Academic, visuoconstructional, and social performance in children

A ca d e m i c , V i s u o c o n s t r u c t i o n a l , a n d Soc ia l P e r f o r m a n c e in C h i l d r e n by M a r y A n n e L e a s o n B.Sc., U n i v e r s i t y of Alber t a, 1983 M . A . , U n i v e r s i t y of V ic t o r i a , 1986 A D i s s e r t a t i o n S u b m i t t e d in P a r t i a l F u l f i l m e n t of th e R e q u i r e m e n t s for t h e D e g r e e of ;;

r V rs T

All r i g h t s reser ve d . D i s s e r t a t i o n m a y not b e r e p r o d u c e d in w h o l e or in part, by p h o t o c o p y i n g or o t h e r means,

Name SA A V A /\;/y£ A

Dissertation Abstracts In te rn a tio n al is a rra n g e d b y b ro a d , general subject categories. Please select the one subject w hich most nearly describes the content o f your dissertation. Enter the corresponding fo u r-d ig it code in the spaces provided.

SU B JE a TERM

0 L -

l

U-M-I

SUBJECT CODE

Subject Categories

THE H UM ANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

CO M MUNICATIONS AND Arrhilndure ... Art H ila ry . . Cinema ... D o n e e ... f me Arts ... Information Science Journalism . Library Science ... Mass Communications Music ... .Speech Communication Theater EDUCATION G e n e ra l... Administration

Adult and Continuing . . Acjriculluial ... A r t ... Bilingual and Multicultural Business ... Community College Curriculum and Instruction Early Childhood Elementary ... Finance

Guidance and Counseling Health

Higher

H i s t o i y o f ... Home Economics Industrial ... Language and Literature Mathematics Music Philosophy of . . . Physical THE ARTS 0 7 2 9 0 3 7 7 . 0 9 0 0 0 3 7 8 0 3 5 7 0 / 2 3 . 0 3 9 1 0 3 9 9 0 7 0 3 .0 4 1 3 0 4 5 9 0 4 6 5 0 5 1 5 0 5 1 4 0 5 1 6 .0 5 1 7 0 2 7 3 0 2 8 2 0 6 8 8 0 2 7 5 0 7 2 7 0 5 1 8 . 0 5 2 4 . 0 2 7 7 0 5 1 9 0 6 8 0 ...0 7 4 5 .0 5 2 0 0 2 7 8 052 1 0 2 7 9 0 2 8 0 .0 5 2 2 0 9 9 8 0 5 2 3 Psychology... 0 5 2 5 R e a d in g '...0 5 3 5 Religious... 0 5 2 7 Sciences... 0 7 1 4 Secondary...0 5 3 3 Social Sciences...0 5 3 4 Sociology o f ...0 3 4 0 Sp ecia l... 0 5 2 9 Teacher Trainin g... 0 5 3 0 Technoloav...0 7 1 0 Tests ancTMeasurements... 0 2 8 8 Vo cational... 0 7 4 7

LANGUAGE, LITERATURE AND LINGUISTICS language G e n e ra l... 0 6 7 9 A n cient...0 2 8 9 Linguistics ...0 2 9 0 M o d e r n ... 0291 Literature G e n e ra l...0401 Classical... 0 2 9 4 C o m p arative...0 2 9 5 M e d ie v a l... 0 2 9 7 M o d e r n ... 0 2 9 8 A fric a n ...0 3 1 6 A m erican...0 59 1 Asian ...0 3 0 5 Canadian (English)... 0 3 5 2 Canadian (French) ...0 3 5 5 E nglish...0 5 9 3 G e rm a n ic ...0311 Latin A m erican ...0 3 1 2 M iddle Eastern...0 3 1 5 R o m ance...0 3 1 3 Slavic and East European 031

PHILOSOPHY, RELIGION AND THEOLOGY Philosophy... 0 4 2 2 Religion G e n e ra l...0 3 1 8 Biblical Studies... 0 32 1 C le rg y ... 0 3 1 9 H is to iy o f... 0 3 2 0 Philosophy o f ... 0 3 2 2 Theo lo g y...0 4 6 9 SOCIAL SCIENCES American Studies... 0 3 2 3 Anthropology A rch aeology... 0 3 2 4 Cultural ...0 3 2 6 Physical...0 3 2 7 Business Administration G e n e ra l...0 3 1 0 Accounting ... 0 2 7 2 Banking...0 7 7 0 M a n a g e m e n t...0 4 5 4 M a rk e tin g ... 0 3 3 8 Canadian Studies ...0 3 8 5 Economics G e n e ra l...050 1 7 yicultural... 0 5 0 3 Commerce-Business... 0 5 0 5 Finance ...0 5 0 8 History... 0 5 0 9 L a b o r...0 5 1 0 T heory... 0511 Folklore... 0 3 5 8 G e o g rap h y... 0 3 6 6 G erontolo gy... 035 1 History G e n e ra l...0 5 7 8 A ncient...0 5 7 9 Medieval ...0581 M o d e r n ... 0 5 8 2 B lack... 0 3 2 8 African ... 0331 Asia, Australia and O ceania 0 3 3 2 C a n a d ia n ... 03 3 4 European... 0 3 3 5 Latin A m e ric a n ... 0 3 3 6 M iddle Eastern... 03 3 3 United States... 0 3 3 7 History of S c ien c e...0 5 8 5 L a w .. ...0 3 9 8 Political Science

General ... 0 6 1 5 International Law and

Relations... 0 6 1 6 Public Administration...0 6 1 7 Recreation...0 8 1 4 Social W o r k ...0 4 5 2 Sociology G e n e ra l... 0 6 2 6 Criminology and Penology ...0 6 2 7 Dem o graphy... 0 9 3 8 Ethnic and Kacial S tudies 0631 Individual and Family

Studies ...0 6 2 8 Industrial and Labor

Relations... 0 6 2 9 Public and Social W elfare . 0 6 3 0 Social Structure and

D evelopm ent... 0 7 0 0 Theory and M ethods... 0 3 4 4 Transpoitation... 0 7 0 9 Urban and Regional Planning .. .0 9 9 9 Women's S tudies... 0 4 5 3

THE SCIENCE!) A N D ENGINEERING

BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES Geodesy ... 0 3 7 0 Agriculture G e o lo g y ... 0 3 7 2 G e n e r a l ... 0 4 7 3 Geophysics ...0 3 7 3 A g ro n o m y... 0 2 8 5 Hydrology ... 0 3 8 8 Animal Culture and M ineralogy ...0411

Nutrition ...0 4 7 5 P aleobotany...0 3 4 5 Animal P atho log y... 0 4 7 6 ... Paleoecoiogy...0 4 2 6 Food Science and Paleontology...0 4 1 8 T e c h n o lo g y ...0 3 5 9 Paleozoology...0 9 8 5 Forostiy unci W i l d l i f e 0 4 7 8 P alynology... 0 4 2 7 Plant C u lt u r e ... 0 4 7 9 Physical G eo g ra p h y ...0 3 6 8 Plant Pathology ...0 4 8 0 Physical Oceanography ...0 4 1 5 Plant Physiology . 0 8 1 /

Range Management 0 7 7 7 HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL Wood T e c h n o lo g y ...0 7 4 6 SCIENCES

Biology n m * Environmental Sciences ...0 7 6 8 ‘i’ 0? " S S v Hcallh Sciences

£mo!"y

g,‘ 5lol,s"cs Audiology... 0 3 1 '.I Bojany 0 3 0 9 ChemolfTerapy ... 0 9 9 2 ^ ol “ 7 9 D e ntistry... ... 0 5 6 7 ludogy 0 3 2 9 Education ... 0 3 5 0 Entomology 0 3 5 3 Hospital Management ... 0 7 6 9 Genetu s <\7cn Human Development ... 0 7 5 8 ™ 2 7 ? 2 Immunology ... 0 9 8 2 Microbiology 0 3 1 0 Medicine and S u rg e ry ...0 5 6 4 Molecufar 0 3 0 7 M enial Health . . . ... 0 3 4 7 Neuroscience 0 3 7 N u rs in g ...0 5 6 9 Oceanography 0 4 1 6 N ,„ rr ... 0 5 7 0 Physiology a d o? Obstetrics and Gynecology 0 3 8 0

. 08 2 1 Occupational Health cncT Veter,no,v Sconce 0 7 7 8 T|.eV a p y...0 3 5 4 „ 0 4 7 2 Ophthalmology ... 0381 Biophysics Pathology ... 0571 y / 'V ™ Pharmacology... 0 4 1 9 Pharmacy ... 0 5 7 2 EARTH SCIENCES K r S T 8 $ § Biageochemistrv 0 4 2 5 Radiology ...0 5 7 4 Geochemistry 0 9 9 6 Recreation ... 0 5 7 5 Speech Pathology... 0 4 6 0 Toxicology...0 3 8 3 Home Ec >nomics... 0 3 8 6 PHYSICAL SCIENCES P u re Sciences Chemistry G e n e ra !...0 4 8 5 Agricultural...0 7 4 9 A n a ly tic a l... 0 4 8 6 Biochemistry ... 0 4 8 7 Inorganic... 0 4 8 8 N u c le a i...0 7 3 8 O rg ar ■...0 4 9 0 Pharmaceutical... 049 1 Physical... 0 4 9 4 Pofym er...0 4 9 5 Radiation... 0 7 5 4 M athem atics...0 4 0 5 Physics General ...0 6 0 5 Acoustics...09fc6 Astronomy and Astrophysics...C 60o Atmospheric Science...0 6 0 8 Atomic ... 0 7 4 8 Electronics and Electricity 0 6 0 7 Elementary Particles ana

High Energy...0 7 9 8 Fluiaand Plasm a... 0 7 5 9 M o le c u la r... 0 6 0 9 N u c le a r...0 6 1 0 O p tic s ... 0 7 5 2 Radiation... 0 7 5 6 Solid S ta te ...061 1 Statistics ... 0 4 6 3 A p p lie d Sciences

Applied M echan ics... 0 3 4 6 Computer Science...0 9 8 4 Engineering G e n e ra l... 0 5 3 7 A e ro sp ace... 05 3 8 A gricultural...0 5 3 9 Automotive ...0 5 4 0 Biom edical... 0541 C h e m ic a l...0 5 4 2 Civil ...0 5 4 3 Electronics and Electrical 0 5 4 4 Heat and Thermodynamics... 0 3 4 8 H ydraulic...0 5 4 5 Industrial ...0 5 4 6 M a r in e ...0 5 4 7 Materials Science... 0 7 9 4 M ech an ical... 0 5 4 8 M e ta llu rg y ... 0 7 / 3 Mining ...0551 N u c le a r... 0 5 5 2 Packaging ... 0 5 4 9 Petroleum ... 0 7 6 5 Sanitary and Municipal ...0 5 5 4 System Science... 0 7 9 0 G eotechnology...0 4 2 8 Operations Research...0 7 9 6 Plastics Technology... 0 7 9 5 Text'le Technology...0 9 9 4 PSYCHOLOGY Genera! ... 0621 Behavioral... 0 3 8 4 Clinical ... 0 6 2 2 Developmental... 0 6 2 0 Experimental ... 0 6 2 3 Industrial...0 6 2 4 Personality... 0 6 2 5 Physiological ...0 9 8 9 Psychobiology ... 0 3 4 9 Psychomeirics ... 0 6 3 2 Social ...0451

®

P age ii Super vi s or : Dr. C t f r i e d Spree n

A BSTRACT

This stu d y wa s c o n d u c t e d to evalu a te the r e l a t i o n s h i p s a m o n g a c a d e m i c p e r f o r m a n c e , v i s u o c o n s t r u c t i o n a l s t r a t e gi es , and s o ci al c o m p e t e n c e in children. In a c c o r d a n c e w i t h the t h e o r y of n o n v e r b a l l e a r n i n g disabil it i es , it was p r e d i c t e d that mat h d i s a b i l i t y w o u l d be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h d i f f i c u l t i e s in soci a l c o m p e t e n c e a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n of c o n f i g u r a t i o n s . A / t ota l of 229 school c h i l d r e n w e r e r e f e r r e d b y t h e i r t e a c h e r s to t h e study. A f t e r screening, 79 c h i l d r e n a g e d f r o m 104 to 143 m o n t h s w e r e i n c l u d e d in th e analyses. A l l s u b j e c t s h a d sco r es on th e W I S C - R B l o c k D e s i g n and V o c a b u l a r y s u b t e s t s w h i c h were at least average, a n d were c l a s s i f i e d as A v e r a g e A c h i e v e r s (n=29), L o w in R e a d i n g (n=14), L o w in M a t h (n=17), or L o w O v e r a l l (n=19), on the basis of t h e i r W R A T - R scores. The grou ps w e r e c o m p a r e d on m ea s u r e s of v i s u o c o n s t r u c t i o n a l p e r f o r m a n c e a n d s o c ia l competence. Th e r e s u l t s p a r t i a l l y s u p p o r t e d an a s s o c i a t i o n b e t w e e n w e a k c o n f i g u r a l p e r f o r m a n c e and m a t h d i s o r d e r s . Soci a l c o m p e t e n c e was f o u n d to be m o s t s t r o n g l y r e l a t e d to a t t e n t i o n a l p e r f o r m a n c e / h y p e r a c t i v i t y . C o m p o n e n t s of v i s u o c o n s t r u c t i o n a l p e r f o r m a n c e (c o nf ig u ra l a n d d e t a i l - o r i e n t e d ) w e r e foun d to be r e l e v a n t to l e a r n i n g a n d memory. Th e two m e a s u r e s of v i s u o c o n s t r u c t i o n use d a p p e a r to m e a s u r e d i f f e r e n t aspects of c o g n i t i v e

P a g e iii

E x a m i n e r s :

Dr. 0, Spreen, S u p e r v i s o r (Department of P s ychology)

Dr. R. Graves, D e p a r t m e n t a l M e m b e r (Depa rt m en t of P sychology)

Dr. M. Josc hk o, D e p a r t m e n t a l M e m b e r (Department of Psych ol o gy )

Dr. B. Harvey, O u t s i d e Membef'^-(Udpartment of Education)

Page iv T a b l e of C o n t e n t s A b s t r a c t ... ii Tabl e of C o n t e n t s ... iv List of T a b l e s ... v i i List of F i g u r e s ... xi A c k n o w l e d g e m e n t s ... x i i I n t r o d u c t i o n . . . ... 1 Soci al C o m p e t e n c e in L e a r n i n g D i s o r d e r s ... 6 Th e a s s o c i a t i o n b e t w e e n h y p e r a c t i v i t y , l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t i e s , a n d social c o m p e t e n c e ... 8 A r i t h m e t i c a c h i e v e m e n t a n d soc ia l c o m p e t e n c e ... 13 V i s u o s p a t i a l a b i l i t y a n d s o c i a l c om pe te n ce . . 15 A r i t h m e t i c a c h i e v e m e n t a n d v i s u o s p a t i a l a b i x i t y ... 18 A r i t h m e t i c a c h i e ve me nt , v i s u o s p a t i a l ability, a n d social c o m p e t e n c e ... 20 D i s s o c i a b l e C o m p o n e n t s of V i s u o s p a t i a l P r o c e s s i n g 22 B r a i n F u n c t i o n an d L e a r n i n g D i s a b i l i t i e s ... 28 V e r b a l l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t i e s ... 30 N o n v e r b a l l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t i e s ... 34 S u m m a r y ... 37 H y p o t h e s e s ... 37 M e t h o d ... 39

P a g e v S u b j e c t s ... 39 D e p e n d e n t M e a s u r e s ... 52 V i s u a l L e a r n i n g Style V a r i a b l e s ... 52 R e y - O s t e r r i e t h C o m p l e x F i g u r e T e s t . . . 53 C a l i f o r n i a G l o b a l - L o c a l L e a r n i n g Tes t . 60 S o ci al C o m p e t e n c e V a r i a b l e s . . . 61 Social Ski ll s R a t i n g S y s t e m ... 61 Conners' T e a c h e r R a t i n g Scal e ... 64 A n a l y s i s a n d R e s u l t s ... 66 E f f e c t s of A ge a n d G e n d e r ... . 69 M a i n A n a l y s e s ... 74 T w o - G r o u p D i s c r i m i n a n t A n a l y s e s ... 75

A n a l y s i s i n c l u d i n g the c o p y trial scores f r o m t h e R e y - O s t e r r i e t h C o m p l e x E igur e T e s t ... 75 A n a l y s i s i n c l u d i n g the d e l a y e d recall scor es fr o m t h e R e y - O s t e r r i e t h C o m p l e x F i g u r e Test... 7 9 F o u r - G r o u p D i s c r i m i n a n t A n a l y s e s ... 84

A n a l y s i s i n c l u d i n g the cop y tri al scores f r o m t h e R e y - O s t e r r i e t h C o m p l e x F i g u r e T e s t ... 86 A n a l y s i s i n c l u d i n g the d e l a y e d r e ca ll scor es f r o m t h e R e y - O s t e r r i e t h C o m p l e x F i g u r e T e s t ... 92 P o s t - H o c A n a l y s e s ... 102

P a g e vi L o w C o n f i g u r a l g r o u p ...102 H y p e r a c t i v e g r o u p ... 103 D i s c u s s i o n ... 107 H y p o t h e s i s 1 ... 107 H y p o t h e s i s 2 ... Ill H y p o t h e s i s 3 ... 112 H y p o t h e s i s 4 ... 115 B r a i n - B e h a v i o u r R e l a t i o n s h i p s ... 117 L e f t h e m i s p h e r e d y s f u n c t i o n in v e r b a l l e a r n i n g d i s o r d e r s ... . . 117 Ri g h t h e m i s p h e r e d y s f u n c t i o n in n o n v e r b a l l e a r n i n g d i s o r d e r s ... 118 Do N o n v e r b a l L e a r n i n g D i s a b i l i t i e s E x i s t ? . . . . 124 T he B e s t D i s c r i m i n a t o r s ...126 G r o u p P r o f i l e s ... 128 C o m p a r i s o n of M e a s u r e s of D r a w i n g St y l e ... 130 P r a c t i c a l A p p l i c a t i o n s ... , ...135 F u t u r e D i r e c t i o n s ... 136 R e f e r e n c e s ... 138 A p p e n d i x A ... 152 A p p e n d i x B ... 153 A p p e n d i x C ... , ... 155 A p p e n d i x D ... 157 A p p e n d i x E ... ,159

P a g e vii L i s t of Tab l es TABLE 1 P s y c h o m e t r i c C r i t e r i a for I n c l u s i o n in t h e S t u dy . 42 2 D e s c r i p t i o n of S u b j e c t S a m p l e (N = 1 2 0 ) ... 43 3 D e s c r i p t i o n of S u b j e c t S a m p l e used for A n a l y s e s (N=86) 44 4 M e a n V o c a b u l a r y S c a l e d S c o re s and Pai rs of G r o u p s S i g n i f i c a n t l y D i f f e r e n t at the .05 L e v e l ... 49 5 M e a n A r i t h m e t i c Scor es and Pair s of G r o up s

S i g n i f i c a n t l y D i f f e r e n t au t h e .05 L e v e l ... 50 6 M e a n R e a d i n g Scores and P a i r s of G r ou p s S i g n i f i c a n t l y D i f f e r e n t at th e .05 L e v e l ... 51 7 G r o u p M e a n Scor es a n d S t a n d a r d D e v i a t i o n s on S o ci al C o m p e t e n c e V a r i a b l e s ... 66 8 G r o u p M e a n s a n d S t a n d a r d D e v i a t i o n s on

D r a w i n g Sty le V a r i a b l e s (Copy Trial) . . . . 67 9 G r o u p M e a n s a n d S t a n d a r d D e v i a t i o n s on

D r a w i n g Sty l e V a r i a b l e s (Recall Trial) . . . 68 10 C o m p o s i t i o n of A g e - B a s e d S u bg r o u p s of A v e r a g e

A c h i e v e r s ... 70 11 M e a n s a n d S t a n d a r d D e v i a t i o n s of t h e A v e r a g e

A c h i e v e r s G r o u p on V i s u a l L e a r n i n g Style

P a g e v i i i 12 C l a s s i f i c a t i o n R e s u l t s of the T w o - G r o u p D i s c r i m i n a n t A n a l y s i s (Copy Trial) . . . 7 6 13 U n i v a r i a t e F - r a t i o s for I n d i v i d u a l V a r i a b l e s in the T w o - G r o u p D i s c r i m i n a n t A n a l y s i s . . . 78 14 G r o u p M e a n Scores for S i g n i f i c a n t D i s c r i m i n a t o r s in U n i v a r i a t e F - t e s t s in t he T w o - G r o u p A n a l y s i s . . . 78 15 S u m m a r y T a b l e of the T w o - G r o u p S te p - W i s e D i s c r i m i n a n t A n a l y s i s (Copy Trial) ... 80 16 G r o u p M e a n s on th e D i s c r i m i n a t o r V a r i a b l e s in

the Two-Group Discriminant Analysis

(Copy Trial) ... 80 17 C l a s s i f i c a t i o n R e s u l t s of t h e T w o - G r o u p D i s c r i m i n a n t A n a l y s i s (Recall Trial) . . . . 81 18 U n i v a r i a t e F - r a t i o s for I n d i v i d u a l V a r i a b l e s in th e T w o - G r o u p D i s c r i m i n a n t A n a l y s i s (Recall Trial) ... 82 19 S u m m a r y T a b l e of t h e T w o - G r o u p S t e p - W i s e D i s c r i m i n a n t A n a l y s i s (Recall Trial) . . . . 84 20 G r o u p M e a n s on t h e D i s c r i m i n a t o r V a r i a b l e s in t h e T w o - G r o u p D i s c r i m i n a n t A n a l y s i s (Recall Trial) ... 85 21 C l a s s i f i c a t i o n R e s u l t s of t h e F o u r - G r o u p D i s c r i m i n a n t A n a l y s i s (Copy Trial) ... 87

Pa ge ix 22 U n i v a r i a t e F- r a t i o s for Indivi d ua l V a r i a b l e s in t h e F o u r - G r o u p D i s c r i m i n a n t A n a l y s i s (Copy Trial) ... 87 23 G r o u p M e a n Scores for Si g ni f i c a n t D i s c r i m i n a t o r s in U n i v a r i a t e F - t es ts in

the F o u r - G r o u p A n a l y s i s (Copy Trial) . . . . 89 24 S u m m a r y T a b l e of the F o u r - G r o u p S t e p - W i s e D i s c r i m i n a n t A n a l y s i s (Copy Trial) ... 89 25 U n i v a r i a t e F - S t a t i s t i c s an d S i g n i f i c a n c e s b e t w e e n Pa i r s of G r o u p s F o l l o w i n g tue F i r s t Ste p of t h e F o u r - G r o u p D i s c r i m i n a n t A n a l y s i s (Copy Trial) ... 91 26 U n i v a r i a t e F - S t a t i s t i c s a n d S i g n i f i c a n c e s b e t w e e n Pai r s of G r o up s F o l l o w i n g the T h i r d Step of t h e F o u r - G r o u p D i s c r i m i n a n t A n a l y s i s (Copy Trial) ... 91 27 G r o u p M e a n s on t he D i s c r i m i n a t o r V a r i a b l e s in the F o u r - G r o u p D i s c r i m i n a n t A n a l y s i s (Copy Trial) ... 92 28 C l a s s i f i c a t i o n R e s u l t s of t h e F o u r - G r o u p D i s c r i m i n a n t A n a l y s i s (Recall Trial) . . . . 94 29 U n i v a r i a t e F - r a t i o s for I n d i v i d u a l V a r i a b l e s in t h e F o u r - G r o u p D i s c r i m i n a n t A n a l y s i s (Recall Trial) ... 94

G r o u p M e a n Scor es fo r S i g n i f i c a n t

D i s c r i m i n a t o r s in U n i v a r i a t e F - t e s t s in

the F o u r - G r o u p A n a l y s i s (Recall Trial) . . . S u m m a r y T a b l e of the F o u r - G r o u p S t e p - W i s e D i s c r i m i n a n t A n a l y s i s (Recall Trial) . . . . U n i v a r i a t e F - S t a t i s t i c s a n d S i g n i f i c a n c e s b e t w e e n P ai r s of Grou ps F o l l o w i n g t h e F i r s t St ep of t h e F o u r - G r o u p D i s c r i m i n a n t A n a l y s i s (Recall Trial) . . . . U n i v a r i a t e F - S t a t i s t i c s and S i g n i f i c a n c e s b e t w e e n Pa i r s of Grv ups F o l l o w i n g the F o u r t h St e p of t h e F o u r - G r o u p D i s c r i m i n a n t A n a l y s i s (Recall Trial) . . . . G r o u p M e a n s on the D i s c r i m i n a t o r V a r i a b l e s in the F o u r - G r o u p D i s c r i m i n a n t A n a l y s i s (Recall Trial) ... S u m m a r y of D i s c r i m i n a n t A n a l y s i s R e s u l t s ... M e a n Scor es a n d I n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s A m o n g Scores O b t a i n e d b y L o w - C o n f i g u r a l S ub je ct s ... M e a n Sco re s a n d I n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s A m o n g Scor es O b t a i n e d b y H y p e r a c t i v e S u b j e c t s . • . I n t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s A m o n g V i s u o c o n s t r u c t i o n a l a nd S o c i al C o m p e t e n c e V a r i a b l e s ...

P a g e xi L i s t of F i g u r e s F I G U R E 1 A S a m p l e H i e r a r c h i c a l S t i m u l u s ... 2 6 2 T h e R e y - O s t e r r i e t h C o m p l e x F i g u r e ... 55 3 A C o n f i g u r a l A p p r o a c h to D r a w i n g the R e y - O s t e r r i e t h C o m p l e x F i g u r e ... 56 u A D e t a i l - O r i e n t e d A p p r o a c h to D r a w i n g the Rey-O s t e r r i e t h C o m p l e x F i g u r e ... 58 5 E x a m p l e s of D r a w i n g s in w h i c h G l o b a l A c c u r a c y was G r e a t e r t h a n L o c a l A c c u r a c y ... 62 6 E x a m p l e s of D r a w i n g s in w h i c h L o c a l A c c u r a c y was G r e a t e r t h a n G l o b a l A c c u r a c y ... 63

P a g e x i i

A c k n o w l e d g e m e n t s

I t h a n k th e c h i l d r e n w h o t o o k p a r t in this study, as w e l l as t h e i r pare nt s. I am als o g r a t e f u l to m e m b e r s of the

p a r t i c i p a t i n g school distri c ts , i n c l u d i n g th e

s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s , p r i n c ip al s , a nd p a r t i c u l a r l y th e teach er s . T his s t u d y w o u l d not have b e e n p o s s i b l e w i t h o u t t h e i r

i n v o l v e m e n t . Fo r t h e i r interest, e x p e r t guidance, a n d m a n y h e l p f u l s ug ge st i on s, I w o u l d like to t h a n k m y s u p e r v i s o r y c om mi t te e, e s p e c i a l l y m y s u p e r v i s o r Dr. 0. Spreen, a n d c o m m i t t e e m e m b e r Dr. R. Graves, F o r his u n f l a g g i n g p a t i e n c e and e n c o u r a g e m e n t t h r o u g h o u t m y y ea r s of g r a d u a t e work, I t h a n k m y husband, K e n n e t h Leason.

This p r o j e c t wa s s u p p o r t e d b y a g e n e r o u s r e s e a r c h g r a n t f r o m t he Sa r a S p e n c e r F o u n d a t i o n .

A c ad em i c, V i s u o c o n s t r u c t i o n a l , and Social P e r f o r m a n c e in C h i l d r e n I n t r o d u c t i o n In re ce n t y e a r s t h e h e t e r o g e n e o u s n a t u r e of l e ar ni ng d i s a b i l i t i e s has b e c o m e evident. W h i l e t he r e is no c o n s e n s u s on t h e n u m b e r or n a t u r e of sp e c i f i c subtypes, the g e n e r a l c a t e g o r i e s of verbal, n on ve r ba l, an d m i x e d l ea r ni ng d i s a b i l i t i e s a r e w i d e l y a c k n o w l e d g e d (for review, see H o o p e r & Will is , 1989). V e r b a l l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t i e s are

c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y d i f f i c u l t y in p s y c h o l i n g u i s t i c skills i n c l u d i n g reading, spelling, a nd a u d i t o r y perception,

a c c o m p a n i e d b y a v e r a g e or b e t t e r v i s u o s p a t i a l an d n on ve rb a l p r o b l e m s o l v i n g skills. In contrast, n o n v e r b a l l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t i e s a re d e s c r i b e d as i n c l u d i n g i m p a i r m e n t s in at l ea s t t h r e e areas: a ri th me t ic , v i s u o s p a t i a l / v i s u o c o n s t r u c t i o n a l , a n d s o c i a l c o mpetence, in t h e p r e s e n c e of a v e r a g e or b e t t e r a u d i t o r y - p e r c e p t u a l and v e r b a l skills (Badian, 1983; Denckla, 1983; Rourke, 1987; R o u r k e & F in la y s o n , 1978; R o u r k e & Strang, 1978; Rudel, Teuber, & T w it c he ll , 1974; S p r a n g & Rourk e, 1983; Tranel, Hall, Olson, & Tranel, 1987).

J o h n s o n a n d M y k l e b u s t (1967) h a v e o f f e r e d a t h e o r y of l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t i e s w h i c h e x p l a i n s t h i s a p p a r e n t l y

i n c o n g r u o u s t r i a d of n o n v e r b a l l e a r n i n g i m p a i r m e n t s . They p o s t u l a t e tha t a c h i l d ' s c o g n i t i v e d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r e s s e s

P a g e 2 a l o n g a h i e r a r c h y of e x p e r i e n c e in w h i c h b a s i c c o g n i t i v e leve ls of sensation, p e r c e p t i o n , a n d i m a g e r y a r e s u c c e e d e d b y the h i g h e r levels of s y m b o l i z a t i o n a n d c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n . N o n v e r b a l l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t i e s (NLD) ar e t h e o r i z e d to r e s u l t f r o m d i s t u r b a n c e s in pe rc ep t io n. B e c a u s e they o c c u r a t such a ba s i c level, p e r c e p t u a l d i s o r d e r s c a u s e a f u n d a m e n t a l d i s t o r t i o n of all a s pe ct s of t h e chil d' s e v e r y d a y ex perience. The effec t s ar e p a r t i c u l a r l y

d e v a s t a t i n g in the d e v e l o p m e n t of soci a l c om pe t en ce . Th e n o n v e r b a l l y - d i s a b l e d c h i l d is:

. .. u n a b l e to c o m p r e h e n d the s i g n i f i c a n c e of m a n y a spec t s of his e n v i r o n m e n t .... He fa i l s to learn t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s of m a n y o t h e r actions, e.g., g e st ur e s, facia l expre ss io n s, a n d c a r e s s e s . . . .We c h a r a c t e r i z e this c h i l d as h a v i n g a d e f i c i e n c y in s o c i a l p e r c e p t i o n m e a n i n g th a t he has an i n a b i l i t y w h i c h p r e c l u d e s a c q u i r i n g the s i g n i f i c a n c e of

b a s i c n o n v e r b a l a s p e c t s of d a i l y living. (Johnson & M y k l e b u s t , 1967, p. 272).

A s s o c i a t e d w i t h this syndrome, J o h n s o n & M y k l e b u s t list d e f i c i t s in: l e a r n i n g t h r o u g h p ictures, g e s tu re , n o n v e r b a l m o t o r learn in g, b o d y image, spat i al o r i e n t a t i o n , r i g h t - l e f t o r i e n t a t i o n , s o c ia l i m p e r c e p t i o n , a n d d i s t r a c t i b i l i t y ,

p e r s e v e r a t i o n , and d i s i n h i b i t i o n .

A r i t h m e t i c d i s a b i l i t y was not i n c l u d e d in this o r i g i n a l f o r m u l a t i o n as a c o m p o n e n t of NLD. Howev er , in t h e i r

P a g e 3

d i s c u s s i o n of a r i t h m e t i c d i s a b i l i t i e s , t h e a u t h o r s n o t e that m a t h e m a t i c a l t h i n k i n g is b a s e d on the a s s i m i l a t i o n a n d

i n t e g r a t i o n of n o n v e r b a l e x p e r i en ce s, i n c l u d i n g co n c e p t s of q uantity, space, a n d order. The c o g n i t i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s th ey d e s c r i b e in t h e d y s c a l c u l i c chil d b e a r m a n y

s i m i l a r i t i e s to t h o s e n o t e d in t h e NLD child, i n c l u d i n g d e f i c i t s in: v i s u a l - s p a t i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n and n o n v e r b a l integra ti on , b o d y image, v i s u a l - m o t o r i nt e g r a t i o n , r i g h t - left d i s o r i e n t a t i o n , and social pe r c e p t i o n .

In the f o r m u l a t i o n d e s c r i b e d b y J o h n s o n a n d My k le b u s t , d i s o r d e r s o c c u r r i n g near t h e top of the h i e r a r c h y of

e xperience, suc h as a d e f i c i t in sy m bo l i z a t i o n , r e s u l t in v e r b a l l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t i e s . B e c a u s e the b a s i c l e ve l s of e x p e r i e n c e a r e u n a f f e c t e d , t h e s e d i s o r d e r s are e x p e c t e d to have m o r e r e s t r i c t e d e f f e c t s on the o v e r a l l f u n c t i o n i n g of the child. In this t h e o r y p e r s o n a l - s o c i a l d e f i c i t s a r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e N L D child, w h o has had a t y p i c a l

i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l m o s t fro m t h e b e g i n n i n g . R o u r k e (1987, 1993) has p r o p o s e d a m o d e l of N L D w h i c h is s i m i l a r in p r i n c i p l e b u t w h i c h i n c l u d e s a n e u r o l o g i c a l s u b s t r a t e for th e d i s o r d e r . In this model, t h e NLD c h i l d is t h o u g h t to be d e f i c i e n t in i n t e r - m o d a l i n t e g r at io n, b e c a u s e of i m p a i r e d f u n c t i o n i n g in th e w h i t e m a t t e r of t he brain. B e c a u s e th e r i g h t h e m i s p h e r e is t h o u g h t to h a v e r e l a t i v e l y m o r e w h i t e m a t t e r t h a n t h e left, a n d r e l a t i v e l y m o r e i n t e r ­ r e g i o n a l t h a n i n t r a - r e g i o n a l c o n n e c t i o n s , d y s f u n c t i o n of the

P a g e 4 r ig h t h e m i s p h e r e is i m p l i c a t e d in n o n v e r b a l l e a r n i n g d i s o r d e r s (S e m r u d - C l i k e m a n & Hynd, 1990). Th is d y s f u n c t i o n r e s u l t s in d i f f i c u l t y p r o c e s s i n g nov e l i n fo rm at i on . Th e c h i l d t h e r e f o r e is f o r c e d to r e l y on r o u t i n i z e d and s t e r e o t y p e d r e s p o n s e s , a nd has d i f f i c u l t y b e n e f i t t i n g fr om e x p e r i e n c e s w h i c h do not fit w e l l w i t h e x i s t i n g skills. W h e n t h e s e d i f f i c u l t i e s are p r e s e n t f r o m a n e a r l y age (i.e. t he s e n s o r y - m o t o r p e r i o d ) , d e v i a n t c o g n i t i v e d e v e l o p m e n t ensues. T h e s e c h i l d r e n s h o w d e f i c i t s s i m i l a r to t h o s e e n u m e r a t e d by J o h n s o n a n d M y k l e b u s t : d i f f i c u l t y w i t h

v i s u o s p a t i a l , t a c t i l e - p e r c e p t u a l , and p s y c h o m o t o r a b ilities, p o o r a r i t h m e t i c and n o n v e r b a l p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g skills,

d i f f i c u l t y w i t h novelty, and s i g n i f i c a n t d e f i c i t s in social p e r c e p t i o n an d soc ia l i n t e r a c t i o n in spit e of w e l l - d e v e l o p e d r o t e v e r b a l sk i l l s (John so n & M y k l e b u s t , 1967). K o l b (1989) has p r o p o s e d t h a t d e f i c i e n c i e s in r i g h t h e m i s p h e r e f u n c t i o n i n g m a y a r i s e fr o m e a r l y d a m a g e to the left c e r e b r a l h e m i s p h e r e . This d a m a g e c a us e s l a n g u a g e f u n c t i o n s to s h i f t to the r i g h t h e m i s ph e re , c r o w d i n g o u t the l a t e r - d e v e l o p i n g r i g h t - h e m i s p h e r e f u n c t i o n s w h i c h are n e c e s s a r y for d e v e l o p m e n t of s o c i al c o m p e t en ce . T h e N L D m o d e l is not u n i v e r s a l l y a cc ep t ed , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e a s p e c t of d e f i c i e n t v i s u o s p a t i a l f u n c t i o n i n g l e a d i n g to d e f i c i e n t s o ci al p er f o r m a n c e . Some a u t h o r s w h o have s t u d i e d soci al c o m p e t e n c e in r e l a t i o n to l e a r n i n g d i f f i c u l t i e s r e j e c t c a u s a l m o d e l s a n d c o n s i d e r t h e link as c o r r e l a t i o n a l

Page 5

at b e s t (Gresham, 1992). Oth er s hav e s u g g e s t e d that a la n g u a g e disorder, r a t h e r t h a n a v i s u o p e r c e p t u a l deficit, u n d e r l i e s b o t h l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t i e s a n d s o c i a l c o m p e t e n c e d e f i c i t s (Conte & A n d re ws , 1993), a n d t h a t c h i l d r e n are r e j e c t e d b y p e e r s d u e to i n e f f i c i e n t a n d d e f i c i e n t u s e of l a n g u a g e in soci a l s i t u a t i o n s (Bryan. 1986). D i f f i c u l t i e s w i t h p r a g m a t i c l a n g u a g e skills such as s t a y x n g on topic, a p p r e c i a t i n g t h e p o i n t of jokes, a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g r h e poi n t of v i e w of a l istener, are c o m m o n l y se en in c h i l d r e n with l e a r n i n g d i f f i c u l t i e s . V a u g h n and he r c o l l e a g u e s h a v e p r o p o s e d a m o d e l of soci al c o m p e t e n c e as a h i g h e r o r d e r c o n s t r u c t m u c h like i n te ll ig e nc e, c o m p r i s i n g s e v er al i n t e r a c t i v e c o m p o n e n t s w h i c h t o g e t h e r lead to e f f e c t i v e social b e h a v i o u r . T h e s e c o m p o n e n t s are: p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h others; a c c u r a t e / a g e - a p p r o p r i a t e social c ognition; a b s e n c e of m a l a d a p t i v e b e h a v i o u r s ; and e f f e c t i v e social skills (Vaughn, Haager, Hogan, & K o u z e k a n a n i , 1992; V aughn, Zaragoza, Hogan, & Walker, 1993). T h e s e v a r i o u s p e r s p e c t i v e s i l l u s t r a t e t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s of c o n c e p t u a l i z i n g a nd d e f i n i n g a c o m p l e x be ha vi o u r . In 1973, a p a n e l of expe rt s in c h i l d d e v e l o p m e n t t a c k l e d t h e p ro b le m, a n d t he i r d i s c u s s i o n y i e l d e d a list of 29 d e s c r i p t i v e s t a t e m e n t s of the c o m p o n e n t s of s o c i a l c o m p e t e n c e in y o u n g children, r a n g i n g fr o m " d i f f e r e n t i a t e d s e l f - c o n c e p t a n d c o n s o l i d a t i o n of i dentity" t o " e n j o y m e n t of humour, p l a y a n d fantasy"

Pa g e 6

g r o u p e d into t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s of skills a n d abilities: p e r c e p t u a l , cognit i ve , a n d m o t o r / l a n g u a g e skills.

T he N L D m o d e l s p e c i f i e s tha t d i f f i c u l t i e s in social c o m p e t e n c e s h o u l d o c c u r p r e d o m i n a n t l y in t h o s e c h i l d r e n s h o w i n g ot h e r a s p e c t s of NLD: i . e . , v i s u o s p a t i a l

d i f f i c u l t i e s e nd w e a k a r i t h m e t i c skills. If, however, s o c i a l c o m p e t e n c e d e v e l o p s i n d e p e n d e n t l y as a skill in its o w n right, a n d is c o r r e l a t e d w i t h l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t i e s t h r o u g h some o t h e r m e c h a n i s m , d i v e r s e s u b g r o u p s of l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d c h i l d r e n m a y s h o w s i m i l a r leve ls of soci al c o m p e t e n c e . S o ci al c o m p e t e n c e m a y not b e c o r r e l a t e d w i t h v i s u o s p a t i a l a n d a r i t h m e t i c skills, b u t l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d s t u d e n t s in general m a y h a v e w e a k e r s o c i a l c o m p e t e n c e t h a n w o u l d a v e r a g e a c hievers. T h e p r e v a l e n c e of s o ci a l skil ls d e f i c i t s in d i f f e r e n t s u b t y p e s of l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t i e s , a n d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n v i s u o p e r c e p t u a l - v i s u o s p a t i a l d e f i c i t s a n d soc ia l skills, ha v e y e t to be e st a b l i s h e d . Th i s s t u d y wi ll e v a l u a t e th e r e l a t i o n s h i p s a m o n g s o ci a l c o m p e te n ce , v i s u o c o n s t r u c t i o n a l strat eg ie s, a n d a c a d e m i c p e r f o r m a n c e . S o c i a l C o m p e t e n c e in L e a r n i n g D i s o r d e r s L e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t i e s a n d s o c i a l - e m o t i o n a l d i f f i c u l t i e s o f t e n o c c u r t o ge th e r. This fact is t a k e n into a c c o u n t in t h e r e c e n t d e f i n i t i o n of l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t i e s o f f e r e d b y t h e I n t e r a g e n c y C o m m i t t e e on L e a r n i n g D i s a b i l i t i e s ( G re sh a m & Elliott, 1989a), w h i c h i n c l u d e s not o n l y a c a d e m i c

Page 7

d i f f i c u l t i e s bu t also soci al skills d e f i c i t s as p r i m a r y l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t i e s . R e s e a r c h has show n t h a t m a n y

l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d c h i l d r e n a r e less w e l l - a c c e p t e d t h a n th e i r a v e r a g e a c h i e v i n g peers, a n d are m o r e o ft e n s o c i a l l y

r ejected. A m e t a - a n a l y s i s of 39 s t u di es p u b l i s h e d b e t w e e n 1974 a n d 1990 r e v e a l e d th a t o n l y 16% of l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d c h i l d r e n ha v e t h e same level of soci al c o m p e t e n c e as normal a chievers, a n d o n l y 23% of l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d ar e as we ll a c c e p t e d as a v e r a g e a c h i e v e r s (Swanson & Malo ne , 1992).

L a r g e - s c a l e s o c i o m e t r i c s t u d ie s w h i c h hav e i n c l u d e d stud en t s w i t h a n d w i t h o u t l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t i e s have f o u n d th a t

a p p r o x i m a t e l y 30% of l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d s t u d e n t s e x p e r i e n c e sociax r e j e c t i o n (Kis tn er & Gatlin, 1989; S a te r & French, 1989; Wien er , Harris, & Shirer, 1990). T e a c h e r s r a t e d 38% of 3863 l e a r n i n g - d i s a b l e d s t u d e n t s as s h o w i n g d e f i c i t s in social f u n c t i o n i n g (Baum, Du f f e l m e y e r , & Geelan, 1988).

T hes e p e r c e n t a g e s are s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r t h a n t he 6-12% of n o r m a l l y - a c h i e v i n g c h i l d r e n w h o ar e n e g l e c t e d or r e j e c t e d by t he i r p e er s (Sater & French, 1989; W i e n e r et a l ., 1990). In a r e c e n t study, l e a r n i n g - d i s a b l e d stud e nt s f r o m k i n d e r g a r t e n to g r a d e t h r e e w e r e r a t e d b y t h e i r t e a c h e r s as s h o w i n g lower soci al c o m p e t e n c e a n d m o r e b e h a v i o u r p r o b l e m s tha n a v e r a g e or h i g h - a c h i e v i n g s t ud e nt s (Vaughn et al., 1993). W h e n s u b t y p e s of b e h a v i o u r p r o b l e m s w e r e examined, in wa s d i s c o v e r e d t h a t th e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d c h i l d r e n d i f f e r e d from

Page 8 t h e a v e r a g e a n d hig h a c h i e v e r s on o n l y one be ha v i o u r : a t t e n t i o n a l p r o b l e m s . A c c o r d i n g to the m o d e l p r o p o s e d b y V a u g h n and c o l l e a g u e s (1992, 1993) d e s c r i b e d on p a g e 5, soci al c o m p e t e n c e r e s u l t s f r o m i n t e r p l a y a m o n g four c o m p o n e n t s k i l l s . It is p e r h a p s th e ca s e t h a t o n l y so m e of t h e s e c o m p o n e n t s ar e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t i e s . The c o m p o n e n t w h i c h V a u g h n ' s study, a m o n g m a n y others, i m p l i c a t e s as t h e m o s t l i k e l y to o c c u r in a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t y is m a l a d a p t i v e b eh a vi ou r , s p e c i f i c a l l y w e a k a t t e n t i o n a l skil ls a nd h y p e r a c t i v i t y . T h e a s s o c i a t i o n b e t w e e n h y p e r a c t i v i t y , l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t i e s , a n d so c i a l c o m p e te n ce . T h e r e is c o n s i d e r a b l e o v e r l a p b e t w e e n the p o p u l a t i o n s of l e a r n i n g - d i s a b l e d

c h i l d r e n and h y p e r a c t i v e children. In child ho od ,

c o m o r b i d i t y of a t t e n t i o n d e f i c i t h y p e r a c t i v i t y d i s o r d e r an d a c a d e m i c u n d e r a c h i e v e m e n t is c o m m o n ( B i e d e r m a n & Sprich, 1991; Hinsh a w, 1992; M c G e e & Share, 1988). T h i s f i n d i n g has b e e n i n c o r p o r a t e d into the d e s c r i p t i o n s of a t t e n t i o n d e f i c i t d i s o r d e r s g i v e n in t h e D i a g n o s t i c a n d S t a t i s t i c a l M a n u a l of M e n t a l D i s o r d e r s (3rd ed., 1980) a n d (3rd. ed. rev, 1987) of t h e A m e r i c a n P s y c h i a t r i c A s s o c i a t i o n , as w e l l as t h e m o s t r e c e n t d e f i n i t i o n of l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t y o f f e r e d b y t h e U.S. I n t e r a g e n c y C o m m i t t e e on L e a r n i n g D i s a b i l i t i e s , w h i c h is u s e d f o r le gi s la ti v e, d i a g n o s t i c a n d r e s e a r c h p u rp os e s. This d e f i n i t i o n states:

P a g e 9

L e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t i e s is a g e n e r i c terra that refers to a h e t e r o g e n e o u s g r o u p of d i s o r d e r s m a n i f e s t e d by-

s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f i c u l t i e s in the a c q u i s i t i o n a n d use of liste ni n g, speaking, reading, writing, reaso n in g, or m a t h e m a t i c a l a b il it ie s , or of soci al skills. The se d i s o r d e r s are r n s t r i n s i c to the i n d i v i d u a l and p r e s u m e d t o be d u e to c e n t r a l n e r vo us s y s t e m d y s f u n c t i o n . E v e n t h o u g h a l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t y m a y oc c u r c o n c o m i t a n t l y w i t h o t h e r h a n d i c a p p i n g c o n d i t i o n s . . . an d e s p e c i a l l y

a t t e n t i o n d e f i c i t d i s o r d e r [italics added], all of

w h i c h m a y c a u s e l e a r n i n g probl em s , a l e a r n i n g

d i s a b i l i t y is no t the d i r e c t r e s u l t of t h o s e c o n d i t i o n s o r influe nc es . ( G re sh am & Elliott, 1989a, p. 121)

T y p i c a l of the r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s is the r e s u l t s fr om a s u r ve y of t e a c h e r s of 3 593 e l e m e n t a r y students, a i m e d at d e t e r m i n i n g t h e i n c i d e n c e of l e a r n i n g an d b e h a v i o u r a l d i f f i c u l t i e s ( H o l b o r o w & Berry, 1986). 7.7% of th e s tu d en ts w e r e r a t e d as s h o w i n g s i g n i f i c a n t l e a r n i n g d if f i c u l t i e s , w h i l e 11.4% s h o w e d s i g n i f i c a n t h y p e r a c t i v i t y . A s i g n i f i c a n t l i n k a g e wa s f o u n d b e t w e e n h y p e r a c t i v i t y and l e a r n i n g d i f f i c u l t i e s : sev e n t i m es as m a n y h y p e r a c t i v e c h i l d r e n as n o n h y p e r a c t i v e c hildren, w e r e h a v i n g serious l e a r n i n g p r ob le ms . Of t h o s e h a v i n g l e a r n i n g d i ff ic u lt ie s, fully 41% w e r e a l s o r a t e d as s h o w i n g hy pe r a c t i v i t y . A n o t h e r stud y c o m p a r e d a g r o u p of 60 c h i l d r e n d i a g n o s e d w i t h

Page 10

a t t e n t i o n d e f i c i t h y p e r a c t i v i t y d i s o r d e r (ADHD), w i t h 30 c h i l d r e n h a v i n g a c a d e m i c p r o b l e m s a n d 30 n or m a l controls, to d e t e r m i n e p s y c h o m e t r i c a l l y th e rat es of l e a r n i n g

d i s a b i l i t i e s in each g r o u p (S e m r u d - C l i k e m a n , B ie de r m a n ,

S p r i c h - B u c k m i n s t e r , Lehman, F a r a o n e , & Norman, 1992). U s i n g l iberal c r i t e r i a for l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t y , 38% of t h e A D H D g r ou p h a d l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t i e s ; u s i n g m o r e s t r i n g e n t criteria, 17 t o 23% of t h e g r o u p w e r e c o n s i d e r e d l e a r n i n g disabled. A f o l l o w - u p s t u d y of 600 children, a g e d f r o m o ne y e a r to s i x t e e n y e a r s in t h e i n i t i a l phase, s h o w e d a s t r o n g a s s o c i a t i o n b e t w e e n l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t y a n d A D H D in b o t h th e i n i t i a l a n d the f o l l o w - u p p h a s e s (Cantwell & Baker, 1991). F o r t y p e r c e n t of t h e l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d c h i l d r e n in th e i n i t i a l s t u d y h a d ADHD; at f o l l o w - u p four to fiv e y ea r s later, 53% of the l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d s a m p l e h a d ADHD.

C o m p a r i s o n s b e t w e e n s a m pl es of l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d an d n o n l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d children, m a t c h e d on age an d P e r f o r m a n c e IQ, r e v e a l e d th a t 63% of the l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d c h i l d r e n ha d ADHD, v e r s u s o n l y 30% of t h e n o n l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d children. In a g r o u p of s e v e n t h i r d - g r a d e c h i l d r e n w i t h d e v e l o p m e n t a l d y s c a l c u l i a w h o d i d n ot i m p r o v e s i g n i f i c a n t l y w i t h s p e c i a l r e m e d i a l educa t io n, four w e r e fo u n d to have a t t e n t i o n d e f i c i t d i s o r d e r w i t h o u t h y p e r a c t i v i t y (Sha l ev & G r o s s - Ts ur , 1993). Stud ie s of b e h a v i o u r a l p r o f i l e s of l e a r n i n g - d i s a b l e d c h i l d r e n on i n s t r u m e n t s i n c l u d i n g t h e C h i l d B e h a v i o u r

P a g e 11

C h e c k l i s t and th e P e r s o n a l i t y I n v e n t o r y for C h i l d r e n have r e v e a l e d s i g n i f i c a n t e l ev a t i o n s on the H y p e r a c t i v i t y scales a m on g othe rs ( M c C o n a u g h y & Ritter, 1986; N u s s b a u m & Bigler, 1986). W h e n 64 l e a r n i n g - d i s a b l e d and 46 l o w - a c h i e v i n g boys in g r a d e s 3 to 6 w e r e c o m p a r e d w i t h 40 a v e r a g e boys on t e a c h e r r a t i n g s of h y p e r a c t i v i t y a na s e l f - c o n c r o l , the two groups of boys w i t h l e a r n i n g p r o b l e m s w e r e r a t e d as

s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r in h y p e r a c t i v i t y t h a n w e r e the normal boys (Merrell, 1990). K i n d e r g a r t e n s t u d e n t s w h o were later i d e n t i f i e d as l e a r n i n g disabled, w e r e r a t e d b y t e a c h e r s as s h o w i n g s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r a t t e n t i o n a l p r o b l e m s t h a n a v e r a g e a c h i e v e r s or h i g h - a c h i e v i n g s tudents, a n d t h e y were m o r e f r e g u e n t l y r e j e c t e d b y cl a ss m a t e s (Vaughn et al.,

1993) .

It has in fact b e e n sho wn t h a t d i f f i c u l t i e s w i t h social c o m p e t e n c e m a y b e m o r e s t r o n g l y r e l a t e d to h y p e r a c t i v i t y than to l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t i e s . F i n d i n g s of w e a k social c o m p e t e n c e in a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t i e s m a y s im p l y r e f l e c t th e h i g h b a s e rate of A D H D in l e a r n i n g d i s a b l e d children, r a t h e r than s u g g e s t i n g a c a u s a l a s s o c i a t i o n b e t w e e n the two. In an i n t e r e s t i n g study,

t w e n t y l e a r n i n g - d i s a b l e d c h i l d r e n were c o m p a r e d w i t h t w en ty norm al sev en - to t e n - y e a r - o l d s on c o g n i t i v e me a s u r e s , the C o nn er s T e a c h e r R a t i n g S c a l e , a n d on a f f e c t i v e r o l e - t a k i n g skills. P e e r - d o m a i n s o c i a l skills w e r e r e l a t e d most

P a g e 12

s t a n d i n g (Bruck & Hebert, 1982). A g r o u p of boy s in grades 3 to 6 was d i v i d e d i n t o t h o s e h a v i n g l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t i e s (n=22), t ho s e h a v i n g b o t h l e a r n i n g d i s a b i l i t i e s and h y p e r a c t i v i t y (n=19), and a c o m p a r i s o n g r o u p of 157 norm al c h i l d r e n ( F l ic ek & Landau, 1985). Pe e r s o c i o m e t r i c r a t in g s r e v e a l e d tha t even t h o u g h t h e l e a r n i n g - d i s a b l e d g r o u p wa s less p o p u l a r a n d m o r e r e j e c t e d t h a n controls, t h o s e w ho w e r e also h y p e r a c t i v e had t h e m o s t s ev e r e s o ci a l stat us p r o b l e m s a nd t h e m o s t a v e r s i v e so c i a l b e h a v i o u r s . C h i l d r e n w i t h A D H D are l i k e l y to e n c o u n t e r soc ia l d i f f i c u l t i e s , e v e n t h o u g h the p r i m a r y s y mp to ms of A D H D do not i n c l u d e d i f f i c u l t i e s in

i n t e r p e r s o n a l f u n c t i o n i n g (Landau & Moore, 1991). Peer s o c i o m ^ t r i c r a ti ng s g a t h e r e d on 27 c l i n i c - r e f e r r e d c h i l d r e n d i a g n o s e d w i t h a t t e n t i o n d e f i c i t d is or d er s, a g e d six to t h i r t e e n years, were c o m p a r e d w i t h t h o s e of 45 no rm a l children. T h e c h i l d r e n w i t h a t t e n t i o n d e f i c i t s r e c e i v e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y fewe r "li ke d most" n o m i n a t io ns , m o r e "liked l e a s t " nomina ti on s , a n d had lower s o ci a l p r e f e r e n c e scores (Carlson, Lahey, Frame, Walker, & Hynd, 1987).

T o summarize, a s i g n i f i c a n t p r o p o r t i o n of le ar n i n g - d i s a b l e d c h i l d r e n h a v e soc i al d i f f i c u l t i e s . A s i g n i f i c a n t p r o p o r t i o n a l s o have a f - e n t i o n a l d i f f i c u l t i e s w h i c h m a y be the c a u s e of t h e i r s o c i a l d i f f i c u l t i e s . Is t h e i n c i d e n c e of a t t e n t i o n a l d i f f i c u l t i e s or h y p e r a c t i v i t y , a n d / o r i m p a i r m e n t in s o c i a l skills, g r e a t e r a m o n g t h os e c h i l d r e n w i t h N L D t h a n a m o n g c h i l d r e n wit h v e r b a l l e a r n i n g d i s o r d e r s ?

P a g e 13

U n f o r t u n a t e l y , the f o r e g o i n g studies h a v e no t c l a s s i f i e d the l e a r n i n g - d i s a b l e d c h i l d r e n a c c o r d i n g to s u b t y p e a n d so do not a d d r e s s this issue. However, a n u m b e r of stud ie s have e x a m i n e d t h e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s a m o n g c o m p o n e n t s of NLD

(i.e. a r i t h m e t i c a c h i e ve me n t, v i s u o s p a t i a l ability, and social c o m p e t e n c e ) . Some of t h e s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s a p p e a r to be g u i t e s t r o n g l y e s t a b l i s h e d (i.e. a c a d e m i c a c h i e v e m e n t and social skills) w h i l e othe r s r e g u i r e f u r t h e r e l u c i d a t i o n

(i.e. v i s u o s p a t i a l a b i l i t y a n d social skills; v i s u o s p a t i a l a b il it y a nd a r i t h m e t i c a c h i e v e m e n t ) .

A r i t h m e t i c a c h i e v e m e n t an d soci a l c o m p e t en c e. T h o s e studies w h i c h hav e l o o k e d at social skil ls in c h i l d r e n of v a r y i n g a b i l i t y in a r i t h m e t i c g e n e r a l l y s u p p o r t the p r o p o s i t i o n th a t a r i t h m e t i c a b i l i t y a n d s oc i a l skills covary. In a r e v i e w of stud ie s e x a m i n i n g s o c i a b i l i t y a n d a r i t h m e t i c a c h i e v e m e n t in s ch o o l c h i l d r e n , a p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e tw o s t o o d out c l e a r l y (Badian, 1983). C h i l d r e n h a v i n g s p e c i f i c a r i t h m e t i c d i s a b i l i t i e s have b e e n r a t e d as w e a k e r in p e r s o n a l - s o c i a l b e h a v i o u r than thei r p e e r s w h o had s p e c i f i c r e a d i n g d i s a b i l i t i e s (Badian & Ghublik.ian, 1983; Munson, 1986) or w h o we r e n o r m al achi ev e rs

(Munson, 1986). In a r e c e n t s tu d y of a l m o s t 600 children, i n c l u d i n g 90 w h o w e r e l e a r n i n g d is a b l e d , t h e p a t t e r n of r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n p e e r a c c e p t a n c e r a t i n g s and ac a d e m i c a c h i e v e m e n t was d i f f e r e n t for a r i t h m e t i c t h a n it was for r e a d i n g scor e s (Wiener et al., 1990). W h e r e a s in bo th the

P a g e 14

tota l s a m p l e an d in the s u b g r o u p of l e a r n i n g - d i s a b l e d the c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n p e e r a c c e p t a n c e a n d W R A T - R a r i t h m e t i c score d i d n o t r e a c h s i g n if ic a nc e, t h e r e was a s i g n i f i c a n t n e g a t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n p e e r a c c e p t a n c e a n d r e a d i n g score in t h e l e a r n i n g - d i s a b l e d g r o u p only, r e f l e c t i n g less e f f e c t i v e p e e r i n t e r a c t i o n s in t h o s e l e a r n i n g - d i s a b l e d c h i l d r e n w h o are b e t t e r readers. In t h i s s t u d y t he

a c h i e v e m e n t p r o f i l e was impor ta nt : w h e r e a s t h e a r i t h m e t i c score in i t s e l f wa s not a p r e d i c t o r of s o c ia l success, t h o s e l e a r n i n g - d i s a b l e d c h i l d r e n w h o s e a r i t h m e t i c p e r f o r m a n c e w as w e a k e r t h a n their r e a d i n g p e r f o r m a n c e w e r e t h e ones

e x p e r i e n c i n g p e e r r e l a t i o n s h i p d i f f i c u l t i e s . S i m i l a r f i n d i n g s h a v e b e e n r e p o r t e d b y R o u r k e a n d his c o l l e a g u e s

(Rourke & F i n l a y s o n , 1978; R o u r k e & Strang, 1978, 1983), w h o f o u n d that, of the l e a r n i n g - d i s a b l e d c h i l d r e n who h a d

e q u a l l y w e a k p e r f o r m a n c e s in W R A T ar i t h m e t i c , t h o s e w h o s e a r i t h m e t i c scor es w e r e w e a k e r t h a n t h e i r r e a d i n g sco r es had i n t e r a c t i o n a l p r o b l e m s w i t h p e e r s . In c o n t r a s t to t h e s e findings, however, s o c i o - e m o t i o n a l m e a s u r e s i n c l u d i n g s t r u c t u r e d i n t e r v i e w s a n d r a t i n g s b y p a re nt s , t e ac he r s, a n d t h e subjects' o w n s e l f - r a t i n g s , w e r e not c o r r e l a t e d w i t h a r i t h m e t i c scores in a s a m p l e of 107 t h i r t e e n - y e a r - o l d l e a r n i n g - d i s a b l e d c h i l d r e n (White, M o f f it t, & Silva, 1992). No s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n s w e r e o b t a i n e d b e t w e e n a n y a c h i e v e m e n t sco re a n d p e e r a c c e p t a n c e

Page 15

r a t i n g s in a n o t h e r l a r g e - s c a l e s t u d y of ove r 7 00 ch i l d r e n (Kistner & Gatlin, 1989).

W h i l e m a n y of the f o r e g o i n g s t u di e s s u p p o r t an a s s o c i a t i o n b e t w e e n a r i t h m e t i c a c h i e v e m e n t a n d social

competency, it a p p ea rs t h a t low a c h i e v e m e n t in a r i t h m e t i c is not t h e w h o l e story. A r i t h m e t i c a c h i e v e m e n t is but one of a g ro u p of d e f i c i t s w h i c h c o m p r i s e t h e N L D syndrome, and poo r a r i t h m e t i c a c h i e v e m e n t can aris e f r o m r e a s o n s o t h e r t h a n N LD

(Badian, 1983; Gordon, 1992; S t r a n g & Rourke, 1985; Tuokko, 1982). Thus, not e v e r y c h i l d w i t h p o o r a r i t h m e t i c

a c h i e v e m e n t c an be a s s u m e d to ha v e NLD. In t h e c o n s t r u c t of NLD, d i s a b i l i t i e s in b o t h social skills a n d a r i t h m e t i c are p r e s e n t and h a v e t h e i r b a s i s in a n e ar l y p e r c e p t u a l d isorder. Thus, b o t h s h o u l d be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a t y p i c a l v i s u o p e r c e p t u a l - v i s u o s p a t i a l p e r f o r m a n c e . S t u d i e s w h i c h have i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i l l b e r e v i e w e d next. V i s u o s p a t i a l a b i l i t y a n d s o c i a l c o m p e t e n c e . V i s i o n is g e n e r a l l y c o n s i d e r e d the p r i m a r y s e n s o r y m o d a l i t y for h um a n beings, and a n e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t s o u r c e of c o n t a c t w i t h t h e e n v i r o n m e n t even f r o m e a r l i e s t i n f a n c y (Liebert, Poulos, & M a r m or , 1977). Thus, v i s u o p e r c e p t u a l d e f i c i t s are

l ik e l y to h a v e s i g n i f i c a n t i m p a c t on d e v e l o p m e n t . In

p ar ti cu l ar , d e v e l o p m e n t of s o c ia l skills, w h i c h r e l y h e a v i l y on q u i c k i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of c o m p l e x n o n v e r b a l s i t u a t i o n s and i nt er a c t i o n s , m a y b e c om pr om i se d.

P a g e 16

V i s u a l p e r c e p t i o n is a c o m p l e x set of skills a n d a c o m p o n e n t of m a n y d i f f e r e n t c o g n i t i v e tasks, i n c l u d i n g v i s u o s p a t i a l a n d v i s u o c o n s t r u c t i o n a l tasks. A u t h o r s have o ft e n u s e d a c o m p o s i t e s c o r e to o p e r a t i o n a l i z e

v i s u o p e r c e p t u a l and v i s u o s p a t i a l ability, such as th e P e r f o r m a n c e IQ score from t h e W e c h s l e r I n t e l l i g e n c e Scale for C h i l d r e n - R e v i s e d (WISC-R, Wech sl er , 1974). T h o s e w h o s e P e r f o r m a n c e IQ (PIQ) is w e a k e r t h a n t h e i r V e r b a l IQ (VIQ) are c o n s i d e r e d to h a v e a d e f i c i t in v i s u o p e r c e p t u a l a n d / o r v i s u o s p a t i a l ability. Some auth o rs have f o u n d t h a t suc h d e f i c i t s are a s s o c i a t e d w i t h social skill defi ci t s. For exam pl e, S t r a n g and R o u r k e (1985) u s e d t h e P e r s o n a l i t y

I n v e n t o r y for C h i l d r e n to a s s es s l e a r n i n g - d i s a b l e d c h i l d r e n w h o h a d bee n c l a s s i f i e d i n t o subtypes on t h e b a s i s of W I S C IQ p r of il es . C h i l d r e n h a v i n g V I Q > P I Q p r o f i l e s w e r e r a t e d as m o r e w i t h d r a w n and h a v i n g m o r e soc ia l s k il l s p r o b l e m s t h a n t he o t h e r two groups (VIQ<PIQ; V I Q = P I Q ) . W i e n e r (1980) u s e d B a n n a t y n e ' s c a t e g o r i z a t i o n s of W I S C - R s c o r e s to c l a s s i f y 60 l e a r n i n g - d i s a b l e d c h i l d r e n a t t e n d i n g a r e m e d i a l s u m m e r camp into c o n c e p t u a l , spatial, a n d s e q u e n t i a l d i s a b i l i t y s u bt yp e s. C h i l d r e n w i t h c o n c e p t u a l a n d s p a t i a l d i s a b i l i t i e s w e r e r a t e d by the ir p e e r s a n d by c a m p c o u n s e l l o r s as h a v i n g m o r e p r o b l e m s d e v e l o p i n g p o s i t i v e p e e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a n w e r e t h e c h i l d r e n w i t h s e q u e n t i a l d i s a b i l i t i e s . T h e s e r e s u l t s a r e not o b t a i n e d c o n s i s t e n t l y , however. In a s t u d y in w h i c h s o c i o m e t r i c r a t i n g s w e r e used, 65