Does the offered parenting support suit the demand for care in post-conflict Burundi?
A mixed method study into the perception of general parents, parents with a history as child soldier and supporters on parenting challenges and needs for support
The University of Amsterdam & Eafs-International
August 2014
Master Thesis Parenting Support Pedagogical and Educational Sciences University of Amsterdam
Niska Stoker 10610634
Supervisor University of Amsterdam: A. van den Akker Second reviewer University of Amsterdam: C. Zwiep Supervisor Eafs-International: E. Smallegange
Index
Abstract ... 3
Introduction ... 4
Parenting Challenges ... 5
Parenting Challenges for FCS with Young Children ... 7
Coping with Parenting Challenges ... 9
Present Study ... 10 Method ... 11 Study Design ... 11 Procedure ... 11 Participants ... 12 Ethical Considerations ... 13 Measures ... 14 Coding ... 15 Parenting challenges. ... 15
Cause of parenting challenges. ... 16
Coping with parenting challenges. ... 16
Currently offered support... 16
Additional parenting support. ... 17
Analysis ... 17
Results ... 17
Quantitative Measures ... 17
Qualitative Measures ... 18
Parenting challenges. ... 18
Cause of parenting challenges. ... 27
Coping with parenting challenges. ... 30
Currently offered support... 32
Additional parenting support. ... 34
The three main parenting challenges. ... 37
Discussion ... 40
Parenting Challenges ... 40
Cause of Parenting Challenges ... 41
Coping with Parenting Challenges ... 42
Currently Offered Support ... 42
Additional Parenting Support ... 42
Recommendations for Future Research ... 45 Conclusion ... 45 References ... 48
Abstract
Nowadays, eight year after ending the civil war in Burundi we see that the children formerly associated with armed groups in this war – commonly referred to as child soldiers – are adults now and starting their own families. This study aimed to examine the fit between the need for parenting support for FCS with young children and the currently available care, with the purpose to see how available parenting support can be strengthened in the future. Face to face interviews were held with FCS with young children and supporters, never-conscripted parents were included as control group. Both parent groups experienced most problems related to their child’s behaviour, another common problem was the parent-child relationship. FCS mentioned more problems related to the aggressive behaviour of the parents than never-conscripted parents. All parents mentioned that they have a need for parenting support, primarily training and advices. Overall, supporters saw the same parenting challenges in their community, they also mentioned problems related to aggression in FCS. Supporters tried to help parents by giving advices and trainings on child development, but that they often lacked materials to offer adequate support. The currently available care in Burundi fits the demand for parenting support but the problem is that parents that have a need for help are not reached by professional. As solution currently available support structures should be strengthened with material and education of more supporters to increase its capacity.
Introduction
Burundi, a small country in Sub-Saharan Africa, has experienced decades of cyclical outbreaks of violence, due to a civil war. This cruel war between the Tutsi-dominated government and the Hutu rebels made serious infringement on human rights, including mass mutilations, massacres and the pervasive use of children in armed conflict. Both Burundian armed forces and political groups recruited children for a variety of tasks. There are no reliable figures on the number of children who have been conscripted in this cruel war, however estimates range between 6,000 and 7,000 (Amnesty International, 2004). A child associated with an armed group or armed force is internationally referred to as child soldier. It is important to note that the term child soldier does not only refer to a child who is taking or has taken part in hostilities. It refers to boys and girls who have been recruited or used by an armed force or any armed group in any capacity. They are used as fighters, cooks, porters, messengers, spies or for sexual purposes (UNICEF, 2007).
Nowadays, eight years after the signing of the ceasefire agreement between the government and the last active rebel group, Forces Nationales de Libération, the Burundians are working hard on rebuilding their countries and their lives. However they face great challenges due to political instability, economical problems and national disunity (Jordans et al., 2012). Moreover, we see that these young soldiers are adults now and starting their own families. Although a lot of research has been done on the influence of experienced trauma on parenting stress (Banyard, Williams, & Siegel, 2003) and the long-term outcomes of trauma on the wellbeing of former child soldiers (FCS) (Betancourt et al., 2013), little is known about the parenting challenges experienced by parents with a background as a child soldier. We expect that FCS with young children experience more parenting challenges than other parents, based on their struggle with psychological distress linked to their child-soldiering experiences
years after demobilization. For this reason, there is a need for more knowledge on the stress these FCS experience to be able to offer adequate help.
The help offered by national and international organisations to rebuild the Burundian society is mainly focussed on the primary needs of its citizens, like nutrition, health and safety. However, there seems to be a shortage of psychosocial care and especially parenting support in this country. With this pilot study we want to investigate the need and supply for parenting support for FCS in Burundi, to see where future parenting interventions can
contribute to the currently available care. To get an insight into the current needs for parenting support and offered care, we want to interview both parents with a background as a child soldier and supporters on their perception of parenting challenges experienced by FCS and adequate support for these challenges.
Parenting Challenges
The task of parenting is a highly complex one that often must be performed within very demanding situations and requires a tremendous commitment in time and energy (Belsky & Rovine, 1984; Abidin, 1990). This task can be experienced as challenging or stressful by the caretaker. Parenting is the process of upbringing and caring for a child from infancy to the time the child is considered an adult (Rindfuss & Brewster, 1996). This is done by fulfilling the basic needs of the child and via socialization, a process whereby ignorant individuals are taught the behaviours, skills, norms and values that are needed for competent functioning in the culture in which the child is growing up (Grusec & Hastings, 2007). Parenthood presents a whole range of new challenges and the adaptation to new skills which can cause parenting stress (Cutrona, 1984; Deater-Deckard, 1998).
Parents may experience challenges in different aspects of parenting, which ask for different types of parenting support. In this study we distinguish between two types of
challenges that parents may experience in the upbringing of their child, expressed as primary
challenges and secondary challenges. Primary challenges are challenges that parents
experience in fulfilling the basic needs of their children. According to Maslow, basic needs are based upon physiological and safety needs, such as food, water, rest and health, security and safety (Maslow, 1943). Secondary challenges are formulated as challenges that parents experience in the process of socialization, whereby children are taught the skills, behaviour, norms and values of the culture in which the child is growing up (Grusec & Hastings, 2007). The guidance of the child’s adaptation to the social world requires adequate parenting practices, as parent-child interaction, parental competence and the stimulation of the child’s development (Darling & Steinberg, 1993).
Prior research suggests that social support of relationships plays a role, not only in psychosocial adjustment (Betancourt & Khan., 2008), but also in the adjustment to
parenthood (Cutrona, 1984). Social support is defined as material assistance and informational or emotional support by a wide range of contexts (Melson, Windecker-Nelson & Schwarz). This support for parents comes from a variety of sources, broadly grouped into social support, offered by family, friends and neighbours, and professional parenting support, provided through community-based organisations and professionals. Both types of support focusses on the secondary parenting challenges of parents, but professional parenting support focusses on the intervention to reduce risks and promote protective factors in the parenting situation (Moran, Ghate & Merwe, 2004). Seeking social support or professional support is considered a coping resource from which people may draw when handling stressors, such as parenting challenges (Thoit, 1995). Support can function to reduce the harmful effect of exposure to stress (Wheaton, 1985), suggesting that FCS who experience adequate support from their community, experience less parenting challenges in daily life. To offer this adequate support it is necessary to know what challenges parents experience in their daily life and how they
think they can be supported in these situations. It is important that there is a good fit between the demand and supply of parenting support.
Parenting Challenges for FCS with Young Children
Given that parenting can be stressful for parents in general it is plausible that parents with a traumatic history, like child soldiers, experience parenting as more challenging. The theory of
stress accumulation posits that the risk for poor developmental outcomes and mental health
problems increases with the accumulation of disadvantageous life experiences (Rutter,
Pickles, Murray & Eaves, 2001). This suggests that the experienced accumulation of stress, in the form of prolonged and repeated exposure to trauma, affects the wellbeing of a FCS, his perception on parenting stress and parenting challenges he experiences. Worthman and Panter-Brick (2008) found that exposure to stressful events can cause a psychobiological activation, which may compromise individuals’ capacity to readjust when repeatedly activated. This results in increasing sensitivity to physical and psychological problems throughout the life span. When these stressful events occur early in the lifespan, the accumulation of stressors may impede the protective processes (Nelson et al., 2007). This suggests that FCS with young children have less flexibility when it comes to challenging parenting situations and therefore experience parenting as more stressful.
Prior research also showed that being a witness, victim and perpetrator of violence at a young age has negative mental health consequences for FCS (Bayer, Klasen & Adam, 2007; Kohrt et al., 2008). Case studies among FCS in El Salvador showed the devastation in early childhood. The respondents showed problems concerning trust, since experiencing the traumas during childhood destroy the ability to establish basic trust in competent and
nurturing caretakers. Furthermore, they were not given the opportunity to develop autonomy or to learn how to be adults in peace time (Dickson-Gomez, 2002).
Besides the experiences in the armed forces, post-conflict factors, such as educational and economic deprivation, stigmatization and discrimination, have been associated with negative mental health outcomes (Betancourt, Agnew-Blais, Gilman, Williams & Ellis, 2010). The social stress theory (Aneshensel, 1992) draws attention to understanding the influence of social responses of stigma and to the possibility that the psychosocial adjustment of FCS is affected by the post-conflict environment (Betancourt et al., 2010). The theory suggests stress and resources as mediators in the relationship between social structure and mental health problems. It also suggests that FCS who have experienced a stressful post-conflict situation have a higher risk in developing mental health problems and more experienced parenting challenges. Therefore, stigma may be an important factor in understanding the influence of post-war experiences on the wellbeing of FCS, long after the end of war.
The aforementioned theories describe how the experiences during and after the
conscription influence the wellbeing of the FCS, the consequent parenting stress this causes is shown by several models (Abidin, 1990; Abidin ,1992; Belsky, 1984). Abidin (1990) notes that the causes of parenting stress can only be understood by multivariate models that includes the interaction between variables and behavioural and cognitive changes as a result of
recurrent events. His model hypothesizes that parenting stress is partially influenced through the parent’s characteristics (Abidin, 1990). This means that parents with a high score on mental wellbeing experience less parenting stress than parents with a low score on mental wellbeing.
Research, in conjunction with the aforementioned models, has proven the influence of mental wellbeing on parenting challenges. Prior research suggested that cumulative and high rates of trauma relate to decreased parenting satisfaction, child neglect and physical
punishment (Banyard et al, 2003). Cohen, Hien and Batchelder (2008) found that cumulative maternal trauma was a significant predictor on potential parental abuse, punitiveness, and
psychological and physical aggression. Additionally, research among war veterans showed that stress, due to trauma, manifest in detachment from family activities and reduced involvement with children. Furthermore, they found a deregulated parent-child interaction, particularly in stressful situations (Gewirtz, Polusny, DeGarmo, Khaylis & Erbes, 2010).
Coping with Parenting Challenges
Effective coping strategies can contribute to emotion regulation or management of the situation. For this reason, present study will investigate which coping strategies are currently used to see if there is a need to include the teaching of effective coping strategies in new parenting interventions. Coping is defined as the cognitive and behavioural efforts made in response to a stress appraisal, for example trying to solve the problem, trying to forget about the situation or asking someone for advice. It refers to what the person actually thinks and does in a particular stressful situation (Folkman & Lazarus, 1980). Such efforts serve two main functions: the management of the situation that is the source of stress (problem-focused
coping) and the regulation of stressful emotions (emotion-focused coping) (Lazarus, 1993).
The term coping is used whether the process is effective or not. Parenting support can contribute to the way parents handle stressful parenting situations and teach them how to effectively manage the conflict-situation or improve the regulation of stressful emotions.
Besides individual behaviour to handle a stressful parenting situation, parents may look for informational and emotional support in the community to reduce the problem. Obrist, Pfeiffer and Henly (2010) suggest that the community can play a protective key role in the adaptation of parents to challenging situations. They propose five types of resources of support in the community; financial, physical, natural, human and social capital. Financial, physical, natural and human capital are related to the primary needs, like nutrition, shelter, financial resources, health and the skills, knowledge and ability to labour. Social capital is
related to the secondary parenting challenges and is defined as material assistance and
information or emotional support by a wide range of contexts (Melson, Windecker-Nelson & Schwarz, 1998). It is considered to predict positive attitudes in parenting (Colletta, 1981) and better parent-child interaction (Jennings, Stagg & Connors, 1991). ‘Parenting support’ is a wide term covering many different things. For this reason, the present study distinguishes professional parenting support from social support in parenting situations in order to examine what kind of support is needed and by whom this can be offered. Social support in parenting situations is considered to be informal help that is offered by family, friends and neighbours. Professional parenting support are organised interventions provided by community-based organisations and professionals aimed at reducing risks and promoting protective factors in the parenting situation (Moran, Ghate, & van der Merwe, 2004).
Present Study
The present pilot study builds on prior research by investigating the influence of experienced war trauma and the post-war situation in FCS on parenting challenges and possible help sources from supporters. With this bottom up study we want to examine the fit between the need and supply for parenting support for FCS with young children in Burundi to see where future parenting interventions can contribute to the currently available care. We included both FCS with young children and supporters to get a better insight into the fit between the demand and supply in parenting support. Furthermore we also interviewed never conscripted parents to assess whether there are differences between both types of parents. This article explores the main question ‘Does the offered parenting support for FCS with young children suit the demand for care in post-conflict Burundi?’ by asking (1) ‘Which parenting challenges do FCS with young children and never conscripted parents in Burundi experience in daily life?’ (2) ‘What is the cause of these challenges?’ (3) ‘How do parents cope with such challenges?’ (4)
‘What help is currently offered in these parenting situations?’ and (5)’ How could parents be supported in these challenging parenting situations?’
Method
Study DesignThis explorative mixed-method study was conducted to explore the fit between the need and
supply for parenting support for FCS with young children in Burundi, to see where future
parenting interventions can contribute to the currently available care. To get a good insight
into this fit we included both FCS with young children and supporters in our research. We
used a group of never conscripted parents as the control group, to see if there is a difference in
experienced parenting challenges of the conscripted parents and never conscripted parents.
FCS in Burundi can be difficult to approach due to their political marginalization in
the country (Song, de Jong, O’Hara & Koopman, 2013). Therefore, expert purposive
sampling was used to identify FCS with young children and invite them to take part in the
present study. The research team worked with a local nongovernmental organization (NGO)
that provides social support in the community. Due to time-limit and safety reasons, we chose
four north-western provinces for the data collection of this research (Bubanza, Bujumbura
Mairie, Bujumbura Rurale, Cibitoke).
Procedure
Semi-structured interviews with each of the 30 parents were undertaken in the community, each interview lasted 45-60 minutes. The semi-structured interviews with each of the 18 supporters were undertaken at their office or in the community, each lasting from 60-90 minutes. All interviews consisted of a quantitative part and a qualitative part. They were
conducted in Kirundi by a member of the research team. Sessions were audiotaped and later transcribed and translated.
Participants
The study included three groups of participants: FCS and general parents with a young child and supporters. The criteria used for participation selection was that the FCS had been aged under 20 at the time of their enrolment in the armed group, and had at least one child in the age range between 0 and 16 years at time of the interview. In total, 15 FCS (n = 11 male, n = 4 female) were included, with a mean age of 25 years, ranging from 21 to 35 years. The mean number of children living in the house was two, with a mean age of 5 years. All FCS had spent more than 2 years in the armed group, with almost the half (n = 7) spent more than 6 years in that situation. One third (n = 10) of the respondents enrolled in the armed force before the age of 15. 14 FCS took part in a Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration (DDR) program. This program focussed on removing weapons form the soldiers, taking them out of the military structures and helping them with the process of social and economic reintegration in society (Jordans et al., 2012).
The criteria used for participation selection was that the general parent had never been conscripted in an armed force or belonged in any other way to a marginalized group, and had at least one child of their own in the age range between 0 and 16 years at time of the
interview. In total, 15 general parents (n = 7 male, and n = 8 female) were included, with a mean age of 35 years, ranging from 16 to 56 years. The mean number of children living in the house was 7, with a mean age of 11 years. In both groups 13 respondents were the biological parent of at least one of the children in the house, in the group of FCS most of the respondents were the principle caregiver (n = 14) and in the group of general parents, all of them were the principle caregiver. In the group of FCS two third (n = 10) went to primary school, 3
respondents did not follow any education and 2 participants went to secondary school. In the group of general parents more than two thirds (n = 11) went to primary school, one person did not follow any education and three parents went to secondary school.
The criteria used for participation was that the supporters were working in the local community to provide social support. We included two types of supporters, the first type were traditional healers, defined as someone who is recognized by the community in which he lives as competent to provide health care methods who are based on the social, cultural and
religious backgrounds as well as the current knowledge, attitude and beliefs regarding physical, mental and social wellbeing and the cause of the problem (Pretorius, 1999). Traditional healing includes diverse health practices and knowledge, it integrates plants, animal and/or mineral based medicines, spiritual therapies, manual techniques and are applied singularly or in combination to maintain well-being, as well to treat diagnose or prevent illness (Hoff, 1992). The second type of supporters were employees of a non-governmental organisation (NGO). The respondents worked for a NGO that is organized on national level and works in the local community to offer psychosocial care to improve the rights of children, in particular marginalized children. In total, 18 supporters (n = 15 male, n = 3 female) were included, with a mean age of 48 years, ranging from 28 to 70 years. 8 of the participants were traditional healers, 8 participants were employees of a NGO, 1 participants was unemployed and one participant has not answered this question. The participants had an average of 17 years of experience, ranging from 2 to 49 years. 10 of them had experience with offering parenting support to FCS with young children.
Ethical Considerations
Data of all participants were collected through face-to-face interviews, conducted by a team
and ethics in the week prior to the first interviews. Due to the high illiteracy in Burundi,
respondents provided an oral consent after research assistants read the consent forms.
Participants were given approximately U.S. $5 in appreciation of their participation, this
amount was determined after consultation with the NGO. Approval for the study was gained
from the administrator of the community where data collection took place.
Measures
The quantitative part of the interview focussed on the demographics of the respondents. The interview for the parents also included questions on the experienced social support from the community and family, encountered stigmatisation and its influence on the parenting
situation. Furthermore, it included the Kessler Psychological Distress Scale (K10). The K10 is a short measure on non-specific psychological distress based on 10 questions about the level of nervousness, agitation, psychological fatigue and depression, experienced by the
participant in the past 30 days. Responses were scored on a 4 points-scale, of an originally 5 points-scale, ranging from 1 ‘most of the time’ to 4 ‘never’.
The aim of the qualitative interview was to explore the fit between the need and supply for parenting support for FCS with young children in Burundi. All three respondent groups were asked questions about (1) the parenting challenges of FCS with young children and/or never conscripted parents (2) the cause of these challenges (3) how parents cope with these challenges (4) what help currently is offered and (5) what additional help can contribute to supporting parents in these parenting situations. Supporters were also asked if they had the necessary knowledge and material to offer adequate parenting support. Parents and supporters were informed of the division of parenting challenges and the focus on secondary parenting challenges in the interview. When respondents named primary challenges they were reminded
of the purpose of the interview and asked if they could relate these primary parenting challenges to secondary parenting challenges.
Coding
All qualitative data was analysed based on a predetermined code set. The main codes of this set were defined based on the interview design. Sub codes were formulated on the basis of literature.
Parenting challenges.
Answers related to the parenting challenges of FCS with young children and never
conscripted parents were divided into the codes ‘primary challenges’, ‘secondary challenges’, ‘other present problems in the family’, ‘other (external) challenges’ and ‘no experienced challenges’. Primary challenges are challenges related to the health, protection and safety of the child. This code was divided into the sub codes ‘nutrition’, ‘shelter’, ‘health & hygiene’, ‘security & safety’ and ‘financial resources’. Secondary challenges are related to the process of teaching children the skills, behaviour patterns, norms and values of the culture in which the child is growing up (Grusec & Hastings, 2007). This code was divided into the sub codes ‘child behaviour’, ‘parent behaviour’ and ‘parenting’. Other codes were ‘other problems in the family’ and ‘other (external) challenges’. These are problems that are not directly related to the socialization, but do have an influence on the family situation, like educational
problems and family conflict. Other (external) challenges are external influences on the parenting situation, like the lack of social support and stigmatisation. The code ‘no experienced challenges’ was given when the parent expressed that he or she did not experience any parenting challenges.
Cause of parenting challenges.
The answers on the cause of the parenting challenges of Burundian parents were also divided into the codes ‘primary challenges’, ‘secondary challenges’, ‘other present problems in the family’, ‘other (external) challenges’ and the associated sub codes. Additional to the sub codes that were used for the coding of parenting challenges, a few parent characteristics were added, like ‘lack of time’, ‘history as child soldier’, ‘lack of education’, ‘stress accumulation’ and ‘childhood or parenting situation when respondent was little’.
Coping with parenting challenges.
Parents were asked what they did to solve the problem in the particular parenting situation. Answers regarding to coping were divided into the codes ‘nothing’, ‘accepting responsibility’, ‘confrontive coping’, ‘distancing’, escape-avoidance’, ‘planful problem solving’, positive re-appraisal’, ‘seeking social support’ and ‘self-controlling’ (Lazarus, 1993).
Currently offered support.
The community can have a protective key role in reducing the experienced parenting challenges by offering help. Answers regarding this offered help were divided in primary, secondary and no offered help. Primary offered help was subdivided into ‘financial capital’, like savings and credits, ‘physical capital’, like transport, shelter and energy, ‘natural capital’, like land, water and wildlife, and ‘human capital’, the ability to work, health and knowledge. ‘Social capital’, like networks, groups and trust was positioned under secondary offered help (Obrist, Pfeiffer & Henly, 2010). Social capital was split into social support in parenting situations and professional parenting support. Social support in parenting situations is considered to be informal help that is offered by family, friends and neighbours. And professional parenting support is organised interventions provided by professionals.
Additional parenting support.
Answers on the additional support could contribute to helping parents in these parenting situations were also divided into primary, secondary and no additional help and its additional sub codes.
Analysis
The summary of the participants demographics and statistical analysis were performed using SPSS version 22. The narrative data was coded and analysed using a thematic template analysis in MAXQDA version 11. Analysis focussed on how many participants mentioned a specific (sub) code. The interrater reliability was measured based on the fifteen interviews of the never-conscripted parents. The reliability based on code existence in the document was 92%, and the reliability based on code frequency in the document was 91%. Furthermore, respondents were asked to name the three main parenting challenges and score these challenges on the degree of influence on daily parenting, based on a scale from 1 to 10. During the qualitative analysis, subthemes were added to the predetermined code set, based on commonalities of responses across participants.
Results
Quantitative MeasuresWe used quantitative questions and the K10 in the interview of the parents to assess other factors that could influence the parenting situation, like other present problems in the family, experienced support by family and experienced stigmatisation in the community. The FCS mentioned an average of 5 other present problems in the family (sd = 4,24). The most
common problems that were mentioned were family conflict, parental dispute and behavioural problems of the child. The general parents mentioned an average of 5,5 other present
problems in the family (sd = 4,27). They mentioned infidelity, family conflict, parental dispute and behavioural problems of the child as the most common problems.
More than two-third of the FCS (n = 11) answered that they felt less capable of taking care of their child based on their history as child soldier. ‘It’s because I usually get angry
easily because of my past’. Another FCS said, ‘I do not care about the child, I have no feelings of affection’.
The majority of the FCS (n = 13) answered that they felt part of the community, all general parents (n = 15) answered that they felt part of the community. The FCS who did not feel part of the community felt stigmatized by their family (n = 2), neighbours (n = 1), extended family (n= 1), and the community (n = 1).
On the question if the respondent felt supported by their family answered eight FCS with ‘not at all’, two with ‘a little’ and five with ‘yes, a lot’. On the same question five general parents answered with ‘not at all’, eight with ‘a little’ and two with ‘yes, a lot’. On the question if the respondent felt supported by the community answered four FCS with ‘not at all’, one with ‘a little’ and ten with ‘yes a lot’. On the same question four never-conscripted parents answered with ‘not at all’, nine with ‘a little’ and two with ‘yes a lot’.
We did not find a significant difference in the level of psychological distress between both groups, based on the K10 (FCS = 28,1, General parent = 28,2).
Qualitative Measures
Parenting challenges.
A wide variety of parenting challenges were mentioned by all respondent groups, ranging from primary challenges, like not being able to feed the child, to secondary challenges, like the parent-child interaction and the child’s behaviour. And from other
like stigmatisation. The problems that were mentioned the most by the three groups are presented in Table 1.
Supporters were first asked to name the parenting challenges that parents in general in Burundi face. Later they were asked to mention additional challenges that are specifically experienced by FCS with young children. All supporters named parenting problems in general, only thirteen supporters answered questions related to the problems of FCS. The main reason that the other five did not answer these questions was that they did not have experience in supporting FCS and therefore had no sufficient information.
Primary parenting challenges.
The primary parenting challenges, concerning fulfilling the basic needs of the child, that were mentioned the most by FCS are nutrition and financial resources.
“The main issue would be poverty. When a family is needy, it affects everyone in the family, especially children, in that, they would not get a chance to go to school, rather, they will be sent to look for jobs and bring the money at home, for the rest of the family to survive and pay the school fees on their own.”
The general parents also mentioned nutrition and financial resources as their most experienced primary parenting challenges.
Two-third of the supporters mentioned that the main primary challenges that parents in Burundi face are related to financial resources and nutrition. Moreover, they named that primary challenges were more common in families with a lot of children. Only four
supporters mentioned primary problems for FCS, the majority was related to finances. “The
Table 1.
Main parenting challenges, mentioned by FCS with young children, never-conscripted parents and supporters.
Major categories Subthemes (times mentioned) Illustrative quotes
Main parenting challenges mentioned by 15 FCS with young children
Primary challenges Financial problems (3) “When a family is needy, it affects everyone in
the family, especially children”
Secondary challenges Child behaviour
Difficult behaviour child (12) - Disobedience (7) - Vagabondage (5)
“Another thing is that I can ask them something to do and they refuse because I’m like nothing to them.”
Parenting Parent-child relationship (3) “When I become authoritative to him, the child
becomes scared of me.” Main parenting challenges mentioned by 15 never-conscripted parents
Primary challenges Financial problems (3) “There is no money to take him to the hospital” Secondary challenges
Child behaviour Difficult behaviour child (13) - Disobedience (3)
- Aggressive behaviour (2) - Vagabondage (2)
“My child has started coming late at home and he also has bad friends.”
“They don’t want to listen to their parents.”
Other present problems in the family
Educational problems (3) “The problem is that children do not see the
importance of going to school” Main parenting challenges for Burundian parents mentioned by 18 supporters
Secondary challenges
Child behaviour Difficult behaviour child (12) - Stealing (4)
- Lying (3) - Impoliteness (3)
“The first major challenges is related to respect, children are disrespectful.” “Children can be aggressive, thieves, have behavioural problems or get pregnant.”
Parenting Parent-child relationship (4) “There is no communication between me and
my children”
Other problems in the family
Educational problems (5) “They drop out of school and learn or collect
bad behaviour on the street” Main parenting challenges for FCS with young children mentioned by 13 supporters
Primary challenges Financial problems (3) “The major challenge that parents face is
poverty”
Secondary challenges
Child behaviour Difficult behaviour child (6) - Vagabondage (3)
“Boys spend time in the Ligala”
Parent behaviour Difficult behaviour parent (5) - Aggressive behaviour (3)
“… and you find that they are not patient and when their kids make a mistake they don’t think first and just beat them.”
Parenting Parenting competence (3) “They lack the way to resolve the problem
because they have other challenges that they are facing in life”
reintegration did not support them. (…) That is why their children do not go to school, because they cannot afford to pay the fees.”
Secondary parenting challenges.
The secondary challenges that were mentioned the most by the FCS are problems concerning the child behaviour. Of child behaviour all FCS stressed about the behavioural problems of the child. One of the problems that were mentioned the most was disobedience. “I can ask
them to do something and they refuse, because they see I am like nothing to them. They
disobey a lot because they do not accept that I send them to do what I want.”. Another
common problem was aggressive behaviour of the child. One FCS reported, “A problem is
that my child is fighting with others.”. Another one mentioned, “Bad manners make children
develop violent behaviours, such as beating up their parents.”. The third problem that was
mentioned the most was vagabondage. “Sometimes you go to work and you find that your
children have gone vagabonding while they have not helped you at all.” Another one
mentioned, “Another problem is when he does not get something to eat. Then he can go far to
the neighbourhood and refuses to come back home. If we cannot find him, he can even spend
the night somewhere else.” Parents mentioned that the behavioural problems of their children
and the youth in the community often is centred around the ligala, or youth gangs. Parents have the belief that children adopt bad behaviours in the ligala and take them into the home setting (Jordans, Tol & Komproe, 2011).
Only half of the FCS mentioned behaviour of one of the parents as a parenting problem. Most of them mentioned aggressive behaviour of the parents as a challenge. “The
problem is that I beat my child a lot, because of this my child gets scared of me.”
Two-third of the FCS said that they experienced problems in parenting characteristics. Most of these problems were experienced in the parent-child relationship and parent-child
interaction. One respondent said, “… children will be forced to work hard to get some money
for the family. Therefore, some children are not happy with such parents.” Another one
mentioned, “Another problem is that my child is always terrified of me.”
Concerning secondary parenting challenges all never-conscripted parents mentioned difficulties in the behaviour of the child. One parent mentioned “… all problems are related
to poverty; when children are not satisfied, they develop bad behaviours like disobedience.”
The problems that the never-conscripted parents experienced the most are disobedience of the child.
“They do not want to listen to their parents. With some girls for example, you might try to tell them to avoid things and that might compromise their future and their schools. But they just see you as an old fashioned parent who is are not aware of the new way of life. And you begin to get discouraged, because they do not see that you are trying to protect them.”
Another problem was aggressive behaviour of the child. “Another problem comes in
when children assault each other physically.” Another parent mentioned, “The only issue is
that my child gets angry with me when I deny something to him.” Furthermore, parents
worried about their child’s behaviour concerning sexuality and hanging with the opposite sex.
“There is also a problem of sexual relations, you may find a student that is in 4th
grade that is
“…when I come from the market to my farm and I hear about the bad behaviours, especially about my girls in their company with boys, when you hear that they are in a relationship while they are still young and in school is stressing as a parent.”
One-third of the never-conscripted parents mentioned a parenting problem concerning the behaviour of the parent, like aggressive behaviour and alcoholism. “Sometimes my child’s
behaviours make me furious and I shout at him.” Another said, “Another problem is the
alcoholism; he gets drunk a lot.”
Six of the never-conscripted parents named problems concerning specific parenting characteristics. Most of them experienced problems in the parent-child relationship and parent-child interaction. One parent mentioned, “When a child gets scared or is afraid. I think
it is because as a parent you sometimes become harsh to educate your kids.” The answer of
another parent was, “There is no communication between me and my children.”
The secondary challenges that were mentioned the most by the supporters are challenges related to the behaviour of the child. Problematic behaviour like, vagabondage, stealing, disobedience, disrespect and sexuality or hanging with the opposite sex got the highest rates.
“When a child starts spending time in the ligala, he returns home very late (…) he becomes aggressive and returns home drunk. Sometimes he fights with his parents. The cause of all of this is poverty and not being able to study.”
One-third of the supporters mentioned problems in the parent’s behaviour. The two problems mentioned are the behavioural problems of the parent in general and its alcoholism.
One supporter said about the behaviour of the parent, “He refuses to take the child to school,
so that he can stay at home and help his parents with the domestic activities and on the land.”
Another one talked about the alcoholism, “Alcoholism is a problem, because when the parent
is fond of drinking alcohol he will spend his time drinking and forgets about the children’s
needs.”
Almost all supporters mentioned problems related to parenting characteristics, this was more than the parents did. Most of the answers were related to the parent-child relationship.
“There are children who lack affection, because their parents never showed them affection.”
“There are those who abandon school because of lack of funds. Parents can ask them to help in the plantation and the child will reply that their parents removed him from school so that he can work for them on the field. The child will never understand that parents did that because they had no money to pay the fees. This action really hurts because every parent wants the best for his child.”
Another common problem was related to stimulating child development. “The problem is the
lack of follow up by parents, parents do not care about the wellbeing of their children.”
Another mentioned, “The parents does not longer show the child the basic upbringing,
because he arrives late at home, being tired.”
Related to additional and specific challenges of FCS with young children, supporters mentioned parenting characteristics the most. One supporter explained, “Children imitate
their parents’ behaviour, for example when a child witnesses his parents fight or quarrel, this will have effect on him and when he grows up he will do the same to his wife.” Another
groups. You find that their children grow up with those skills, so that the child behaviour
becomes different from other children.”
Related to the child’s behaviour vagabondage was mentioned the most. “The children
of FCS often run away from home, because he gets beaten at home. The parent does not see
the child as a victim, because he has no emotions.”
Concerning the parent’s behaviour aggressive behaviour and the psychosocial wellbeing of the parent were rated the highest. “They have a brutal behaviour and lack
self-control.” Another explained the influence of their experiences, “They continue to remind historical incidents (…) and that incident cannot be deleted in their mind.” Another supporter
said, “The problem is that they (parents) are psychologically affected by the experiences in
the jungle.”
“Someone who has joined the army is traumatized, because he has seen people dying and dead bodies, he has been beaten in military training. When a child misbehaves his parent gets angry and remembers what he has been through in the armed conflict, he gets so angry and start beating the child.”
Other present problems in the family.
The parenting problems that are related to other problems in the family that were mentioned the most by FCS are educational problems and family conflict. Concerning educational problems parents mentioned the problem is that they cannot afford to pay the school fees or materials for the children. “The problem is that when a child wants to go to school, it is not
good that we do not have school materials.” Concerning family conflict FCS mentioned the
“Another problem is looking after our child, all by myself. And the person with whom I got the child is not helping me, it is all my responsibility.”
The parenting problems that are related to other problems in the family mentioned by never-conscripted parents were also educational problems and family conflict. The
educational problems were mostly caused by the lack of money to pay for school. “The
problem is that I cannot afford my children’s school fees.” Another educational problem was,
“The problem is that children do not see the importance of going to school.” Parental dispute
was the most common problem related to family conflict. “My partner and I, we do not talk
or communicate well with each other.” Another never-conscripted parent said “My husband
yells at me when he is drunk.”
The other present problems in the family, that were mentioned a lot by the supporters, were educational problems, of which dropout was mentioned the most. “There are children
who abandon school and start using drugs, they are aggressive, they wander around, they are
impolite and have no respect to elders, they spend time playing cards and drinking.” Another
common problem was family conflict, of which a broken family was mentioned the most. “Parents can harm their children psychologically, children simply need affection and love,
they need to live in harmony.”
Other (external) challenges.
None of the parents mentioned that they experience problems due to stigmatisation. Concerning other (external) challenges of Burundian parents, stigmatisation was named three times by the supporters, this concerned stigmatisation due to poverty and ethical
inequality. “You find that the child is marginalized due to poverty; because it is a barrier to
everything when you cannot fulfil your children’s needs.”
Three supporters mentioned stigmatisation as a challenge for FCS with young children, this stigma is based on their history as child soldier. One said, “Wherever they go
people discriminate them. People are scared of them, they say that the FCS can kill them or
steal their properties.”
No experienced parenting challenges.
Four of the FCS mentioned that they did not experience parenting challenges at the moment of the interview, the main reason was that their child was still young. One said, “I have a
small son, he has not caused me a lot of trouble.”
Three of the parents that they did not experience parenting challenges at the moment of the interview.
Cause of parenting challenges.
Thirteen FCS mentioned a cause for their parenting problems. Of the problems caused by primary challenges, poverty was mentioned the most. One parent mentioned, “But if poverty
was abolished, maybe some of these issues would reduce.” Another explained,
“The main issue would be poverty. When a family is needy, it affects everyone in the family, especially children. Because of poverty they will not get a chance to go to school, rather they will be sent to look for jobs and bring the money at home, for the rest of the family to survive and pay the school fees on their own.”
The majority of the FCS also named parent behaviour as a cause of the current parenting challenges. Almost every FCS felt that the experienced problems were related to
their backgournd as FCS. One said, “Yes it has a relation, (…) it is a lot that a person has
been through considering his lifestyle during the war; he has seen peoply dying, it destroys a
person’s heart.” Another explained, “Yes there is a relation, like in the way I beat my children. There is a time I make them suffer, especially when I remember what we have been
through in the army.” A third named, “It is because some of the parents are heartbroken, due to their past, and most of them do not have mercy towards their children.”
Half of the FCS mentioned that the currently experienced problems are causes by parenting. Parents mentioned that the behavioural problems they see in children are caused by the behaviour of the parent. “As they say ‘like father, like son’. Most of the time children
learn from their parents or the society around them.” Another mentioned, “Parents are the
ones that shape children’s life and some of them are the ones that ruin their children’s life by teaching them bad manners such as domestic violence.”
Ten never-conscripted parents named a cause for their experienced parenting
challenges. On problems related to the primary challenges of parents, poverty was mentioned the most. “All issues are related to poverty, when children are not satisfied they will develop
bad behaviours.”
Half of them also mentioned parent behaviour, particularly behavioural problems of the parent, as a cause for the parenting challenges. Lack of education and the background of the parent were mentioned as causing problems. One mentioned, “I think that if I had parents
that had taken care of me, I would have gone to school. It was impossible for me to study and
assure my future.” Another said, “All problems are related to our past and somehow define our future.”
According to the supporters the main causes of the problems were mostly related to the behaviour of the parent, parenting characteristics, and primary needs, especially poverty. Parent behaviour like lack of time for parenting and the parent’s background was mentioned the most. “Most parents spend time looking for money (…), afterwards we see that the child
has become arrogant, because parents are never there to watch their children.”
Related to parenting, supporters believed that the parent-child relationship caused the most problems. “The bad parent-child relationship can make a child misbehave so he starts
being in other related challenges such as to become a street hild, taking drugs so he can
forget the problem he has with his parents.” Another supporter mentioned, “A child needs a
dialogue, when it is not available he decides to take his own path. More often he starts
following other’s example, we know that he can acquire positive or negative influences.”
According to the supporters, other problems in the family, such as family conflict and educational problems were of influence on the experienced parenting challenges. Related to family conflict one said, “If there is a problem between a wife and husband, it causes
negative impact on the child.” Concerning educational problems one supporter mentioned, “When a child does not go to school, he starts behaving bad.”
Related to the parenting challenges of FCS, supporters believed that the behaviour of the parent and parenting mostly caused their problems.
“Problems that we mostly face is poverty problems. Here in the neighborhood we have parents who are former child soldiers, although they were demobilised they are poor. Most of them are uneducated so they work for others on the rice plantantions and gain little money.”
Almost all supporters mentioned the history of the FCS as main cause of their current parenting challenges. One said, “These people are traumatized, this reduces the strength to
support their children in their education and development.”
“The challenges that they have are numerous, because he used to be a rebel. What he has gone through left him some bad effects and that is why, even if he is integrated, his life is still full of stress. This makes him change his behaviour and he does not control himself.”
Moreover, supporters felt that the parenting competence of the FCS caused problems.
“They do not understand the fact that a child is something very fragile and needs to be taken care of.”
Coping with parenting challenges.
Most of the FCS with young children answered that they tried to solve the parenting challenge by using the coping style confrontive coping, planful problem solving and/or seeking social. Concerning confrontive coping, most of the parents said that they tried to solve the problem through advising their children and telling them to stop the bad behaviour. “Parents should
give good advices to their kids, and let them know that with such good advices and behaviors
they would make a bright future for themselves and their families (…).” Another parent
mentioned,
“As mature people, we gather children together and teach them how they should behave in life, especially towards other people, such as respect towards older people. In my society, it is everyone’s responsibility to show good manners to children as they
Half of these parents told that they punished or beat their child to show them that their
behaviour is wrong. “I first hit him to show him his mistake and then I give him some advices
to change such a bad behaviour.” FCS also answered that they tried to find a solution for the
problem by changing their own behaviour. One actively searched for information about parenting, “I usually listen to a document on the radio that is related to my issues, to see if i
can get a solution.” Another changed his aggressive behaviour,
“As a parent I have beaten him, but now I am thinking that I should not beat my child. What I have found and which helped me is that I use my mouth and tell him things. When i use it he hears me and he obeys me.”
When parents seek for social support, most of them go to their spouse or seek support in the community. “What we find as a solution I sit together with my partner and we advise
our child.” Another said, “You will place the kid in the middle of the family to advice him in
telling him that sleeping in other homes/strange homes is not good.”
Also most of the never-conscripted parents handled challenging parenting situations with confrontive coping, planful problem solving and/or seeking social support. Unlike the FCS all general parents that used a confrontive coping style said that they tried to solve the problem through advising their children. “I always talk to them as I advise them on their
“As parents, my husband and I try to advice children on issues such as going out and using drugs, but when it comes to bad behaviours, like pinching phones from people, we take serious measures and sometimes we take them to a cell for them to change.”
Only three of the never-conscripted parents also mentioned beating or punishment. One said, “If it happens, there has to be a punishment.”
Parents also answered that they tried to find a solution for the problem by making changes in their own behaviour. One parent focussed on the communication, “You try to make
them talk, to have some communication with them.” Another changed his behaviour towards
his child,
“But if you are a parent, you have to come closer to the child in order to show him that you are not authoritative, that you can help and that you are nice, and slowly the child can open up.”
When parents seek for social support, most of them go to their family, especially their spouse and extended family. “I talked to my husband about it, and we showed them that it is
not good.” Another said, “… I have to tell my husband, so that he can help me in finding a solution.”
Currently offered support.
Only two of the FCS said that they have received professional support before. One was taught by a professional about violence towards children, the other received trainings from an
organisation that focusses on women’s rights. None of the respondents received professional parenting support at the time of the interview.
In the group of the never-conscripted parents, seven respondents said that they have received parenting support in the past. One parent told that he has been supported by the church, another mentioned that she received help from a friend that is like a mother to the children. The others have received trainings and were taught how they can educate their children.
The primary care that supporters mostly offered was related to human capital, supported said they give advices concerning finding a job and going to school. “We are
providing jobs for some of them, and sometimes we give them animals to take care of and get
a little income from.” Moreover, they also offered care concerning natural capital, supporters
gave medical advice, especially practices of traditional healing. “I support a sick man with
traditional medicine.”
All supporters but one mentioned that they provide secondary parenting support, so they offer social capital. Most of them tried to help parents and their children by giving advices, not only to the parents, but also to the children. They want to show parents that it is important to take good care of their children and they advise them in how to interact with their offspring. “We meet with parents and try to make them understand that they need to take care
of their children.” Another said, “It is not about wealth (…). I cannot say that the child only
needs material, not at all, parents must know how to give affection and teach manners, they
must give their child a basis.” One said about his work, “We solve the problem through discussions, and we help them to interact and socialize with other parents.” Another
mentioned, “We do home visits so that we get to know the real problem.”
All supporters mentioned that the role of the family is really important when it comes to parenting and parenting support. “In every decision making we include the family, we work
and therefore have a big influence on the development of the child. “The role of the family is
to support the child emotionally, morally and materially, that is how he will learn to support
himself.” Some supporters mentioned that they asked one or two members of the extended
family to join them when they do a home visit. “They are the ones who know about the
problems.”
When asked about the role of neighbours in the support, all supporters agreed that neighbours are really important in parenting. Everyone mentioned that, besides parents and family, neighbours have a responsibility in advising children and correcting their behaviour.
“Child discipline starts at community level; if the neighbourhood is bad this will influence the child. It is for the neighbours to educate all children, when a child does anything that is not right, they should be able to correct the child.”
Half of the supporters answered the question if they have the material and knowledge to offer adequate parenting support. Eight of them answered that they have the knowledge to offer support, although half of them said that they wish for more education so they can offer better support. “I have knowledge but it is not sufficient, because there are numerous people
that need support, so there need to be more supporters.” Another said, “We have knowledge,
but we need more knowledge. If you empower us we can do better than this.”
Almost all supporters mentioned that they have a need for more materials in offering parenting support. “I need those materials in order to provide support.”
Additional parenting support.
All of the FCS with young children answered that have felt the need for help with their parenting challenges in the past. Some of them answered that they needed help related to the
primary needs, mostly financial support. “When I look at the behavioural challenges, I would
say that we are facing these problems countrywide and that they are due to poverty. The only
way to deal with them is to reduce poverty in the country.” Another parent mentioned, “It
would be better if they could give us a loan to invest in a business and maybe build our own
house instead of renting.” Furthermore, all respondents mentioned that they wish to get social
support, of which the majority want to receive professional parenting support. They said that they want to be taught by professionals on child education. “To teach us on how to take care
of our children and how to get a better solution to our problems.” Another FCS said, “It
would be better if experts with parenting skills could come and train us.” Only two parents
said that, besides the professional support, they wished to be supported with social support from their own environment. “What I can suggest is that parents have to advice their child
more (…), we have to help each other in advising them.”
Of the fourteen never-conscripted parents that were asked the question, thirteen answered that they have felt the need for parenting support in the past. Nine parents answered that they need help with their primary challenges, most of them answered that they need financial support. “If I could get a loan, so that I can invest in a small project, would be
great.” Another said, “If we could have a place to work or a job or activity to do, that would be very helpful.” Almost all parents wished to receive social support for their parenting
challenges. Most of them would like to get professional parenting support, they mentioned trainings to teach parents more about parenting. “The help would be to teach us how to
behave in front of our children, and the advices we should give to them.” Four parents said
that they wish to get social support from the community, two of them wished to receive this together with the professional parenting support. “We ask the church to help us deal with such
Supporters also answered that there is a need for parenting support among Burundian parents. Only three supporters felt that parents need support related the primary needs of their children. Almost all supporters mentioned that parents needs social capital to help them in parenting situations. “There is a need for parents to be supported in child education and child
development.” Two-third of these supporters believed that parents need professional parenting
support, professionals have to train parents and give them advices about the interaction with their children. “I hear that associations train parents on child protection, but not on the
psychological level or on child development.” Other supporters also mentioned that parents
needed social support from within the community, particularly neighbours. “… the community
has a role in supporting and protecting the child too.” Moreover, “The role of the neighbours
is to educate the child and to give advices.”
“We must understand that the children of today are the parents of tomorrow. Parents should be trained in parenting, because if they apply the knowledge and skills in the parenting of their young children, these children will have a basis in educating their own children.”
Two supporters believed that the FCS need additional support. They mentioned that these parents need counselling, because they suffer from severe trauma. “If he does not get
psychological support then he cannot control himself and this way he cannot take care of his
children.” Another said, “Those counselling sessions would help the FCS, because he learns that, even if he is going through hardship, that his children need his support.”
The three main parenting challenges.
All parents were asked to mention the three parenting challenges that they experience the most. Furthermore they were asked to indicate, on a scale from 1 (not at all) to 10
(extremely), how these problems affect their parenting (see Table 2). Supporters were also asked to indicate which three parenting challenges are mostly experienced by parents in Burundi and by FCS with young children in particular (see Table 3).
Table 2.
Overview of the most frequently experienced parenting challenges, mentioned by FCS with young children and never conscripted parents.
Categories Times mentioned
(average weight)
Illustrative quotes
Most frequently experienced parenting challenges by FCS with young children
Primary challenges Financial problems Shelter
3 (m = 8,3) 1 (m = 10)
“Now I am renting, but I want my own house so we have somewhere to live”
Child behaviour
Difficult behaviour child - Disobedience - Vagabondage - Drug (ab)use
- Damaging things of others - Aggressive behaviour - Stealing - Alcoholism Temperament 9 (m = 7,7) 7 (m =7) 5 (m = 8,2) 2 (m = 10) 2 (m = 6,5) 2 (m = 6,5) 2 (m = 3) 1 (m = 5) 1 (m = 9)
“The three challenges that I face are children’s disobedience, beating up their parents and drug abuse.”
“My child likes to vagabondage, and you find that has damaged things of others.” “They are turbulent and they disturb a lot”
Parent behaviour
Difficult behaviour parent - Sexual abuse by parent - Aggressive behaviour
1 (m = 10) 1 (m = 10) 1 (m = 8)
“Problems of sexual abuse or doing sexual activity in front of the children”
Parenting
Parent-child relationship Stimulating child development
3 (m = 6) 1 (m = 10)
“When I become so authoritative to the child and he gets scared of me”
Other present problems in the family Educational problems
Lack of support by partner Infidelity
2 (m = 10) 2 (m = 9,5) 1 (m = 9)
“The infidelity, because, if it exists in the family, it gives a lot of stress and a bad heart.”
Table 2. (sequel)
Overview of the most frequently experienced parenting challenges, mentioned by FCS with young children and never conscripted parents.
Most frequently experienced parenting challenges by never-conscripted parents
Primary challenges Financial problems Nutrition
Health & hygiene
3 (m = 8) 1 (m = 10) 1 (m = 10)
“I do not have money to clothe my child properly”
Child behaviour
Difficult behaviour child - Disobedience
- Hanging with the opposite sex / sexuality - Stealing - Aggressive behaviour - Vagabondage - Prostitution 14 (m = 6,8) 3 (m = 7) 2 (m = 8,5) 2 (m = 6) 2 (m = 5,5) 2 (m = 5,5) 1 (m = 3)
“The problem is that children go to those youth meeting places.”
“The problem is that my children will learn bad manners, like using rugs, because they do not go to school.”
Parent behaviour
Difficult behaviour parent - Alcoholism Parental wellbeing
1 (m = 10) 1 (m = 10) 1 (m = 10)
“I feel miserable when I cannot afford something for my child, sometimes I even cry.”
Parenting
Parent-child interaction 1 (m = 7) “My child gets scared of me.” Other present problems in the family
Family conflict Educational problems Polygamy 3 (m = 9) 3 (m = 6) 1 (m = 10)
“The polygamy; to give birth to a lot of children with different partners”
Table 3.
Overview of the most frequently experienced parenting challenges of FCS with young children and never-conscripted parents, mentioned by supporters.
Times mentioned Illustrative quotes
Most frequently experienced parenting challenges of FCS with young children
Primary challenges 3
Child behaviour
Difficult behaviour child - Vagabondage - Aggressive behaviour - Stealing - Disobedience 2 3 1 1 1
“The children can be aggressive, thieves, have behavioural problems and other get pregnant.”
Parent behaviour
Difficult behaviour parent - Aggressive behaviour Parental wellbeing
1 3 1
“The first one is that they have brutal behaviour and the lack of self-control.”
