Storytelling in Green Marketing: the Effect of Storytelling on Attitude towards the Advertisement and Purchase Intention and the Moderating Role of Environmental Involvement

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Storytelling in Green Marketing:

The Effect of Storytelling on Attitude towards the Advertisement and Purchase Intention and the Moderating Role of Environmental Involvement

Anne Frinsel 11027525 Master’s Thesis

Graduate School of Communication Persuasive Communication

Supervisor: Dr. S.C.M. Welten 31-01-2020

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2 Abstract

Storytelling appeared to be an effective persuasion strategy within the fields of

marketing and health messages. Within the field of green marketing, the effect of storytelling on persuasiveness can be examined concerning the role of environmental involvement. It is unclear whether the effects of storytelling in green advertisements are stronger or weaker regarding high or low environmental involvement. Hence, this study examined the effect of storytelling on attitude towards an advertisement and purchase intention within the field of green marketing. In addition, environmental involvement was included to test its influence on this effect. An online experiment (N = 161) was conducted to compare exposures to green advertisements with either narrative texts or non-narrative texts. Results showed that exposure to green advertisements with narrative texts was beneficial for attitude towards the

advertisement. With respect to purchase intention, marginal significant results were found for the effect of green advertisements with narrative texts. Furthermore, non-significant

interaction effects were found in relation to the influence of environmental involvement. The results were discussed in line with processes of storytelling and the role of environmental issues in the field of green marketing.

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3 Introduction

To persuade the consumer, advertisers have been integrating storylike formats in their brands and advertisements to make them more appealing, interesting, and entertaining

(Escalas, 1998; Stern, 1991; Stern, 1994). This has appeared beneficial for persuasion

outcomes as attitude towards an advertisement and purchase intention (Adaval & Wyer, 1998; Escalas & Stern, 2003; Grimmer & Woolley, 2014; Hartmann, Apaolaza Ibáñez & Forcada Sainz, 2005; Vermeir & Verbeke, 2006; Yueh & Cheng, 2019). This strategy of storytelling is mostly used in marketing and in health messages. Regarding marketing, storytelling can be beneficial for persuasiveness. Within health messages, storytelling can encourage behavior change (Escalas, 2004; Hinyard & Kreuter, 2007; Van Laer, Feiereisen & Visconti, 2019; Murphy et al., 2013; Shen & Bigsby, 2013; Zheng & Phelps, 2012). Furthermore, storytelling responds to new developments and trends within these fields. For example, research on

storytelling in the digital era is of importance, as new technologies provide more opportunities for storytelling (Ching et al., 2013; Van Laer, Feiereisen & Visconti, 2019).

Despite storytelling being used in several fields effectively, little is known about storytelling in the perspective of green marketing (Fuentes, 2015; Nie, Liang & Chen, 2017). Within green marketing, strategies are focused on environmental concerns. It is about selling products and services based on their environmental benefits (Ottman, 2017; Peattie & Charter, 2003). The emphasis on environmental benefits makes the distinction between green

marketing and the common field of marketing. The field of green marketing should be

considered important, since the topic of environmental issues is of increasing interest amongst consumers, and since environmentally concerned behavior has become the norm in the public discussion (Charter et al., 2002; Ottman, 2017; Peattie & Charter, 2003).

Interestingly, the combination of storytelling and the emphasis on environmental issues within green marketing might lead to opposite effects. On the one hand, environmental issues are inseparable from green marketing (Charter et al., 2002; Ottman, 2017). Hence, it can be expected that consumers’ environmental involvement should influence the effect of green advertisements on attitude towards the advertisement and purchase intention. On the other hand, this effect might be diminished or disproved by the use of storytelling in a green advertisement. Moreover, with regard to the role of involvement, research had brought up two points of view (Slater & Rouner, 2002). Firstly, there is the elaboration likelihood model (Petty, Cacioppo & Schumann, 1983). According to this model, people who are more into environmental issues will process a green advertisement with storytelling more thoroughly and attentive than people who are less into environmental issues. Thus, it can be expected that

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4 the effect of storytelling in green advertisements on attitude towards the advertisement and purchase intention will increase when people are environmentally high involved. Secondly, there are the extended elaboration likelihood model (Slater & Rouner, 2002) and the

entertainment overcoming resistance model (Moyer-Gusé & Nabi, 2010). In accordance with these models, the use of storytelling in a green advertisement makes consumers’

environmental involvement less important, as storytelling can overcome consumers’ reactance and counterarguing (Moyer-Gusé, 2008; Moyer-Gusé & Nabi, 2010; Slater & Rouner, 2002). Therefore, an oppositional effect can be expected that storytelling in green advertisements on attitude towards the advertisement and purchase intention will increase when people are environmentally low involved. Hence, it is unclear whether the effects of storytelling in green advertisements are stronger or weaker regarding high or low environmental involvement.

Theoretically, the aim of the current study is to build on theories of storytelling in order to embed these in the field of green marketing. Subsequently, the role of environmental involvement is investigated to obtain insight in how this affects the relationship between storytelling in green marketing and persuasiveness. Since previous literature has not provided sufficient insight into the combination of storytelling and the role of environmental concern within the field of green marketing, the practical aim of the study is to give green marketing professionals direction in how to use storytelling within this field. As the awareness of environmental issues has increased (Charter et al., 2002; Ottman, 2017), green marketing has become a complex field with several ways to respond to these environmental issues (Charter et al., 2002; Fuentes, 2015; Peattie & Charter, 2003). Thus, the current study examines how storytelling in green advertisements affects attitude towards the advertisement and purchase intention. In addition, environmental involvement is included to examine its influence on this effect. An experimental design is created in which the effects of exposure to green

advertisements with either narrative texts or non-narrative texts are being compared. This has led to the following research question:

RQ: Does exposure to green advertisements with storytelling cause a more positive attitude towards the advertisement and a higher level of purchase intention than green advertisements without storytelling? And does this effect increase for people who are environmentally low involved compared to people who are environmentally high involved?

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5 Theoretical framework

The effect of storytelling on attitude towards the ad and purchase intention

To examine the effect of storytelling on attitude towards an advertisement and

purchase intention, a starting point is to look at the ability of storytelling to engage consumers in order to make them reconsider or change attitude or behavior (De Graaf, Sanders &

Hoeken, 2016; Moyer-Gusé, 2008; Moyer-Gusé & Nabi, 2010; Slater & Rouner, 2002). Within storytelling, narrative elements are indispensable. The concept of narrative has been described in different ways (Bruner, 1986; Green & Brock, 2000; Hinyard & Kreuter, 2007). Regarding the current study, a clear distinction needs to be made between narrative and non-narrative. In this case, a conforming description of a narrative is a story containing first-person descriptions of individual cases and experiences. On the other hand, more factual and statistical texts are most often used as a non-narrative control (De Graaf, Sanders & Hoeken, 2016).

In respect of persuasion, two important and frequently used motives within the narrative underlie the further processes of persuasion outcomes. These motives are

identification and transportation. Firstly, many descriptions of identification have been made (Cohen, 2001; De Graaf et al., 2012; Hinyard & Kreuter, 2007; Slater, 1997). Concerning the current study, identification can be described as the reader’s ability to see narrative events through the character’s eyes (Cohen, 2001). Secondly, transportation can be conceptualized as the reader’s ability to focus all mental processes on actions and events in the narrative (Green & Brock, 2000). Eventually, identification and transportation might influence the

persuasiveness of a narrative.

In relation to marketing and regarding identification and transportation, narrative advertisements affect consumers’ cognitive responses. Firstly, narrative advertisements have the ability to catch the attention of the consumer easily, and then to draw the consumer into the advertisement. Simultaneously, narrative advertisements can reinforce character

identification (Escalas, 1998). In addition, narrative advertisements might elicit mental simulations. This implies the consumer’s cognitive representation of hypothetical scenarios, in which the consumer involves him or herself. Consequently, consumers will evaluate a narrative advertisement and its product positively (Escalas, 2004).

With respect to the persuasiveness of a narrative, several studies showed that a narrative can overcome reactance and counterarguing in the process of persuasion (Moyer-Gusé, 2008; Moyer-Gusé & Nabi, 2010; Slater & Rouner, 2002). Besides identification and transportation, there are other motives that might influence the persuasiveness of a narrative.

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6 From a marketing perspective, the study of Gilliam and Flaherty (2015) showed that narrative advertisements can decrease the distance between seller and consumer. Narratives in

advertisements can enhance credibility and lower negative response, which leads to increased bonding between seller and consumer. This might lead the consumer in a certain direction, following by an increased purchase intention. Besides this seller-consumer relationship, the relationship between brand and consumer can benefit from the use of narratives in

advertisements, as this might lead to a more beneficial attitude towards an advertisement or product (Woodside, Sood & Miller, 2008). A conforming underlying process is that narratives in advertisements may encourage the feeling of participation. The processing of narratives leads towards more acceptance and enjoyment than the processing of non-narratives in advertisements, which requires more argumentative thinking. This feeling of participation might be followed by positive emotions towards an advertisement (Woodside, Sood & Miller, 2008). Related to this is the influence of sympathy and empathy on consumer response

(Escalas & Stern, 2003). When processing a narrative in an advertisement, the consumer might get feelings of sympathy and empathy towards a character or a certain event. This might affect the consumer’s attitude towards an advertisement and purchase intention.

Building on the previous theories, storytelling within green marketing can have additional positive effects on consumer’s preferences and attitudes towards advertisements (Nie, Liang & Chen, 2017). From a green marketing perspective, Fenger et al. (2015) showed that green narrative advertisements can enhance consumer’s arousal. Consequently, this can overcome the consumer’s disinterest and unwillingness to process information. Eventually, this might lead to a positive value towards organic food and eventually increased purchase intention.

In conclusion, previous studies from several fields showed that storytelling can affect persuasiveness. Therefore, it can be expected that storytelling in green advertisements can affect attitude towards the advertisement and purchase intention in a positive direction. This has led to the first hypothesis:

H1: Exposure to green advertisements with storytelling causes (a) a more positive attitude towards the advertisement and (b) a higher level of purchase intention than to green advertisements without storytelling.

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7 The role of environmental involvement

The current study examines the interaction effect of environmental involvement on the effect of storytelling in green advertisements on attitude towards an advertisement and

purchase intention. Interestingly, this might lead to opposite effects. On the one hand, consumers’ environmental involvement should influence the effect of green advertisements on attitude towards the advertisement and purchase intention. On the other hand, this effect might be diminished or disproved by the use of storytelling in a green advertisement. Hence, this interaction effect can be substantiated from two opposite points of view. Following the first point of view, with respect to the elaboration likelihood model (ELM) (Petty, Cacioppo & Schumann, 1983), it can be expected that the effect of storytelling on attitude towards the advertisement and purchase intention will increase when people are environmentally high involved. On the other hand, following the second point of view, regarding the extended elaboration likelihood model (E-ELM) (Slater & Rouner, 2002) and the entertainment overcoming resistance model (EORM) (Moyer-Gusé & Nabi, 2010), it can be expected that the effect of storytelling on attitude towards the advertisement and purchase intention will increase when people are environmentally low involved.

First of all, the role of involvement is connected to dual-processing models of persuasion, wherein involvement affects information processing (Booth-Butterfield &

Welbourne, 2002; Hinyard & Kreuter, 2007). The first model of information processing is the ELM (Petty, Cacioppo & Schumann, 1983). According to this model, there are two ways to process information, depending on the level of involvement. People who are high involved consider the given information as more important, than people who are low involved. Relevant factors that play a role in this process are the comprehension and retention of the information. Conversely, people who are low involved tend to be guided by mere superficial positive and negative cues the information contains. In the case of peripheral processing, the information will not be processed thoroughly (Petty, Cacioppo & Schumann, 1983). Also, information scanning will occur more often when people are low involved. Only superficial, obvious cues will be noticed (Slater, 1997).

A set of theories supports the possible positive increase in attitude towards an advertisement and purchase intention for people who are environmentally high involved. According to the ELM, people who are high involved will process information more centrally instead of peripherally (Petty, Cacioppo & Schumann, 1983). High involved people will have more attention for the given information, as they receive it as interesting (Slater, 1997). Consequently, it can be expected that consumers who are high involved will look at a

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8 narrative advertisement attentively, which might lead to transportation and identification (Escalas, 1998). For example, when an environmentally high involved consumer is exposed to a green advertisement with storytelling, they will be motivated and engaged with the narrative in the advertisement easily (Petty, Cacioppo & Schumann, 1983). This might lead to a

positive evaluation of the advertisement and an increased purchase intention. Moreover, as narrative advertisements will be processed more attentively than non-narrative

advertisements, this will result in relative enduring and predictive outcomes of attitude towards the advertisement and purchase intention (Petty, Cacioppo & Schumann, 1983).

Subsequently, the E-ELM (Slater & Rouner, 2002) and the EORM (Moyer-Gusé & Nabi, 2010) might explain the increasing positive effect of storytelling on attitude towards an advertisement and purchase intention that will increase for people who are environmentally low involved. These models can be supported by theories of narratives being a part of

entertainment education (De Graaf et al., 2012; Hinyard & Kreuter, 2007; Moyer-Gusé, 2008; Slater, 1997). According to these models and theories, the role of involvement can be

diminished by the use of storytelling. With respect to the EORM, involvement does not play a role in persuasion, as narratives have the ability to overcome reactance and counterarguing. Thus, in contrast with a non-narrative advertisement, a narrative advertisement itself is able to persuade, despite the presence of level of involvement. The EORM is building on the

extended elaboration likelihood model (E-ELM) (Slater & Rouner, 2002). In its turn, this model is building on the ELM (Petty, Cacioppo & Schumann, 1983), showing that the ELM is not applicable in combination with narrative information, as narratives are processed

differently, and that issue involvement can be considered as less important than engagement with the narrative. The E-ELM focuses on the ability of a narrative to reduce information scrutiny. Thus, according to this model, for the effects of a narrative advertisement on attitude towards the advertisement and purchase intention, the consumer’s personal preference is irrelevant. As an underlying process, issue involvement is replaced by engagement with the narrative and identification with the characters (Slater & Rouner, 2002; Stern, 1991). When people are engaged in a narrative, they tend to process information less critically (Moyer-Gusé, 2008). This will facilitate and increase the acceptance of certain details in the narrative, which will reduce reactance and counterarguing (Moyer-Gusé & Nabi, 2010; Slater &

Rouner, 2002). Also, identification with a character within a narrative advertisement has a strong influence on the eventual outcomes of attitude towards the advertisement and purchase intention (Escalas, 1998; Moyer-Gusé, 2008). In addition, the use of narratives might be an effective way to advocate issues or values that are contrary to the existing norms (Slater,

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9 1997). Consequently, it is considered that issue involvement is less important than

engagement with the narrative (Slater & Rouner, 2002). Hence, in conjunction with narrative engagement, consumers who are environmentally low involved might be affected by the communicated values in the narrative advertisement, also if they may contradict their own values. This might result in a positive evaluation of the advertisement and an increased purchase intention.

From now, the current study will follow the E-ELM and the EORM. The theories behind these models elaborated on the ELM with the argument that processing narratives requires a different approach. Since storytelling is an important factor in the current study, the E-ELM and the EORM and related theories seem appropriate to build on. Hence, it can be expected that the effect of storytelling in green advertisements on attitude towards the advertisement and purchase intention is stronger for people who are environmentally low involved, compared to people who are environmentally high involved. To investigate this interaction effect, the second hypothesis is proposed:

H2: Exposure to green advertisements with storytelling causes (a) a more positive attitude towards the advertisement and (b) a higher level of purchase intention than to green advertisements without storytelling, but this effect will be stronger for people who are environmentally low involved than for people who are environmentally high involved.

Figure 1. Conceptual model of the main and moderated effect. Texts in green advertisements

(narrative vs. non-narrative)

Environmental involvement (high vs. low)

Purchase intention Attitude towards the

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10 Method

Participants and procedure

For this study, a total of 202 participants in the age of 20 to 35 were recruited via social media. Since this group is highly social connected, social media seemed to be

appropriate ways to reach them. Furthermore, regarding to environmental involvement, this age group of millennials is relatively more into environmental care than older generations, as they have the ability to express their opinions online easily (Ottman, 2017; Vermeir &

Verbeke, 2006). Besides that, millennials tend to think that climate change is of human cause, instead of natural cause, which is more considered by the older generations. Because of this, millennials generally buy more organic products than other generations, since they have a higher sense of self-efficacy (Ottman, 2017).

When checking for essential missing values, many participants had to be eliminated. 8 participants were eliminated because of an error in the data collection, whereby no data was collected at all. Then, 3 participants were eliminated because they had not given their consent to participate in the study. Next, 24 participants quit the questionnaire in an early stage, before the manipulation had started. Lastly, 6 participants quit the questionnaire during the

manipulation. Thus, 161 participants (47 males, 112 females, and 2 ‘other’) completed the experiment. Their average age was 24.4 (SD = 3.3) and 50.9 % of the participants had a Bachelor’s degree as highest completed education level. The participants were randomly assigned to the condition with either the narrative or the non-narrative texts.

The study consisted of an online experiment. A 2 (texts: narrative vs. non-narrative) x 2 (environmental involvement: high vs. low) between subjects design was conducted. In this study, environmental involvement was a quasi-experimental factor, as it was not being manipulated. After the data collection, this factor was split up into two groups to determine the high/low distribution.

In a time period of approximately five weeks, participants were asked online to fill in the questionnaire. When the questionnaire had started, participants saw a short introduction about the study and the opportunity to give their consent for participation. After this, the questionnaire started with four statements about their environmental involvement. Then, a short filler task followed with two questions regarding the participant’s employment situation. Hereafter, each participant saw advertisements with either the narrative or the non-narrative texts. Participants had to look at each advertisement for at least five seconds, to make sure that essential features were noticed. After the exposure to each advertisement, two questions were asked about their attitude towards the advertisement and purchase intention. Directly

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11 after the exposures to the advertisements and corresponding questions, a manipulation check followed. The last part of the questionnaire consisted of questions about participant’s buying behavior and some demographic questions. When the participants finished the questionnaire, they were debriefed and got the opportunity to leave comments and ask questions to the researcher by email.

Stimulus materials

The stimulus materials consisted of advertisements which showed an organic product and a short text about this product. These short texts were manipulated towards the two conditions (narrative and non-narrative). The texts in the advertisements were based on the texts used in the study of Kim and Nan (2019). In this study, short online narrative and non-narrative texts about HPV and HPV vaccines were used. The form and length of these texts were adapted in the current study. The design of the advertisements was based on the advertisements used in the study on persuasive effects of emotional versus functional advertisements of Matthes, Wonneberger and Schmuck (2014). In this study, the

advertisements contained an image of a household product and a short text, which appeared effective.

In the current study, three sets of stimuli and corresponding questions were created (Appendix 1, Appendix 2). Each set consisted of two advertisements (narrative vs.

non-narrative) of either avocados, of coffee or of cocoa/chocolate. All advertisements contained an image of the product, the label “organic product”, and either a narrative or a non-narrative text about the product; where it was from, its production and environmental benefits. Texts in both narrative and non-narrative conditions provided the same information. Only the form of the texts differed. The only text that was slightly deviating was the text in the non-narrative condition of the cocoa/chocolate advertisement. Here, more factual elements, i.e. numbers, were added to make a larger distinction between the narrative and non-narrative texts in one set of the stimulus. This was done to explain a possible effect of the amount of factual elements on attitude towards the advertisement and purchase intention. However, when checking the results, no significant differences were found between the advertisements with non-narrative texts1_.

1_{The results of a paired samples t-test showed non-significant effects between the non-narrative texts and}

attitude towards the advertisements and purchase intention. There were no significant differences between the advertisements with avocado (M = 4.69, SD = 1.05) and cocoa/chocolate (M = 4.67 , SD = 1.28), t (79) = -.225,

p = .823, 95% CI [-.27, .22]. Also, between the advertisements with coffee (M = 4.52, SD = 1.21) and

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12 In the non-narrative condition, the information was written in a didactic, objective format. For example, the non-narrative text in the advertisement with avocado provided information about the large-scaled avocado production, the fact that more farmers are starting organic productions, diminishing the use of water and pesticides. On the contrary, the texts in the narrative condition contained a reference to a specific character, in case of the avocado advertisement this was farmer Mateo. Here, the same information was presented in a narrating format from a first-person perspective. This perspective has been chosen to increase

identification, and with that persuasiveness (De Graaf, Sanders & Hoeken, 2016). Besides the textual element, the advertisements included an image of a low involvement, organic product. The used products were neutral daily products, which can be bought in a supermarket. Studies showed that low involvement products are becoming greener, as supermarkets are making increasing efforts in selling their green products (Ottman, 2017), and as green appeals in advertisements or on products lead to a greater purchase intention for people who are

environmentally involved (Kong & Zhang, 2013; Ottman, 2017) Also, these low involvement products should have provided a certain neutrality to avoid subject preferences and biases. By doing so, the internal validity has been increased.

Measures

Environmental involvement

To measure environmental involvement, four seven-point scale items were adopted from Schuhwerk and Lefkoff-Hagius (1995). Participants were asked to fill in how much they agreed with four different statements (1= strongly disagree, 7= strongly agree, M = 5.52, SD = .83): “I am concerned about the environment”, “the condition of the environment affects the quality of my life”, “I am willing to make sacrifices to protect the environment”, “my actions impact on the environment”. Factor analysis showed that the four items form one factor (Eigenvalue = 2.31, explained variance = 57.80%, Cronbach's α = .73). Within this factor, two different groups could be made. One contains the values below the median, the other contains the values above the median. A median split would determine the eventual high/low

distribution (Mdn = 5.75).

Attitude towards the advertisement

To measure attitude towards the advertisement, five seven-point semantic differential scales were adopted from Matthes, Wonneberger and Schmuck (2014). Participants were asked to indicate on a seven-point scale to what extend they found the advertisement “bad” or

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13 “good”, “unpleasant” or “pleasant”, “unfavorable” or “favorable”, “unconvincing” or

“convincing”, and “incredible” or “credible”. Factor analysis showed that the items load on one factor (Eigenvalue = 2.32, explained variance = 77.33%, Cronbach's α = .85). The mean score of the items for each advertisement was used as measurement of attitude towards the advertisement (M = 4.91, SD = .98).

Purchase intention

Purchase intention was measured by an adapted scale from Vermeir and Verbeke (2006). Participants were asked how likely they would be to buy the avocados, coffee and cocoa/chocolate shown in the ad, if they saw them in a supermarket. The seven-point scale (1= extremely unlikely, 7 = extremely likely) was proven acceptable reliable for measuring purchase intention. Factor analysis showed that the items load on one factor (Eigenvalue = 1.70, explained variance = 56.51%, Cronbach's α = .61). The mean score of the items for each advertisement was used to measure purchase intention (M = 4.72, SD = 1.09).

Control variable

A control variable was assessed to make sure that the effects of storytelling on attitude towards the advertisement and purchase intention were not caused by other differences between the two conditions. To measure buying behavior, participants were asked to indicate how often they usually buy avocados, coffee and cocoa or chocolate (1 = never, 2 = less than once a month, 3 = 1-2 times a month, 4 = 3-4 times a month, 5 = 5-6 times a month, 6= 7-8 times a month, 7= more than 8 times a month). Finally, age, gender and education level were measured (Appendix 2).

Manipulation check

To check whether the manipulation is perceived by the participants as it is wanted to perceive, participants were asked to fill in how much they agreed with the statement “the text in the advertisement was written in a storylike format”, with a seven-point scale (1= strongly disagree, 7= strongly agree), adapted from Kim and Nan (2019).

Results

Randomization

Participants in the narrative (n = 81) and non-narrative (n = 80) conditions did not differ significantly in gender, c2_{(2) = .67, p = .716, age, t (159) = .89, p = .377, and education}

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14 level, t (159) = -.45, p = .655. Regarding the control variables of participants’ buying

behavior, an independent samples t-test showed that there were no significant differences between the conditions. Regarding avocados, t (159) = -.80, p = .427 (M = 2.75, SD = 1.31), regarding coffee, t (159) = -.87, p = .388 (M = 2.42, SD = 1.33), and regarding

cocoa/chocolate, t (159) = .60, p = .550 (M = 3.47, SD = 1.37). Thus, differences in attitude towards the advertisement and purchase intention were likely to be due to the manipulated factor.

Manipulation check

The narrative (n = 81) and non-narrative (n = 80) conditions differed significantly in manipulation, t (159) = -5.58, p < .000 (Mnon-narrative condition = 5.60, SDnon-narrative condition = 1.26,

Mnarrative condition = 6.63, SDnarrative condition = 1.08). Hence, it can be assumed that the

manipulation was perceived as it was wanted to be perceived.

Attitude towards the advertisement

To test the interaction effect whether exposure to green advertisements with storytelling leads to a more positive attitude towards the advertisement than to green advertisements without storytelling (H1a), and whether this effect would be stronger for people who are environmentally low involved than for people who are environmentally high involved (H2a), a two-way analysis of variance has been conducted. The results showed that participants who were exposed to the advertisements with the narrative texts had a significant, more positive attitude towards the advertisement (M = 5.20, SD = .86), than participants who were exposed to the advertisements with the non-narrative texts (M = 4.63, SD = 1.02), F(1, 157) = 15.14, p < .000, h2_{= .08. However, the size of this effect was weak.}

Thus, H1a can be supported for the direct effect of storytelling on attitude towards the advertisement. Exposure to green advertisements with storytelling significantly leads to a more positive attitude towards the advertisement.

Furthermore, the results showed a significant but weak effect for environmental involvement on attitude towards the advertisement, F (1, 157) = 6.73, p = .010, h2_{= .04.}

Participants who indicated to be low involved had a less positive attitude towards the advertisement (M = 4.72, SD = .96) than participants who indicated to be high involved (M = 5.10, SD = .97).

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15 p = .905, h2_{= .00. Participants in the narrative condition who had indicated to be}

environmentally low involved had a mean score of 4.99 (SD = .75). Then, participants in the narrative condition who had indicated to be environmentally high involved had a mean score of 5.39 (SD = .92). Next, participants in the non-narrative condition who had indicated to be environmentally low involved had a mean score of 4.44 (SD = 1.08). Lastly, participants in the non-narrative condition who had indicated to be environmentally high involved had a mean score of 4.80 (SD = .94). This means that H2a is not supported.

Figure 2. Interaction effect of type of text and environmental involvement on attitude towards the advertisement.

Purchase intention

A separate two-way analysis of variance has been conducted to test the interaction effect whether exposure to green advertisements with storytelling leads to a higher level of purchase intention than to green advertisements without storytelling (H1b), and whether this effect would be stronger for people who are environmentally low involved than for people who are environmentally high involved (H2b). The results showed that participants who were exposed to the advertisements with the narrative texts had a marginal significant higher level of purchase intention (M = 4.87, SD = .99), than participants who were exposed to the advertisements with the non-narrative texts (M = 4.58 , SD = 1.17), F(1, 157) = 3.12, p = .079, h2_{= .02.}

Subsequently, H1b can only be slightly supported for the direct effect of storytelling on purchase intention. Exposure to green advertisements with storytelling leads to a higher

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Narrative texts Non-narrative texts

At tit ud e to wa rd s th e ad ve rt is em en t Low EI High EI

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16 level of purchase intention. However, it should be noticed that the size of this effect was very weak.

Furthermore, the results showed a significant but weak effect for environmental involvement on purchase intention, F (1, 157) = 6.12, p = .014, h2_{= .04. Participants who}

indicated to be low involved had a lower level of purchase intention (M = 4.51, SD = 1.09) than participants who indicated to be high involved (M = 4.92, SD = 1.05).

Nonetheless, the results showed a non-significant interaction effect, F (1, 157) = .88, p = .349, h2_{= .00. Participants in the narrative condition who had indicated to be}

environmentally low involved had a mean score of 4.74 (SD = .92). Then, participants in the narrative condition who had indicated to be environmentally high involved had a mean score of 4.99 (SD = 1.03). Next, participants in the non-narrative condition who had indicated to be environmentally low involved had a mean score of 4.28 (SD = 1.21). Lastly, participants in the non-narrative condition who had indicated to be environmentally high involved had a mean score of 4.85 (SD = 1.07). Hence, the results do not support H2b.

Figure 3. Interaction effect of type of text and environmental involvement on purchase intention.

Conclusion and discussion

This study examined how storytelling in green advertisements affects attitude towards an advertisement and purchase intention. In addition, environmental involvement was

included to examine its influence on this effect. The outcomes emphasize that storytelling in green advertisements affects attitude towards an advertisement in a positive direction, confirming H1a. Regarding H1b, the study showed marginal significant outcomes of the

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Narrative texts Non-narrative texts

Pur cha se int ent ion Low EI High EI

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17 effect of storytelling on purchase intention. Next, the results showed significant effects of environmental involvement on attitude towards the advertisement and purchase intention. Nonetheless, the results showed non-significant interaction effects. The effect of storytelling in green advertisements on attitude towards the advertisement and purchase intention is not stronger for people who are environmentally low involved, compared to people who are environmentally high involved. Therefore, H2a and H2b are rejected.

The first aim of the study was to test whether storytelling in green advertisements can affect attitude towards an advertisement and purchase intention. Theories showed that

storytelling can overcome reactance or counterarguing (Moyer-Gusé, 2008; Moyer-Gusé & Nabi, 2010). Additionally, storytelling can enhance participants’ arousal (Fenger et al., 2015) in order to come to a more positive evaluation and feelings of sympathy and empathy towards an advertisement (Escalas, 2004). These processes might have played a role in the significant results of the effect of storytelling in green advertisements on attitude towards the

advertisement. Other theories showed that these processes might also lead to a higher level of purchase intention (Escalas & Stern, 2003; Fenger et al., 2015; Woodside, Sood & Miller, 2008). However, with regard to purchase intention, only marginal significant results were found. A possible explanation might be that participants’ general buying behavior, that has been tested as a control variable, was relatively low. On reflection, the use of other products in the advertisements may have been beneficial to measure purchase intention in a more appropriate way. In the current study, only food products were used. These might have been influenced by personal preferences. Products that are used by everyone, such as detergent or laundry detergent might have been more suitable. These products appeared representative and effective (Kong & Zhang, 2013; Matthes, Wonneberger & Schmuck, 2014).

The second aim of the study was to test whether the effect of storytelling on attitude towards an advertisement and purchase intention was stronger for people who are

environmentally low involved, compared to people who are environmentally high involved. However, no significant results were found for this interaction effect. According to the E-ELM (Slater & Rouner, 2002) and EORM (Moyer-Gusé & Nabi, 2010), issue involvement can be considered less important than engagement with a narrative. Therefore, participants who indicated to be environmentally low involved may have been affected by the narrative itself, despite the communicated values (Slater, 1997). However, the results from the current study showed no significant interaction effect. A possible explanation for the non-significant results is that the narratives as used in the advertisements were not complex enough.

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18

issue involvement irrelevant, participants’ narrative engagement has to be sufficient. To make people engage with a narrative, the story should contain, among other things, a plotline, interesting events and characters (Slater & Rouner, 2002). Coherent are the underlying processes of transportation and identification that play a role in engagement with a narrative. These might reinforce the explanation of the non-significant results. Firstly, the process of transportation depends on individual differences. Within the process of engaging with a narrative, several factors are relevant (Appel & Richter, 2010; Green & Brock, 2000; Murphy et al., 2013). For example, understanding of the narrative, attentional focus on the narrative, emotional engagement with the narrative and narrative presence are factors that mediate the eventual degree of narrative engagement (Busselle & Bilandzic, 2009). Secondly, also identification depends on personal characteristics. To make people identify with characters, there has to be some degree of perceived similarity with those characters (De Graaf et al., 2012; Slater & Rouner, 2002). Since the characters and their stories used in the narrative texts were rather remote from the participants’ own environment, there might have been a lack of perceived similarity. This might have hindered engaging with the narrative (De Graaf, 2014; De Graaf, Sanders & Hoeken, 2016; Moyer-Gusé, 2008).

Subsequently, these possible explanations brought up some limitations in this study. This experiment was conducted in participants’ own environment, so without the researcher’s control, which may have harmed the internal validity. Besides that, there were three concrete limitations and possible points of improvement for future research.

The first limitation is the fact that the texts in the advertisements may have been too short and too straightforward. Therefore, participants may have not been able to engage with the narrative sufficiently (Slater & Rouner, 2002). Compared to stimulus materials from previous research (Appel & Richter, 2010; Green & Brock, 2000), the texts in the current study were too simple to get engaged with, as they contained between 40 and 80 words. Longer and more complex texts, between 400 and 800 words (Appel & Richter, 2010), might lead to effective persuasiveness. Future research is needed to focus more on the complexity of the processes of storytelling (Slater & Rouner, 2002) and green marketing, regarding the role of environmental involvement (Charter et al., 2002; Fuentes, 2015; Peattie & Charter, 2003). Therefore, further research may analyze mediating effects of transportation and identification

(Busselle & Bilandzic, 2009; Green & Brock, 2000). By doing so, more insight might be gained into the relationship between storytelling and issue involvement and its effect on persuasiveness. Also, further research may consider conducting pre-tests to make sure the narratives are engaging sufficiently.

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19

The second limitation is the fact that the characters in the narrative texts were all males. This may have affected the process of identification for some participants. As most of the participants were females (69,6%), it might have been difficult for them to identify with the characters in the narrative texts. Because of this, narrative engagement might have been hindered. Previous research (De Graaf et al., 2012; Murphy et al., 2013) showed that

identification can be effective for narrative persuasion. Hence, future research should consider narrative characters that are in some way similar to the targeted participants. By doing so, participants might get the feeling of perceived similarity, which is beneficial for the narrative engagement.

The third limitation is the fact that the median split on the scale for environmental involvement was high, 5.75 on a seven-point scale. This indicates that also the participants in the ‘low’ division actually showed high environmental concern. There was lack of symmetric distribution. In this case, conducting a median split for environmental involvement might not have been appropriate to determine participants’ level of environmental involvement. Thus, future research should consider a more deliberate distribution, i.e. three groups: low, medium, high, when a factor has an asymmetric distribution (Grimmer & Wooley, 2014).

Notwithstanding the limitations, the study showed that storytelling in green

advertisements can increase attitude towards an advertisement and purchase intention in a positive direction. Theoretically, this study has shed some light on the combination of

storytelling and the field of green marketing. Therefore, it contributes to the practical field by giving a little direction in how to use storytelling in order to increase persuasiveness. Green marketing professionals may use storytelling in their advertisements to enhance consumers’ positive attitude towards the advertisement and a higher level of purchase intention. In addition, the study included the role of environmental involvement to obtain insight in its relationship with storytelling in green marketing and persuasiveness. However, this did not lead to significant findings. Nonetheless, the awareness of environmental issues will be increasing and consumers will be showing greater interest in these issues (Charter et al., 2002; Ottman, 2017). Therefore, the amount of possibilities to address consumers increases (Charter et al., 2002; Fuentes, 2015; Peattie & Charter, 2003). Hence, there is still a lot to discover. This makes the field of green marketing worthwhile for further investigation.

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20 References

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24 Appendices

Appendix 1 Set 1:

Avocado, narrative condition

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25 Set 2:

Cocoa/chocolate, narrative condition

Cocoa/chocolate, non-narrative condition

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26 Set 3:

Coffee, narrative condition

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27 Appendix 2

Questionnaire (retrieved from Qualtrics) Info:

Dear participants,

I would like to invite you to participate in a study to be conducted under the auspices of the Graduate School of Communication, a part of the University of Amsterdam. In this study, you will be looking at three advertisements of organic products and answer some questions about them. The survey starts with several questions about personal characteristics and ends with some demographic questions. This study will take approximately 5 minutes. We ask you to participate only if you are between 20 and 35 years old. As this research is being carried out under the responsibilities of the ASCoR, University of Amsterdam, we can

guarantee that: 1. Your anonymity will be safeguarded, and that your answers or data will not be passed on to third parties under any conditions, unless you first give your express

permission for this. 2. You can refuse to participate in the research or cut short your

participation without having to give a reason for doing so. 3. Participating in the research will not entail your being subjected to any appreciable risk or discomfort, and you will not be exposed to any explicitly offensive material. 4. No later than five months after the conclusion of the research, we will be able to provide you with a research report that explains the general results of the research. Should you have any complaints or comments about the course of the research and the procedures it involves as a consequence of your participation in this research, you can contact the designated member of the Ethics Committee representing ASCoR, at the following address: ASCoR Secretariat, Ethics Committee, University of Amsterdam, Postbus 15793, 1001 NG Amsterdam; 020‐525 3680; ascor‐secr‐fmg@uva.nl. Any complaints or comments will be treated in the strictest confidence. We hope that we have provided you with sufficient information. We would like to take this opportunity to thank you in advance for your assistance with this research, which we greatly appreciate. Kind regards, Anne Frinsel

Consent:

I hereby declare that I have been informed in a clear manner about the nature and method of the research, as described in introduction for this study and that I am between 20 and 35 years old. I agree, fully and voluntarily, to participate in this research study. With this, I retain the right to withdraw my consent, without having to give a reason for doing so. I am aware that I may halt my participation in the experiment at any time. If my research results are used in

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28 scientific publications or are made public in another way, this will be done such a way that my anonymity is completely safeguarded. My personal data will not be passed on to third parties without my express permission. If I wish to receive more information about the research, either now or in future, I can contact Anne Frinsel. Should I have any complaints about this research, I can contact the designated member of the Ethics Committee

representing the ASCoR, at the following address: ASCoR secretariat, Ethics Committee, University of Amsterdam, Postbus 15793, 1001 NG Amsterdam; 020‐525 3680; ascor‐secr‐ fmg@uva.nl. I understand the text presented above, I agree to participate in the research study, and I am between 20 and 35 years old.

o

Yes (the survey will continue) (1)

o

No (you will be directed to the end of the survey) (2) Environmental involvement:

Please indicate to what extent you agree with the following statements. Strongly disagree (1) Disagree (2) disagree (3) Somewhat Neither agree nor disagree (4) Somewhat

agree (5) Agree (6) agree (7) Strongly

I am concerned about the

environment (1)

o

The condition of the environment affects the quality

of my life (2)

o

I am willing to make sacrifices to protect the environment (3)

o

My actions have impact on the environment (4)

o

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29 Filler task, employment situation:

Please indicate which option describes your current employment situation best.

o

Employed full time (1)

o

Employed part time (2)

o

Unemployed looking for work (3)

o

Unemployed not looking for work (4)

o

Student (5)

o

Disabled (6)

o

Other: (7) ________________________________________________ Filler task, job motives:

Please rank your most important motives in your (future) job. (1 = most important, 7 = least important)

______ Flexibility (1) ______ Learning opportunities (2) ______ Work environment (3) ______ Salary (4) ______ Growth opportunities (5) ______ Stability (6) ______ Nearby home (7) Explanation stimuli:

You are now going to look at three advertisements of organic products. Please look at them carefully. After every advertisement, two questions will follow. You can click trough in your own tempo, but notice that you can not go back to the previous page.

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30 Condition 1, avocado, non-narrative:

Avocado, non-narrative, attitude towards the ad:

Please answer the following question about the advertisement you just saw. I found the ad:

1 (1) 2 (2) 3 (3) 4 (4) 5 (5) 6 (6) 7 (7) Bad

o

Good Unpleasant

o

Pleasant Unfavorable

o

Favorable Unconvincing

o

Convincing Incredible

o

Credible

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31 Avocado, non-narrative, purchase intention:

Please answer the following question about the product in the advertisement you just saw.

Extremely unlikely (1) Moderately unlikely (2) Slightly unlikely (3) Neither likely nor unlikely (4) Slightly likely (5) Moderately

likely (6) Extremely likely (7)

If you see these avocados in the supermarket, how likely are

you to buy them? (1)

o

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32 Coffee, non-narrative, attitude towards the ad:

1 (1) 2 (2) 3 (3) 4 (4) 5 (5) 6 (6) 7 (7) Bad

o

Good Unpleasant

o

Credible

Coffee, non-narrative, purchase intention:

Please answer the following question about the product in the advertisement you just saw. Extremely unlikely (1) Moderately unlikely (2) Slightly unlikely (3) Neither likely nor unlikely (4) Slightly likely (5) Moderately likely (6) Extremely likely (7)

If you see this coffee in the supermarket, how likely are you to buy it?

(1)

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33 Condition 1, cocoa/chocolate, non-narrative:

Cocoa/chocolate, non-narrative, attitude towards the ad:

1 (1) 2 (2) 3 (3) 4 (4) 5 (5) 6 (6) 7 (7) Bad

_o

Good Unpleasant

o

_o

o

Credible

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34 Cocoa/chocolate, non-narrative, purchase intention:

If you see chocolate made from this cocoa

in the supermarket, how likely are you to buy it? (1)

o

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35 Avocado, narrative, attitude towards the ad:

Avocado, narrative, purchase intention:

Please answer the following question about the product in the advertisement you just saw. Extremely unlikely (1) Moderately unlikely (2) Slightly unlikely (3) Neither likely nor unlikely (4) Slightly likely (5) Moderately

If you see these avocados in the supermarket, how likely are

you to buy them? (1)

o

1 (1) 2 (2) 3 (3) 4 (4) 5 (5) 6 (6) 7 (7) Bad

o

Good Unpleasant

o

Credible

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36 Condition 2, coffee, narrative:

Coffee, narrative, attitude towards the ad:

Please answer the following question about the advertisement you just saw. I found the ad:

1 (1) 2 (2) 3 (3) 4 (4) 5 (5) 6 (6) 7 (7) Bad

o

Good Unpleasant

_o

o

_o

o

Credible

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37 Coffee, narrative, purchase intention:

If you see this coffee in the supermarket, how likely are you to buy it?

(1)

o

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38 Cocoa/chocolate, narrative, attitude towards the ad:

1 (1) 2 (2) 3 (3) 4 (4) 5 (5) 6 (6) 7 (7) Bad

o

Good Unpleasant

o

Credible

Cocoa/chocolate, narrative, purchase intention:

Please answer the following question about the product in the advertisement you just saw. Extremely unlikely (1) Moderately unlikely (2) Slightly unlikely (3) Neither likely nor unlikely (4) Slightly likely (5) Moderately likely (6) Extremely likely (7) If you see chocolate made from this cocoa

in the supermarket, how likely are you to buy it? (1)

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39 Manipulation check:

Please indicate to what extent you agree with the following statement. Strongly disagree (1) Disagree (3) disagree (4) Somewhat Neither agree nor disagree (5) Somewhat

agree (6) Agree (7) agree (8) Strongly

The texts in the advertisements were written in a storylike

format (1)

o

Control variable, buy avocado: How often do you buy avocados?

o

Never (1)

o

Less than once a month (2)

o

1-2 times a month (3)

o

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40 Control variable, buy coffee:

How often do you buy coffee (beans or ground coffee)?

o

Never (1)

o

More than 8 times a month (7) Control variable, buy chocolate: How often do you buy chocolate?

o

Never (1)

o

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41 Demographics, age:

Please fill in your age in years.

________________________________________________________________

Demographics, gender: Please fill in your gender.

o

Male (1)

o

Female (2)

o

Other (3)

Demographics, education level:

Please fill in the highest level of education you have completed.

o

Less than high school (1)

o

High school graduate (2)

o

Practical degree (e.g. MBO) (3)

o

Degree of applied sciences (e.g. HBO) (4)

o

Bachelor's degree (e.g. BA, BS, BFA, BAS) (5)

o

Master's degree (e.g. MA, MS, MFA, MBA) (6)

o

Doctorate (e.g. PhD) (7)

o

Other: (8) ________________________________________________ Debriefing:

Thank you for participating in this study!

The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of stories on persuasion effects compared to factual texts. The influence of individual concern about the environment was investigated to test whether ads are more or less influential when environmental concern differs. As a participant, you were exposed to advertisements with either stories written in a first-person

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42 perspective or advertisements containing more factual texts. The advertisements and texts used in this experiment were created for the purpose of this research and do not represent true ads of the brands/products displayed. The information and names provided should not be considered genuine. All the data collected in this study remains confidential, and will not be shared with third parties. If you would like to know more about the study or have any question, feel free to contact me at annefrinsel@hotmail.com. If you want to leave any remarks, please feel free to write them down below.