarios for message content………..…. 88
Appendix C: Difference in descriptions for the CEO’s gender………..… 92
Appendix D: Extra manipulation check question for societal message content scenario 92 Appendix E: Extra manipulation and reality check questions for mixed message content scenario……….. 93
Appendix F: Extra manipulation check question for personal message content scenario 93 Appendix G: Additional analyses……… 94
LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES Figures
Figure 1. Research model.
Tables
Table 1. Profiles of the respondents.
Table 2. Means, standard deviations, Cronbach’s alpha, inter-correlations for only the respondents who correctly identified the nature of message content.
Table 3. Scores for each condition on each outcome variable: means, standard deviations and inter-correlations of the study variables for only the respondents who correctly identified the nature of message content.
Table 4. The amount and percentages of respondents who stated to have perceived the same type of content as was intended with the manipulations.
Table 5. Independent samples t-test results for reality checks.
Table 6. Main effect of message content on CEO competence.
Table 7. Main effect of message content on CEO authenticity.
Table 8. Pairwise comparisons with Bonferroni test with CEO authenticity as dependent variable.
Table 9. Main effect of message content on CEO empathy.
Table 10. Pairwise comparisons with Bonferroni test with CEO empathy as dependent variable.
Table 11. Linear regression analysis: effects of the perceived CEO’s personal brand on the perceived corporate brand.
Table 12. Main effect of message content on organizational competence. Table 13. Main effect of message content on organizational authenticity. Table 14. Main effect of message content on organizational empathy.
Table 15. Pairwise comparisons with Bonferroni test with organizational empathy as dependent variable.
Table 16. Main effect of CEO gender on CEO competence.
Table 17. Interaction effects of message content and CEO gender on CEO competence.
Table 18. Main effect of CEO gender on CEO authenticity.
Table 19. Interaction effects of message content and CEO gender on CEO authenticity.
Table 21. Interaction effects of message content and CEO gender on CEO empathy. Table 22. Main effect of CEO gender on organizational competence.
Table 23. Interaction effects of message content and CEO gender on organizational competence.
Table 24. Main effect of CEO gender on organizational authenticity.
Table 25. Interaction effects of message content and CEO gender on organizational authenticity.
Table 26. Main effect of CEO gender on organizational empathy.
Table 27. Interaction effects of message content and CEO gender on organizational empathy.
Table 28. Pairwise comparisons with Bonferroni test with organizational empathy as dependent variable.
Table 29. Overview of which hypotheses are (un)supported or partially supported. Additional analyses shown in Appendix
Table 30. Means, standard deviations, Cronbach’s alpha, inter-correlations for all respondents of the sample.
Table 31. Scores for each condition on each outcome variable: means, standard deviations and inter-correlations of the study variables for all respondents of the sample. Table 32. ANOVA results for the effect of message content on the CEO’s image. Table 33. Post-hoc Tukey results for the effect of message content on the CEO’s image. Table 34. Main effects of message content and CEO gender on CEO authenticity. Table 35. Interaction effects of message content and CEO gender on CEO authenticity. Table 36. Pairwise comparisons with Bonferroni test with CEO authenticity as dependent
variable.
Table 37. Main effects of message content and CEO gender on organizational competence. Table 38. Interaction effects of message content and CEO gender on organizational
competence.
Table 39. Pairwise comparisons with Bonferroni test with organizational competence as dependent variable.
ABSTRACT
This study examined the role of CEOs social media message content and the CEO’s gender in relation to perceptions of the CEO’s personal brand and the corporate brand, as well as the impact of the CEO’s image on the organizational image. Since the late 1990s, personal branding has become a progressively popular and global phenomenon with the rise of social media. Nevertheless, few empirical research has examined the explicit effects of CEO social media strategies on how CEOs and organizations are perceived in terms of personality. Literature also shows a gap regarding whether the CEO’s gender influences the effect of CEOs’ social media activities on the public’s perceptions of the CEO and the respective organization. This 4 by 2 between-subjects, survey-based experimental study addressed these gaps by conducting ANCOVA and linear regression analyses, based on data of 206 respondents of various backgrounds, who were randomly assigned to four experimental conditions. Three CEO social media strategies were examined – professional, personal, societal – to identify whether emphasizing one particular type of message content differs in effect compared to mixed message content with respect to the CEO’s and the organization’s image. These effects were analysed by assessing how competent, authentic and empathic both the CEO and the organization were perceived to be.
The results showed that the four types of message content did not differ significantly regarding how competent the CEOs were perceived to be. Perceived CEO authenticity and empathy, on the other hand, were lowest when the CEOs had posted predominantly professional content. Moreover, the four types of message content did not differ significantly regarding how competent and authentic the organizations appeared. Perceived organizational authenticity, on the other hand, was highest with mixed content and lowest with personal content. In addition, this study showed a strong image transfer of the CEO’s image to the corporate image. Specifically, perceived CEO competence strongly attributed to perceived organizational competence. Perceived CEO competence, authenticity and empathy strongly attributed to perceived organizational authenticity. And, perceived CEO empathy strongly attributed to perceived organizational empathy. Furthermore, regarding the moderating effect of the CEO’s gender, when either posting mixed content, or predominantly personal or societal content, the male CEO was perceived more authentic. The female CEO was perceived more authentic when posting predominantly professional message content. Lastly, the organization was perceived more empathic when the CEO was male. To conclude, this study suggests that (1) type of message content affects perceptions of CEOs and organizations, though overemphasizing one theme is not necessarily better than mixed message content; (2) the CEO’s image strongly impacts the corporate image; and (3) the CEO’s gender influences the effect of CEOs’ message content on the CEO’s image, and directly influences the CEO’s and the organization’s image. Theoretical and practical implications are provided at the end, followed by avenues for future research.
Keywords: Personal branding, Social Media, Message content, Chief Executive Officer (CEO),
INTRODUCTION
There is a rapidly growing understanding of the importance of personal brand management on social media within a business context (e.g., Labrecque et al., 2010). However, what should a CEO post to communicate its desired identity and is this influenced by the CEO’s gender? Even more, does personal branding of a CEO impact how the corporate brand is perceived? Since the rise of internet and in particular social media, trails of information have arisen resulting in not only the branding of corporations but also of individuals (Lampel & Bhalla, 2007), which is called ‘personal branding’ (Peters, 1997). A personal brand can be defined as “a personal identity that stimulates precise, meaningful perceptions in its audience about the values and qualities that person stands for” (Montoya & Vandehey, 2002). A personal brand is thus subjectively created and maintained in the minds of others on the basis of the behavior of the branded individual and any other related piece of information (Labrecque, Markos, & Milne, 2010). Montoya & Vandehey (2002) argue that managing a personal brand is valuable to, among others, raise awareness about oneself and showcase expertise. Moreover, while personal branding can occur in an offline context, social media is argued to be an excellent online platform and marketing tool for personal brand management (e.g., Schwabel, 2009; Shepherd, 2005). This is argued to be because social media provides a relatively cheap opportunity to promote oneself and it enables an efficient reach of a large audience (Schwabel, 2009).
With respect to personal branding on social media in particular, CEOs are progressively comprehending the essence of personal brand management for organizational purposes (Shepherd, 2005). This is vital as their role is expected to be more transparent, public, engaged and approachable compared to the past (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010). The competitive climate has changed, including various stakeholders anticipating to get informed about the vision and acumen of CEOs. If effectively managed, personal branding on social media can, among others, boost credibility in terms of the CEO’s intellect and competence (e.g., Labrecque et al., 2010). Also, as a CEO is argued to be the most visible representative of the company, literature on leadership communications posits that CEOs can influence the corporate image (e.g., Waldman, Ramirez, House, & Puranam, 2001). For instance, earlier research shows that the CEO’s image has the greatest effect on how the organization is viewed in times of crisis (House, Spangler, & Woycke, 1991) or in settings with high uncertainty (Waldman et al., 2001). As such, it is imperative that CEOs understand how to effectively communicate their personal branding, and one that is also desirable for the corporate brand.
Yet in spite of popularity around personal branding and a high rate of global adoption of social media among regular people, there is still a lack of empirical research analyzing personal branding in the virtual world (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010), and in particular with explicit insights on CEOs personal branding. First of all, whereas the majority of personal branding research is focused on graduates (e.g., Mallan, 2009) or employees and their online behavior (Harris & Rae, 2011), researchers largely neglect leaders such as CEOs. This deficiency in literature may be because personal branding is a rather new phenomenon and marketing concept as an extension of product branding to individuals (Hsu & Tsou, 2011). Secondly, the
general consensus around personal branding importance seems to imply that online presence of CEOs directly leads to an enhanced personal and corporate brand image (e.g., Shandwick, 2013; Shepherd, 2001). However, current literature ignores to a great extent how personal brands of CEOs are effectively created on social media and which contextual factors should be taken into account simultaneously. Such understanding is critical considering that insufficient or inadequate personal brand management can damage the CEO’s reputation and most likely also the organization’s image (Freberg et al., 2011; McLaughlin & Mott, 2009).
With respect to potential contextual factors, prior research has shown that there are strong stereotypic perceptual differences regarding the perceived traits of male versus female CEOs (e.g., Heilman, Block, Martell, & Simon, 1989). Male CEOs are commonly associated with competence and unemotional problem solving, whereas female CEOs are characterized with a more emotional approach, intuitive problem solving and communal behaviors including concern for others (e.g., Eagly & Wood, 1991). Considering these stereotypes, CEOs’ personal branding efforts on social media might not be the only indicator for how the CEO and the organization is. In fact, perceptions might be strongly influenced by the CEO’s gender as well. As previous research suggests substantial impact of CEOs’ personal branding on the CEO’s and organization’s image yet without providing explicit details on the effect of different social media strategies and not clearly acknowledging the role of the CEO’s gender, a greater understanding of CEO personal branding is needed. Altogether, while conventional wisdom seems to suggest a positive relationship between CEOs’ social media presence and the image of CEOs and organizations, it neglects integral factors such as type of message content and the CEO’s gender.
Accordingly, this research questioned whether audience’s perceptions of a CEO remain unaffected by the CEO’s social media strategy (and thus type of message content) and whether the CEO is male versus female. Alghawi, Yan and Wei (2014) categorized message content by its professional and personal nature. Within this study however, societal message content is also examined. Using predominantly one of the three message content types − professional, personal, societal − is expected to create distinct impressions of a CEO as a person, thereby observing a different personality trait for each while not identifying one particular single trait in the case of mixed message content. Also, these impressions are likely driven by the CEO’s gender as well. In sddition, as prior research suggests a substantial impact of the CEO on the corporate image (e.g., House et al., 1991) and that the organization is a reflection of the CEO (Waldman et al., 2001), a strong transfer of the CEO’s image to the corporate image is expected. As such, the organization is likely to be perceived to possess the same trait as the CEO. Overall, considering the gaps in current literature, the core purpose of this study is to provide a greater understanding of the relationships between social media strategies, the CEO’s gender, the CEO’s personal brand and the corporate brand.This will be achieved by answering three main research questions:
RQ1: What are the effects of CEOs’ social media strategies − professional, personal, societal − on
RQ2: Does the perceived CEO image affect the perceived corporate image?
RQ3: Does the CEO’s gender influence the effect of CEO’s message content on the perceived CEO
and corporate image?
Attaining an answer to these questions leads to several theoretical contributions. This study expands current literature by providing a new empirical perspective that considers the effects of three CEO social media strategies on both the CEO’s and the corporate image, while also acknowledging the role of the CEO’s gender. Additionally, findings supplement existing research by presenting details on image transfer of the CEO’s personal brand to the corporate brand. In essence, this study contributes to current literature on marketing and leadership communications and forms a basis for further research that intends to increase the understanding of personal branding by CEOs, in particular on social media.
Findings of this study are simultaneously of practical relevance. Building upon the rapidly increasing popularity of personal branding on social media yet the lack of CEO social media presence, this study helps form strategies CEOs and organizations can follow regarding CEO engagement in effective communications processes. This is done by (1) providing a better understanding of how the audience evaluates the CEO’s and corporate image in terms of perceived competence, authenticity and empathy, based on social media message content and the CEO’s gender, and (2) by showing how a CEO’s personal brand can affect the public image of the company and thus whether the earlier mentioned traits are observed at the organizational level. Accordingly, this study is a humble step forward to increase CEOs personal branding knowledge and alter their social media behaviour. The strategic formation of a CEO’s desired personal brand may in turn be created more efficiently and effectively, due to understanding the impact of different social media strategies while simultaneously acknowledging the role of the CEO’s gender.
In pursuance of accomplishing the contributions mentioned above, this thesis is divided into five sections of which the structures goes as follows. The next section consists of the theoretical framework, which is comprised of a literature review and three corresponding hypotheses, each divided into three sub-hypotheses. Secondly, the methodology consists of a description of the research design and respondents, procedure and survey design, measurement, scale validation and the data analysis strategy. Thirdly, the results are provided followed by a discussion part, including several theoretical and practical implications as well as acknowledged study limitations and future research recommendations. Fourth and lastly, a final conclusion on the study is provided, followed by the reference list and appendices.
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
2.1 Personal branding on social media
Personal branding is rather similar to traditional branding1 of a product, yet applied to an individual.
A personal brand is defined as “a personal identity that stimulates precise, meaningful perceptions in its audience about the values and qualities that person stands for” (Montoya & Vandehey, 2002). Montoya & Vandehey (2002) explain personal branding as a way of communicating to others about one’s personality, values and ability. Personal branding can be done explicitly through verbal and written words (e.g., posting one’s occupation history on LinkedIn) and implicitly, such as through actual behavior. The manner in which personal brands are communicated has changed significantly by the emergence of social media (Mangold & Faulds, 2009). Social media refers to a number of internet-based platforms, such as Facebook and Twitter, on which to develop, share and use online information (Blackshaw & Nazzaro, 2004; Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010). Earlier research found that a dominant reason for social media engagement is personal branding, since social media enables efficient increase of visibility (Mangold & Faulds, 2009; Labrecque et al., 2010). In fact, Mangold and Faulds (2009) argue that social media is a vital promotion component as it provides individuals the opportunity to connect and communicate with over thousands of others about their company, products, concerns and themselves. According to Vohs, Baumeister, and Ciarocco (2005), social media strategies specifically concern personal impression management. In terms of the impact of the resulting impressions, while the reaction of the audience is not entirely predictable, it is assumed that there is often conscious control over the particular message and its planned impact. The audience refers to those who are influenced by the personal brand (Shaker & Hafiz, 2014), and who observe certain traits of the person being branded based on his or her personal branding efforts (McKenna & Bargh, 2000). According to Montoya & Vandehey (2002), only about three to five traits are most observed as they communicate what makes the personal brand exclusive, which are called ‘leading traits’. As an example, dominant characteristics of Richard Branson (CEO of the Virgin Group) could be charismatic, sophisticated and intellectual. Moreover, effective online personal branding requires establishing adequate goals, cultivating excellence, consistency over time and active promotion of one’s brand based on clear understanding of how different strategies influence one’s personal brand (Harris & Rae, 2011). If a personal brand reflects favorably perceived personality traits, it can lead to positive outcomes.
Personal branding is argued to be fundamental for influencing decisions, attitudes or purchases of other people (Lewis & Neighbors, 2005). An effective, favorably perceived personal brand can, among others, result in getting acknowledgement, higher appreciation, greater (career) opportunities, higher trust, increased credence and decision making responsibilities, while attracting the desired audience (Montoya & Vandehey, 2002). Moreover, engagement in personal branding has been found to decrease perceived psychological distance between an individual and the audience (Alghawi et al., 2014). Consequently,
1Branding refers to the process in which a unique name and image of the product is created in consumers’ minds (Montoya & Vandehey, 2002).
personal branding is a critical tool within the current competitive employment climate, where standing out is key in order to create and maintain a profitable career (Lair, Sullivan, & Cheney, 2005). On the other hand, an unfavorably perceived personal brand due to insufficient or inadequate brand management can backfire, as it negatively affects impressions others have of the branded individual (Harris & Rae, 2011), and may thus damage one’s reputation (Freberg, Graham, McGaughey, & Freberg, 2011). As such, adequate personal brand management is essential and particularly online, since the rise of internet and especially social media, have resulted in increased online visibility of personal brands. In sum, in order to achieve effective personal branding on social media, all activities should be strategically contemplated, thereby taking one’s personal branding purpose(s) and the impact of the reflected personality trait(s) into account.
2.1.1 Personal branding on social media by CEOs
Despite the evidence that a strong online personal brand is crucial nowadays and the increase in corporate social media activities for impression management (Arruda, 2003), actual online social presence by CEOs remains meager. Many leaders still shy away from social media due to a lack of understanding what it is, how it works and how to benefit from it (Kietzmann, Hermkens, McCarthy, & Silvestre, 2011; Freberg et al., 2011). This is surprising as empirical findings showed that CEOs can reduce psychological distance with the audience (Alghawi et al., 2014), enhance the credibility of the company’s communications (Freberg et al., 2011), and boost the firm’s reputation (Alghawi et al., 2014).
Furthermore, CEO personal branding on social media is important as it reflects one’s leadership style (McKenna & Bargh, 2000). How one is perceived as a leader impacts social and self-evaluations, forms or hinders prospective career opportunities and boosts the leaders’ capacity to gather the assets required by the firm (Lord & Maher, 1991). Lord and Maher (1991) state that leadership perceptions of a CEO can enhance organizational performance, particularly in times of dramatic organizational failures. However, different leadership styles have been identified for succesful CEO personal branding, which suggests that there is no single trait across all contexts (Lord & Maher, 1991). While multiple traits are argued to be critical leadership traits, three in particular seem most relevant for CEOs in the context of social media: competence, authenticity, and empathy. These three traits are important as they are linked to highly valuable outcomes that are likely augmented when these traits of CEOs are communicated through social media, considering the extensive reach of audience and persuasive impact of social media (Mangold & Faulds, 2009). With regard to the first trait, perceived competence is frequently mentioned within management and leadership literature (e.g., Kotter, 1988). Perceived competence refers to the degree to which someone evaluates the CEO’s knowledge of the business and capability as highly competent (Boekaerts, 1991). This is found to be especially a critical leadership trait during turbulent periods since CEOs viewed as highly competent are able to influence consumers and employees more, due to higher trust and assurance that the leader will pursue in times of crisis and take the adequate decisions (Northouse, 2007). Overall, effective leadership requires excellent knowledge of organizational matters (Kirkpatrick & Locke, 1991). Furthermore, according to Kirkpatrick and Locke (1991), successful CEOs are those who are
authentic. Authenticity is perceived when CEOs communicate with high, consistent levels of honesty and integrity. Integrity refers to the coherence between words and actions, and honesty refers to being open and sincere. Perceived authenticity is particularly effective within a context requiring feelings of certainty among the audience (Kirkpatrick & Locke, 1991). The third trait that is considered to be a critical CEO trait within a social media context is perceived empathy (Bass, 1985; Mahsud, Yukl, & Prussia, 2010). Empathic CEOs are considered supportive, caring about the well-being of employees and customers, and aware and understanding of other people’s emotions, which in turn can result in effective persuasion of the audience (Yukl, 2010). When individuals feel understood, they identify more strongly with the CEO and are more willing to devote time, energy and money to the organization (Mahsud et al., 2010). In sum, CEO personal branding on social media is valuable for communicating one’s distinct trait – for instance, competence, authenticity or empathy − and boosting the organization’s image.
2.2 The effect of CEOs’ message content on the CEO’s image
The above literature suggests the importance of personal branding by CEOs on social media and additionally, three effective leadership traits are argued to be especially valuable within a social media context. Yet, which social media strategies can CEOs apply that are comprised of which type(s) of message content to reflect one of these three valuable traits? For instance, what should a CEO publish when aspiring to be perceived as a competent leader? Prior studies identified different strategies CEOs can apply for personal branding on social media. For example, CEOs social media strategies can be categorized by the degree of proactiveness (Larcker et al., 2012) and the message content (Alghawi et al., 2014). In this study, the main focus will be on the second criteria: message content. Message content can be distinguished based on its ‘professional’ or ‘personal’ nature (Alghawi et al., 2014), yet within this current research, three types of message content are investigated including societal content. Professional content relates to industry matters whereas personal content touches upon personal matters (Alghawi et al., 2014). Societal content refers to messages with a societal focus, such as corporate social responsibility. The effect of societal message content is considered worth examining as well, due to rapidly increasing concerns about societal matters such as corporate social responsibility and expectations of stakeholders that CEOs show concern for the society (Chernev & Blair, 2015). Enhanced understanding of the impact of societal message content within CEOs personal branding on social media covers the question of whether it is advisable for CEOs to discuss societal issues online in order to be perceived as desired.
Considering that different leadership styles can be communicated, it is expected that the social media strategy a CEO applies, and thus the type of message content posted, impacts the trait that is observed of the CEO. In other words, different message content is proposed to reflect different perceived traits of the CEO. Based on the above reasoning, the following hypothesis is proposed:
Hypothesis 1: The CEO’s message content on social media influences the perceived personality
As outlined, three CEO social media strategies − professional, personal, and societal − are identified. For each of these strategies, it is expected that the audience observes a different leading trait of a CEO. As such, professional, personal and societal social media strategies are described next together with the critical CEO trait each strategy is suggested to be most strongly related to, in comparison to the rest of the types of message content.
.
2.2.1 Professional message content and CEO competence
A possible CEO’s social media strategy is one where CEOs post predominantly professional message content (Alghawi et al., 2014). Professional message content is related to the industry, for instance addressing industry-relevant technological trends and innovations. As an example, a CEO could publish a social media post on the impact of a revolutionary innovation within the oil industry. CEOs posting social media content with primarily professional knowledge can be related to thought leadership. A thought leader is an individual who shares his or her industrial knowledge, and is consequently perceived as an expert and thus competent in his or her respective field (Bontis & Nikitopoulos, 2001). Considering the above, earlier research suggests a relation between CEO competence and professional message content rather than personal, societal or mixed. To conclude, by sharing primarily professional information the CEO is argued to demonstrate competent behaviour, and is thus likely evaluated as a competent CEO. Based on the aforementioned, the first sub-hypothesis is suggested:
Hypothesis 1a: When posting predominantly professional message content rather than societal,
personal or mixed, CEOs are perceived as more competent.
2.2.2 Personal message content and CEO authenticity
A second social media strategy of CEOs is one where CEOs post predominantly personal message content (Alghawi et al., 2014). In this case, the content is less related to the industry and instead touch upon life issues such as hobbies and family. An example is a previous Facebook post of Richard Branson (CEO of the Virgin Group), “The Brood of Bransons”, in which he elaborates how important family is. As personal content reflects who the CEO is as a person, the trait ‘authenticity’, defined as “the ability to align one’s values and behaviour according to one’s true self” (Avolio & Gardner, 2005), is expected to be primarily perceived. Authentic individuals are characterized by showing real self-presentations of one’s positive points and flaws and by being true to core values (Avolio & Gardner, 2005). Their manner of communication is typified by openness, transparency and trust, including the sharing of personal narratives. Considering the above, earlier research suggests a relation between CEO authenticity and personal message content rather than professional, societal or mixed. To conclude, by sharing primarily personal information the CEO is argued to demonstrate authentic behaviour, and is thus likely evaluated as an authentic CEO. On that account, the following sub-hypothesis is proposed:
Hypothesis 1b: When posting predominantly personal message content rather than professional,
societal or mixed, CEOs are perceived as more authentic.
2.2.3 Societal message content and CEO empathy
A third CEO social media strategy is one where CEOs post dominantly societal message content, which concerns social issues that are related to ‘others’. An example is corporate social responsibility (CSR), which regards the social activities by organizations that address social needs beyond the legal responsibilities of the firm such as cause-related marketing (CRM)2 (Enderle & Travis, 1998). General
public and stakeholders are increasingly emphasizing corporate social responsibility and organizations are gradually feeling more responsible for their impact, initiating proactive attempts to manage this impact (Ellen, Webb, & Mohr, 2006). CEOs frequently function as corporate spokespersons to inform about CSR activities, or address societal issues out of personal interest. Because societal message content addresses concerns and understanding of other person’s circumstances, the trait ‘empathy’, defined as “the ability to share someone’s feelings” (Loden, 1985), is expected to be observed. Considering the above, earlier research suggests a relation between CEO empathy and societal message content rather than professional, personal or mixed. To conclude, by sharing primarily societal information on social media, the CEO is suggested to demonstrate empathic behaviour, and is thus likely evaluated as an empathic CEO. Therefore, the following sub-hypothesis is suggested:
Hypothesis 1c: When posting societal message content rather than professional, personal or mixed,
CEOs are perceived as more empathic.
2.3 The effect of the CEO’s image on the organization’s image
Whereas social media is essentially a platform for personal usage (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010), CEOs and firms are increasingly active on social media platforms for external communications in order to create and maintain a positive corporate image (Shamma, 2012). A corporate image, synonymous with organization’s image, is defined as the general perceptions individuals have of the company (Balmer, 2001). Correspondingly, a corporate brand personality concerns certain personality traits of the organization as observed by the audience, which are derived from the overall assessment of the behavior, principles and words of all employees of the firm. Thus, besides CEOs’ personal brands, organizations are argued to have brand personalities as well, which should be taken deliberate care of (Keller & Richey, 2006). That organizations can be evaluated in terms of traits is in accordance with the Organizational Support Theory that holds that a firm is personified by individuals to estimate the value of organizational attempts and to cover socio-emotional needs (Eisenberger, Huntington, & Hutchison, 1986). Many prior studies showed
2Cause-related marketing refers to donations in cash by a company to a non-profit organization or social cause when the firm’s product or service is purchased (Nan & Heo, 2007).
that the CEO’s image, and thus the CEO’s personal brand, is an exceptionally important determinant of the organization’s image and therefore a valuable asset for the corporate brand when the CEO has an excellent reputation (McLaughlin & Mott, 2009; Shandwick, 2013; Shepherd, 2001). CEOs have shown to enhance corporate credibility (Freberg et al., 2011), the corporate reputation, also called ‘leadership brand equity’ (McLaughlin & Mott, 2009), and overall organizational success (Jin et al, 2011). McLaughlin & Mott (2009) emphasized how important a CEO’s reputation is by providing survey results indicating a strong correlation between a recognized leadership brand and the best performing organizations under study. This could be explained with the notion that CEOs are commonly seen as the embodiment of firms (Waldman et al., 2001), which can be a consequence of CEOs, together with a few other top executives, predominantly forming the organizational values, mission and vision (Argenti & Barnes, 2009). As CEOs are typically seen as ‘the face’ of the firm and as individuals attribute traits to organizations, it seems reasonable to suggest that the observed corporate trait is likely a reflection of the CEOs personality. This spill-over of the CEO’s leading trait to the corporate brand may be explained by the ‘halo effect’. A halo effect describes the inclination of one’s evaluation of a person or object to impact evaluations of particular aspects of that person or object in such a manner that it is aligned with the general appraisal (Asch, 1946). This is suggested to occur in the context of social media marketing by CEOs as well. In other words, the perceived personality trait of the CEO is proposed to spill over to the organization’s brand.
To conclude, as earlier findings showed that CEOs are frequently viewed as the embodiment of the organization and that organizations can be personified, it is expected that a halo effect occurs meaning that the leading trait of CEOs will be observed at the organizational level as well. Moreover, considering the substantial impact of CEOs’ image on the organization’s image, it is proposed that the trait the CEO is perceived to have will strongly influence the organization’s image in general. Accordingly, the following hypothesis is proposed:
Hypothesis 2: The perceived personality trait of the CEO influences the perceived personality trait
of the organization.
As a halo effect is expected of the CEO’s leading trait onto the organization, image transfer should thus also occur for the three earlier discussed leadership traits (competence, authenticity, empathy), which are discussed next.
2.3.1 Image transfer of perceived competence
While the majority of previous studies on perceived competence concentrates on groups and individuals, it is shown that people can also perceive competence of organizations (e.g., Gao & Matilla, 2014). This is congruent with the Organizational Support Theory (Eisenberger et al., 1986). Google is, for instance, perceived as a highly competent organization (Aaker, Vohs, & Mogilner, 2010). A firm evaluated as competent is one that is viewed to be able to effectively accomplish desired objectives and targets, and
such competence perceptions are related to a larger customer base, higher purchase behavior, and greater desirability in terms of personnel recruitment (McLaughlin & Mott, 2009). Hence, it can be argued that perceived organizational competence is highly desirable for firms. When the audience evaluates a CEO as competent, individuals might assume the company is as well, using the perceived level of CEO competence as a cue for the firm’s competence resulting in image transfer. As such, it is suggested that when a CEO is perceived as competent, a halo effect will occur thereby also perceiving the organization as competent. Accordingly, the following hypothesis is suggested:
Hypothesis 2a: The audiences’ perception of the CEO as competent leads to perceiving the
organization as competent.
2.3.2 Image transfer of perceived authenticity
Besides organizational competence, literature also states that organizations can be evaluated as authentic. An organization is perceived as authentic when the corporate activities reflect the real self of the organization (McShane & Cunningham, 2011), which can be assessed by the extent to which the firm seems reliable, genuine, accurate and truthful in the perceptions of stakeholders (Shen & Kim 2012). To evaluate the degree of organizational authenticity, cues such as genuineness of communications by CEOs are used (McShane & Cunningham, 2011; Kernis & Goldman, 2006). An authentically perceived organization can, according to prior research, ultimately strengthen the firm. This is particularly so for non-profits considering that authentically perceived organizations are strongly, positively related to higher donations (Shane & Cunningham, 2011). When the audience evaluates a CEO as authentic, individuals might assume the company is as well, using the perceived level of CEO authenticity as a cue for the firm’s authenticity resulting in image transfer. As such, it is suggested that when a CEO is perceived as authentic, a halo effect will occur thereby also perceiving the organization as authentic. Based on the aforementioned, the following sub-hypothesis is suggested:
Hypothesis 2b: The audiences’ perception of the CEO as authentic leads to perceiving the
organization as authentic.
2.3.3 Image transfer of perceived empathy
Finally, earlier literature also discussed perceived empathy of organizations. Branding literature states that a successful organization is compassionate about internal and external stakeholders (Keller & Richey, 2006), with compassion being a key aspect of empathy (Wong & Law, 2002). It is argued that socially responsible activities of a company, showing acts of goodwill and concern for the society and thus reflecting the trait ‘empathy’, can alter the perception of consumers of the organization’s reputation and image (e.g., Chernev & Blair, 2015; Nan & Heo, 2007). An underlying explanation is that if the audience values the respective CSR issues, knowing the organization’s CSR efforts will likely heighten identification
with the firm (Bhattacharya, Rao, & Glynn, 1995), which is termed as ‘consumer-company (C-C) identification’ (Bhattacharya & Sen, 2003). This notion refers to the extent to which there is overlap between a consumer’s self-definition and traits of the firm’s CSR activities. The larger the overlap between these two, the higher the identification with the organization, which makes the individual more likely to approve and defend the firm, even when confronted with neutral or moderately negative information about the company (Ahearne, Bhattacharya, & Gruen, 2005). Research also showed that acts of social goodwill by the organization’s workforce such as the CEO can, also when not directly linked to the corporation, positively impact organizational performance (Chernev & Blair, 2015). On that account, a CEO addressing corporate social responsibility initiatives or personal concern about others will likely be more strongly identified with and viewed as empathic, and this in turn is expected to spill over to the organization’s image if the audience indeed perceives the organization to be a close reflection of the CEO as a person. Therefore, if the reader values CSR and the objective of CEOs personal branding is to translate that positive attitude toward the organization, it is important to identify whether perceived CEO empathy truly transfers to the corporate brand.
When the audience evaluates a CEO as empathic, individuals might assume the company is as well, using the perceived level of CEO empathy as a cue for the firm’s empathy resulting in image transfer. As such, it is suggested that when a CEO is perceived as empathic, a halo effect will occur, thereby also perceiving the organization as empathic. This may lead to various positive outcomes such as higher ‘consumer-company identification’. As such, the final sub-hypothesis of Hypothesis 2 goes as follows:
Hypothesis 2c: The audiences’ perception of the CEO as empathic leads to perceiving the
organization as empathic.
2.4 The effect of CEOs’ message content on the organization’s image
Previous studies have investigated social media content as a component of the organizations’ communication (e.g., Sheehan & Morisson, 2009). Organizations frequently create social media content aimed at boosting consumer engagement (Wilson, Guinan, Parise & Weinberg, 2011). This shows that organizations’ communications, which includes CEOs’ communications, impacts the organization. Specifically, organizations, with CEOs as corporate spokespersons, are increasingly active on social media in order to form positive or to repair negative impressions of the corporate brand (Shamma, 2012). Considering that CEOs communications are an integral part of the organizational communications, when people read CEOs’ message content, the messages will likely serve as a direct signal regarding the organization. To illustrate, as CEOs’ social media posts are commonly a feature of the firm’s communications, these are expected to be processed in the same way as for instance press releases, which are written or recorded communications of firms that are targeted at the media in order to denote valuable news (Siomkos & Malliaris, 2011). Since prior research argued that organizational communications, thus
including CEO-generated content, can influence the corporate brand, it is expected that CEOs’ message content is a factor that influences how the organization is perceived, which leads to the following hypothesis:
Hypothesis 3: A CEO’s message content affects the organization’s image.
2.4.1 Professional message content and organizational competence
Stakeholders and the public at large are increasingly demanding transparency around organizational activities and intentions (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010). Additionally, it is nowadays critical that companies demonstrate their unique value to customers for competitive advantage (Labrecque et al., 2010). This can among others be done by demonstrating organizational competence (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010), for instance through CEO communications which is a component of all organizational communications. Furthermore, as mentioned earlier, professional message content, addressing industrial issues, is suggested to be associated with the trait ‘competence’, defined as “the degree to which someone evaluates the CEO’s knowledge of the business and capability as highly competent” (Boekaerts, 1991). Considering the above, earlier research suggests a relation between organizational competence and professional message content rather than personal, societal or mixed. To conclude, when reading CEOs’ professional message content, this demonstrates competent behaviour that likely serves as a direct signal of the corporate brand, since CEOs’ communications are an integral aspect of organizational communications. Hence, the first sub-hypothesis of Hypothesis 3 goes as follows:
Hypothesis 3a: When the CEO posts predominantly professional message content rather than
societal, personal or mixed, the organization is perceived as more competent.
2.4.2 Personal message content and organizational authenticity
Organizations frequently communicate their mission and vision as part of their marketing efforts, which shows what the company stands for and aims to achieve (Siomkos & Malliaris, 2011). And CEOs often serve as corporate spokespersons communication such information. Furthermore, as mentioned earlier, personal message content, addressing personal matters, is suggested to be associated with the trait ‘authenticity’, which is defined as “the ability to align one’s values and behaviour according to one’s true self” (Avolio & Gardner, 2005). Thus, earlier research seems to indicate a relation between organizational authenticity and personal message content rather than professional, societal or mixed. Building upon the previous points, the following is expected. When a CEO posts predominantly personal message content, this demonstrates authentic behaviour that likely serves as a direct signal of the corporate brand, since CEOs communications are an integral aspect of organizational communications. Based on the aforementioned, the following sub-hypothesis is proposed:
Hypothesis 3b: When the CEO posts predominantly personal message content rather than
professional, societal or mixed, the organization is perceived as more authentic.
2.4.3 Societal message content and organizational empathy
Particularly in times of crisis, companies increase their efforts to limit the negative effects on the organization’s image by emphasizing information that indicates their socially responsible activities in managing this crisis (Siomkos & Malliaris, 2011). These attempts are done in order to form the desired impressions of the organization. As CEOs frequently serve as corporate spokespersons, CEOs are often those that communicate CSR information to the customers and the public in general. As mentioned earlier, societal message content, addressing for instance CSR matters denoting the organization’s care about the society, seems associated with the trait ‘empathy’, which is defined as “the ability to share someone’s feelings” (Loden, 1985). Overall, earlier research seems to indicate a relation between organizational empathy and societal message content rather than professional, personal or mixed. Building upon the previous points, the following is expected. When CEOs post predominantly societal message content, this demonstrates empathic behaviour that likely serves as a direct signal of the corporate brand, since CEOs communications are an integral aspect of organizational communications. Accordingly, the following sub-hypothesis is formed:
Hypothesis 3c: When the CEO posts predominantly societal message content rather than
professional, personal or mixed, the organization is perceived as more empathic.
To recap the previous three hypotheses, what CEOs post in terms of message content is expected to influence which trait is observed strongest of the CEO. Additionally, image transfer of the CEO’s image to the organization’s image is expected. And lastly, it is suggested that the CEOs’ message content affects the organization’s image. However, it seems unlikely that the effect of CEOs’ message content on both the CEO’s and the organization’s image is not affected by contextual factors. In fact, literature shows a strong consensus regarding perceived stereotypic differences between the male and female gender in relation to leadership positions. Hence, these gender role differences are explained next and subsequently, how the CEO’s gender may serve as a moderator.
2.5 The CEO’s gender moderating the effect of CEOs’ message content on the CEO’s image
Previous research showed that perceptions others hold of CEOs cannot be entirely controlled by CEOs themselves as the CEO’s image is also affected by whether the CEO is male or female. Specifically, many researchers observed differences in terms of leadership style, and argue that female and male CEOs are perceived in a distinct, stereotypic manner (e.g., Sargent, 1981; Heilman et al., 1989; Kunkel, Dennis, & Waters, 2003). Male CEOs are typically characterized by traits such as competence, competitiveness, objectivity and an unemotional approach to problem solving (Eagly & Wood, 1991; Loden, 1985). Female
CEOs, on the contrary, are argued to operate with a feminine leadership style that is characterized by empathy, warmth, deliberate collaboration, helpfulness and intuitive problem solving (Eagly & Wood, 1991; Loden, 1985; Ashmore, Del Boca, & Wohlers, 1986; Eagly, Dickman, Johannesen-Schmidt, & Koenig, 2004). The above associations are parallel to the Role Congruence Theory (RCT), which postulates that there is little correspondence between leadership roles and women while strongly associating leadership roles with men (Eagly & Karau, 2002). An underlying reason is that women are expected to be helpful, understanding and kind, which contradicts from general expectations of leadership roles. In fact, leadership roles are associated with independence, decisiveness and agentic behaviours (Brenner, Tomkiewicz, & Schein, 1989), which strongly converges with expectations of the male gender (Eagly & Karau, 2002).
The aforementioned literature thus suggests strong perceptual differences between gender roles, yet how could this affect the impact of CEOs’ message content on the CEO’s image? While each of the three CEO social media strategies are expected to be most strongly associated with one of the three critical CEO traits, the degree to which the trait is observed might be influenced by the perceived fit with the CEO’s gender. This expectation builds upon branding literature suggesting the impact of perceived fit on evaluations. Perceived fit is defined as the congruence or characteristic overlap between two factors (Aaker & Keller, 1990; Boush & Loken, 1991). In this case, perceived fit would be high when the trait observed based on the message content is associated with typical masculine or feminine role expectations based on stereotypical gender differences. Strong congruence will then expectedly result in observing the particular trait stronger for the CEO with the highest fit regarding his or her gender. On the contrary, when there is no relevant association with either the stereotypic male or female gender role, the CEO’s gender will probably be irrelevant in the context. In sum, it is expected that the CEO’s gender will function as a moderator, thereby affecting the impact of the CEO’s social media strategy on the CEO’s image. The strength of influence will depend on the degree of perceived fit. Thus, identical message content posted by a female versus male CEO, holding the same position within the same industry, may evoke different perceptions of the CEO’s leading trait. Based on the above, the following hypothesis is proposed:
Hypothesis 4: The CEO’s message content on social media influences the perceived personality
trait of the CEO, which is moderated by the CEO’s gender.
2.5.1 Professional message content, the male gender and CEO competence
Professional message content is hypothesized to reflect CEO competence. However, research suggests that perceived competence is not solely based on one’s judgement of leadership effectiveness (Lord & Maher, 1991). In fact, perceived competence is argued to also depend on expectations regarding normative features of the male gender role (Johnson, Murphy, Zewdie, & Reichard, 2008). Previous studies indicated that male CEOs are more strongly associated with competence compared to their female counterparts, even without evidence of professional achievement labels (e.g., Eagly & Wood, 1991; Dennis & Kunkel, 2004; Loden, 1985). Overall, the strong association between the male gender role and
competence shows meaning with professional message content, which reflects competence. Hence, there seems to be strong congruence between professional message content, the male gender stereotype and perceived competence. The opposite can be argued for female CEOs. Various studies namely showed dominant perceptions of females being less qualified for leadership positions such as a CEO position, and specifically, as less competent than men (e.g., Riger & Galligan, 1980). Consequently, the female gender has a weaker association with competence, resulting in lower perceived fit. To conclude, when both a male and female CEO would post identical professional message content rather than another type of content on social media, it is expected that the male CEO is viewed as more competent due to high perceived fit. This leads to the following sub-hypothesis:
Hypothesis 4a: When posting predominantly professional message content rather than societal,
personal or mixed, a male CEO is perceived as more competent than a female CEO.
2.5.2 Personal message content, the male gender and CEO authenticity
Personal message content is hypothesized to reflect CEO authenticity. However, perceived authenticity will not be solely based on the type of message content a CEO posts on social media. In fact, prior literature seems to suggest a strong association between authenticity and the male gender role. The role congruity theory postulates that the male gender is characterized with direct and decisive behaviour (Eagly & Karau, 2002), which relates to authenticity. This association shows meaning with personal message content, as this shows one’s true self and therefore reflects the trait authenticity. As such, there seems to be strong congruence between personal message content, the male gender stereotype and perceived authenticity. Female CEOs, on the other hand, are rather unassociated as women tend to be inclined to stay ‘within the boundaries of tolerable behaviour’ (Morrison, White, & Van Velsor, 1987). Previous studies identified more communal behaviours for women in CEO positions than for men (e.g., Hall & Friedman, 1999; Eagly & Johnson, 1990). As a result, female CEOs experience more difficulty in transparently communicating their personal values and tend to compromise with their social environment. The recommendation to “know yourself and act on your beliefs”, which reflects the nature of authenticity, thus seems due to role incongruity less achievable for female CEOs (Eagly, 2005). In sum, considering the aforementioned, by sharing personal information, the CEO is suggested to demonstrate authentic behaviour. Authenticity is a typical characteristic of the male gender. Consequently, there will likely be a high degree of perceived fit, which results in the following expectation. When both a male and female CEO would post identical personal message content rather than another type of content on social media, the male CEO is viewed as more authentic. Hence, the following sub-hypothesis is proposed:
Hypothesis 4b: When posting predominantly personal message content rather than professional,
2.5.3 Societal message content, the female gender and CEO empathy
Societal message content is hypothesized to reflect CEO empathy. However, perceived empathy will likely not be solely based on the message content but may also be influenced by the degree of perceived fit with the CEO’s gender, driven by stereotypical gender role expectations. The Role Congruence Theory holds that women are strongly typically characterized with empathy (Eagly & Karau, 2002). This is supported by various studies demonstrating higher perceived empathy for female CEOs in comparison to their male counterparts (e.g., Eagly & Wood, 1991; Dennis & Kunkel, 2004; Loden, 1985). Women are generally expected to be helpful, understanding and kind (Brenner et al., 1989). As such, these associations of the female gender role show meaning with societal content, which addresses understanding of other’s circumstances, as it reflects the trait empathy, defined as “the ability to share someone’s feelings” (Loden, 1985). Consequently, there seems to be strong congruence between societal message content, the female gender stereotype and perceived empathy. Based on the aforesaid, by sharing societal information the CEO is suggested to demonstrate empathic behaviour. As empathy has a high degree of perceived fit with the female gender, it is expected that when both a male and female CEO would post identical societal content rather than another type of content on social media, the female CEO is viewed as more empathic. The following sub-hypothesis is therefore suggested:
Hypothesis 4c: When posting predominantly societal message content rather than professional,
personal or mixed, a female CEO is perceived as more empathic than a male CEO.
2.6 The CEO’s gender moderating the effect of CEOs’ message content on the organization’s image
As argued in section 2.4, CEOs’ message content serves as a direct cue regarding how the organization is when it is processed as a component of the organization’s communications. For instance, when a CEO of organization X post professional information about the revolutionary business innovations of the organization, the organization is expected to look competent. Yet simultaneously, as prior research provides strong evidence that perceptions are influenced by gender role expectations (e.g., Sargent, 1981; Heilman et al., 1989), it might be that the effect of CEOs’ message content on the organization’s image is also influenced by whether the CEO is male or female. Specifically, when posting predominantly one type of message content, this content will reflect a certain personality trait it is associated with. In turn, this trait might be more strongly associated with either the stereotypical male or female gender role. Consequently, when there is perceived fit between the CEO’s gender and the trait reflected by the type of content posted, the effect of the CEO’s gender as a moderator will likely be stronger. In this case, fit will serve as a cue for the audience to use to make inferences about the corporate brand. To conclude, the CEO’s message content, as a direct signal regarding the organization, likely impacts how the organization is perceived. The strength of this impact will however be influenced by the degree of perceived fit between the observed trait and the CEO’s gender. The final hypothesis, sub-divided into three sub-hypotheses, goes as follows:
Hypothesis 5: A CEO’s message content affects the organizational brand, which is moderated by
the CEO’s gender.
2.6.1 Professional message content, the male gender, and organizational competence
CEOs’ professional message content is proposed to be a direct signal of the corporate brand as part of organizational communications, thereby communicating the trait ‘competence’. According to various prior literature such as the Role Congruence Theory, this trait is strongly associated with the male gender role (e.g., Eagly & Karau, 2002; Eagly & Wood, 1991; Loden, 1985). This is supported by studies that showed higher perceived competence of male CEOs in comparison to female CEOs (e.g., Loden, 1985). Considering the previous points, the following is expected. When both a male and female CEO post identical professional message content rather than another type of message content, the organization with the male CEO will be perceived as more competent. This will be due to high perceived fit between the trait competence and the male gender role. Thereby thus also reasoning that the CEO’s professional message content serves as a direct cue for how the organization is while expecting the CEO’s gender to serve as a moderator. As such, the following sub-hypothesis is proposed:
Hypothesis 5a: When posting predominantly professional message content rather than societal,
personal or mixed, the organization is perceived as more competent when a male CEO posts instead of a female CEO.
2.6.2 Personal message content, the male gender, and organizational authenticity
CEOs’ personal message content is proposed to be a direct signal of the corporate brand as part of organizational communications, thereby communicating the trait ‘authenticity’. Previous research has demonstrated high perceived fit between the authenticity and male gender role (e.g., Eagly, 2005). This is among others due to men being characterized by direct and decisive behaviour, and women typically showing communical, compromising behaviours (e.g., Eagly & Karau, 2002). This latter is rather contradictory to the essence of authenticity. Hence, considering the previous points, the following is expected. When both a male and female CEO post identical personal message content rather than another type of message content, the organization with the male CEO will be perceived as more authentic. This will be due to high perceived fit with the trait authenticity and the male gender role. Thereby thus also reasoning that the CEO’s personal message content serves as a direct cue for how the organization is while expecting the CEO’s gender to serve as a moderator. Accordingly, the following sub-hypothesis is formed:
Hypothesis 5b: When posting predominantly personal message content rather than professional,
societal or mixed, the organization is perceived as more authentic when a male CEO posts instead of a female CEO.
2.6.2 Societal message content, the female gender, and organizational empathy
CEOs’ societal message content is proposed to be a direct signal of the corporate brand as part of organizational communications, thereby communicating the trait ‘empathy’. Previous research has demonstrated high perceived fit between the female gender role and empathy. Specifically, women are expected to be supporting, understanding and kind, which are features of empathy (e.g., Eagly & Wood, 1991; Dennis & Kunkel, 2004; Loden, 1985; Brenner et al., 1989). Based on the previous points, the following is expected. When both a male and female CEO post identical societal message content rather than another type of message content, the organization with the female CEO will be perceived as more empathic. This will be due to high perceived fit between the trait empathy and the female gender role. Thereby thus also reasoning that the CEO’s societal message content serves as a direct cue for how the organization is while expecting the CEO’s gender to serve as a moderator. Accordingly, the following sub-hypothesis is formed:
Hypothesis 5c: When posting predominantly societal message content rather than professional,
personal or mixed, the organization is perceived as more empathic when a female CEO posts instead of a male CEO.
In order to provide a clear overview, the research model in Figure 1 depicts the relationships under study.
