Graduate School of Social Sciences MSc International Development Studies 2016-17
Title: Teachers as Technicians or Intellectuals?: Unpacking Concepts of the Quality Teacher in Kenya
Name: Alejandra Portillo-Taylor Email: alejandrapt13@gmail.com
Date: December 2nd, 2016 UvA ID: 11160136 Word Count: 20,296
Supervisor: Rosanne Tromp, MA Second Reader: Dr. Mieke Lopes Cardozo
“Perhaps then, instead of searching for the one right way, which always seems elusive, we need to embrace the probability of multiple routes to quality, to think outside our own
boundaries and specialties so we can collaboratively examine and document quality teaching as enacted in a wide variety of communities and contexts” (Goodwin, 2010, 30).
Abstract
My research seeks to better understand global education policy expectations concerning the quality teacher set forth by international organizations, how these expectations are reflected in Kenya education policy, and the subsequent influence this has on teacher agency. This research also recognizes that this entanglement is reciprocal and has implications for the potential of change. I do this by addressing the research question: how does Kenya education policy regarding the quality teacher reflect larger educational strategies promoted by international organizations and how is teacher agency shaped by such policy?
I utilized atlas.ti to analyze 15 teacher interviews as well as three Kenya education policy documents. My findings were threefold. The first is that global conceptualizations of the quality teacher outlined by international organizations are reflected in Kenya education policy. The quality teacher is one who (1) is trained and certified (2) has digital knowledge and (3) will equip students with the necessary skills to participate in a
globally competitive economy. Second, teachers in Laikipia County have their own ideas concerning the quality teacher which are not always in harmony with policy expectations. Finally, while such policy affects teacher agency, the relationship is reciprocal which presents the potential for change. The implications of this research are that there is agreement that quality teachers are important, however, the definition of quality is dependent on perspective. As this project lends voice to teachers’ daily realities it hopes to provide a platform from which to integrate teachers’ experiences into policy debate to create the most democratic and socially just policy possible.
Acknowledgements
This project would have never have been able to happen without the support and guidance of my supervisor, Rosanne Tromp. Rosanne was diligent in her feedback as well as patient and encouraging throughout the entire process.
I would like to thank my local supervisor, who I am unable to name. She is a brilliant, passionate and driven woman who I have great admiration for. She was a constant source of support and inspiration throughout the research process.
Many thanks go out to my fifteen interviewees. Each one brought their own voice and experiences to the table. Their insights served as a vital part of this project and I am so grateful to have been given the opportunity to meet and engage with them.
I would also like to extend a big thank you to my mother. While she may have been across the Atlantic during this process, she was still with me every step of the way. Her support and encouragement has made all the difference.
Table of Contents
Abstract...3
Acknowledgements...4
Table of Contents...5
Acronyms and Abbreviations...8
Chapter 1: Introduction...9
1.1 Problem Statement and Purpose...9
1.2 Relevance... 10
1.3 Thesis Overview... 11
Chapter 2: Theoretical Framework... 13
2.1 Chapter Introduction... 13
2.2 (Neoliberal) Globalization and Education Policy... 13
2.3 Knowledge Societies... 15
2.4 The Quality Teacher in Education Policy... 16
2.5 Teacher Agency... 20
2.6 Teachers as Transformative Intellectuals... 23
2.7 Chapter Conclusion... 24
Chapter 3: Research Design... 25
3.1 Chapter Introduction... 25
3.2 Ontology and Epistemology... 25
3.3 Research Methods... 27
3.3.1 Unit of Analysis... 27
3.3.2 Interview Details... 28
3.3.3 Sampling... 29
3.4 Data Analysis... 29
3.6 Ethics... 32
3.7 Chapter Conclusion... 33
Chapter 4: Context... 34
4.1 Chapter Introduction... 34
4.2 Kenya Country Context... 34
4.3 Kenya Education Context... 35
4.4 Kenya Education Policy Context... 37
4.5 Chapter Conclusion... 39
Chapter 5: Unpacking Policy Concerning the Quality Teacher... 40
5.1 Chapter Introduction... 40
5.2 Kenya Education Policy as a Reflection of Global Educational Trends... 40
5.3 The Quality Teacher in Kenya Education Policy... 42
5.4 Outcome Based Trends as an Assessment of Teacher Quality... 45
5.5 The Influence of Outcome Based Education on Teacher Agency... 46
5.6 Chapter Conclusion... 48
Chapter 6: Differing Conceptualizations of the Quality Teacher... 49
6.1 Chapter Introduction... 49
6.2. How Teachers Envision the Quality Teacher... 49
6.3 Comparing Teachers’ Views with Policy Constructions of the Quality Teacher... 51
6.4 Implications for Teacher Agency... 52
6.5 Chapter Conclusion... 55
Chapter 7: Quality Teachers as Transformative Intellectuals... 56
7.1 Chapter Introduction... 56
7.2 Comparing the Transformative Intellectual with Specialized Technician... 56
7.3 Quality Teachers as Transformative Intellectuals... 58
7.4 Implications for Teacher Agency... 59
7.4.2 Teacher Agency and Change... 60
7.5 Chapter Conclusion... 62
Chapter 8: Discussion and Concluding Remarks... 63
8.1 Main Findings... 63
8.2 Theoretical Conclusions... 64
8.3 Research and Policy Recommendations... 65
9. References... 67
10. Appendices... 70
10.1 Appendix A: Interview Questions... 70
10.2 Appendix B: Teacher Demographics... 71
10.3 Appendix C: Operationalization Table... 73
10.4 Appendix D: Conceptual Scheme... 74
10.5 Appendix E: Laikipia County Map... 75
Acronyms and Abbreviations
IMF - International Monetary Fund
KCPE - Kenya Certificate of Primary Education KCSE - Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education KIE - Kenya Institute of Education
KNEC - Kenya National Examinations Council MDGs - Millennium Development Goals
MoEST - Ministry of Education, Science and Technology
OECD - Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development SDGs - Sustainable Development Goals
TSC - Teachers Service Commission
UNESCO - United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNICEF - United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund
Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 Problem Statement and Purpose
The prioritizing of economic liberalization within neoliberal development approaches has led to education becoming, “...a means to invest in economic growth for nations as well as individuals” (Vongalis Macrow, 2007, 429). One such instance of this can be found through the example of Kenya. Following recommendations presented in the International Monetary Fund’s (IMF) publication of “Kenya: Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper” (2005) the national government of Kenya began constructing a comprehensive development plan. These efforts culminated in the creation of Vision 2030, a development plan for Kenya spanning from 2007 to 2030. Vision 2030’s main objective is to transform Kenya into a, “newly-industrializing, middle income country providing a high quality of life to all its citizens in a clean and secure environment” (Kenya Vision 2030, 2007, vii). One of the main avenues in which this objective is sought is through education because Vision 2030 views education as the vehicle with which to achieve national economic growth and competitiveness (Kenya Vision 2030, 2007).
Another objective outlined in Vision 2030 concerns that of the knowledge society. The conceptualization of the knowledge society has cemented its position at the forefront of globalized education policy put forth by international organizations. This has led to a re-territorialization of the teaching profession, with the notion of the quality teacher becoming a focal point within education policy across the globe (Moreno, 2005). There is now a desire among international organizations and national governments to recruit, train and retain quality teachers (Kenya Vision 2030, 2007; Moreno, 2005; OECD, 2005).
Additionally, “What is specific to educational change in the global era is the presence of international organizations, acting supranationally, framing globally oriented policy and strategizing ways to enhance the knowledge economy, through education” (Vongalis Macrow, 2007, 430). This particular point highlights the significant influence that international organizations have gained and that their promotion of the knowledge society spans across the globe. However, within the knowledge society teachers are
positioned as specialized technicians which is problematic because it largely disregards teacher intellect and experience (Giroux, 2003). This project challenges the
conceptualization of teachers as simply implementers of policy by arguing that they should be positioned as transformative intellectuals.
The purpose of this project is to gain insight into the entanglement of international as well as national policy expectations concerning the quality teacher within the
knowledge society, teachers’ envisioning of the quality teacher in Laikipia County, Kenya and the implications that these perspectives have for teacher agency. This entanglement contributes to current educational debates because the quality teacher has become a crucial element in education policy.
1.2 Relevance
This research is relevant for three primary reasons. First, it is relevant because presently international organizations such as the World Bank, OECD and UNESCO place strong emphasis on quality education and teaching (Moreno, 2005; OECD, 2005;
UNESCO 2005). This research will contribute to current debates concerning what a quality teacher should be and who decides what a quality teacher is. Additionally, it will contribute to debates concerning the current realities teachers face and what this
implicates for future education policy.
Second, this project explores the implications that knowledge societies have for teachers and education policy in an effort to contribute to existing debates surrounding these topics. Knowledge societies are pervasive in educational literature and research (Dale, 2005; Moreno, 2005; OECD, 2005; Robertson, 2005; Robertson, 2008; UNESCO, 2005). There is a global effort to achieve and sustain the knowledge society. As such, understanding the realities of how teachers fit into this structure provides insight into the successes and failures of the current state of the knowledge society.
Finally, this project is relevant because there is a tendency for education policy recommendations to, “suggest reforms that ignore the intelligence, judgment and experience that teachers might offer in such a debate” (Giroux, 2003, 46). This project draws from teacher interviews and aims to construct a narrative based upon the voices of
teachers in Laikipia County, Kenya in order to ensure that teachers’ experiences are recognized.
1.3 Thesis Overview
This thesis consists of eight chapters. The first is the current chapter in which I have introduced the purpose of my research and its relevance to larger educational
debates. The second chapter examines my theoretical framework. In this section I present five primary considerations (1) globalization and education policy, (2) knowledge
societies, (3) the quality teacher in education policy, (4) teacher agency and (5) envisioning teachers as transformative intellectuals. Together, these elements set the stage for exploring and reflecting upon the intermingling of global education policy expectations surrounding the quality teacher promoted by international organizations which are reflected in Kenya education policy. It also sets the stage to examine the subsequent influence such policies have on teacher agency while also recognizing that this entanglement is reciprocal and has implications for the potential of change.
The third chapter of this thesis covers my research design and the methods which I chose to utilize for the duration of this project. I also inform the reader of my
overarching research question and sub-questions which served as guiding elements throughout the course of my research. Taking a qualitative research approach, I explain why I decided on such an approach to data collection and analysis. I also acknowledge the limitations and biases of this project as well as the ethical issues that arose throughout my time in the field. Chapter four provides a contextual platform for viewing Kenya. It covers a basic country context and a brief history of Kenya education and its structure. It also sets the stage for viewing current Kenya education policy.
Chapter five provides an analysis of the quality teacher within Kenya education policy, positions such policy within global educational trends and examines the
implications such trends have for teacher agency. Chapter six presents how teachers in Laikipia County, Kenya envision the quality teacher. It then compares their visions to the image of the quality teacher in Kenya education policy and concludes with an
into the conceptualization of quality teachers as transformative intellectuals. It compares the notion of teacher as transformative intellectual with that of specialized technician. It also presents the implications this shift would have on teacher agency and the potential for change. Following the presentation of my findings I present the final chapter which serves to reiterate my research question and my findings. It also discusses my theoretical conclusions and presents recommendations for future research and policy.
Chapter 2: Theoretical Framework 2.1 Chapter Introduction
This chapter presents the theoretical platform that my research rests on. There are five main elements which comprise this framework. The first is the influence that
(neoliberal) globalization has had on education policies at the global level and how such influences have resulted in the molding of national education policies throughout the world. The second element is that of the knowledge society. This section defines the concept and provides a brief historical context of its rise in global educational discourse. The third section discusses the notion of the quality teacher which is painted within global and national education policies at present. The fourth section outlines my approach to teacher agency. The fifth section discusses the importance and implications of
positioning teachers as transformative intellectuals within today’s educational climate that emphasizes the knowledge society. Finally, the chapter will conclude with a brief recap of the main themes from which this project is based. These five themes were selected because they provide a lens from which to explore the entanglement of global education policy trends concerning the quality teacher, the placement of teachers within today’s knowledge society and the influences such an entanglement has on teacher agency.
2.2 (Neoliberal) Globalization and Education Policy
Globalization, which can be, “broadly defined as a constitutive process of increasing interdependence between people, territories and organizations in the
economic, political and cultural domains” (Verger, Novelli & Kosar Altinyelken, 2012, n.p.), has had a tremendous influence on all sectors and levels of society, including education (Burbules & Torres, 2000). The past few decades have marked an intermingling of the forces of globalization with neoliberal ideology in which the principles of deregulation, competitiveness and privatization have become hegemonic (Verger et al, 2012). Neoliberal discourse is crucial to acknowledge because it, “contains imperatives for all areas of social life” (Dale, 2005, 123).
In the past, education policies were typically created within national settings (Verger et al, 2012). However, as a result of the prioritization of diminishing state power, presently educational policies result from a, “combination of political forces, social structures, cultural traditions and economic processes entangled in a matrix of intersecting multi-level, multi-scalar (local, national, regional and global) sites and spaces” (Yeates, 2001 as cited in Verger et al, 2012, n.p.). As such, some of the primary actors involved in educational policy are international organizations who, while they do not have formal political power, are able to exercise their influence through strategies such as, “articulating and disseminating new norms, principles and beliefs by, for instance, spreading what they consider ‘good’ or ‘best’ practices in educational development” (Verger et al, 2012, n.p.).
Neoliberal principles have become embedded within the forces of globalization through a variety of projects and initiatives set in motion by international organizations. This has been done through global mechanisms of influence such as imposition,
harmonization, dissemination, standardization and installing interdependence (Verger et al, 2012). These mechanisms are being utilized in Kenya. For example, the approach of dissemination can be seen through the IMF’s 2005 publication of “Kenya: Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper”, which served as a catalyzing force for the creation of Vision 2030. Additionally, the approach of standardization is now within Kenya’s educational reform through such objectives as reconfiguring the country’s national examinations council to, “respond to global assessment trends” (Ministry of Education and Ministry of Higher Education, Science and Technology, 2012, 47).
In regard to the neoliberal platform of competitiveness, countries throughout the world have increasingly begun to work toward more globally market friendly strategies which would enable them to effectively and competitively participate within a global economy. “These beliefs have spread to the extent that most countries and regions in the world today aspire to become ‘knowledge economies’” (Verger et al, 2012, n.p.). This has placed education at the core of government economic approaches and strategies because it directly influences the transfer, production and reproduction of knowledge (Verger et al, 2012).
2.3 Knowledge Societies
Since the 1980s there has been a shift in power regarding state public sectors, including education (Robertson, 2005). In both the developed and developing worlds, the education sector has been, “radically transformed by new governance mechanisms that have prioritized the introduction of markets and new providers along with systems of accountability, efficiency and effectiveness, intended to enable national states to deliver on their national and global competitiveness strategies” (Robertson, 2005, 153). As such, non-state actors began to emerge within conversations surrounding education and
education policy because of the increased recognition that education is a crucial component in economic growth (Robertson, 2005).
It was in the mid-1990s that a shift in educational discourse occurred throughout the world with the promotion of the concept of knowledge societies (Robertson, 2008; UNESCO, 2005). A knowledge society is one that emphasizes the importance of human capital that is meant to produce functional and intellectual agents for the labor force which will help create new and innovative ideas that will enable society to continue to grow. It is here that one can see the continued complexity and entanglement of education and economy. “The knowledge economy ideal is often associated with an educational reform jargon based on the principles of quality, learning, accountability and standards” (Carney, 2009 as cited in Verger et al, 2012, n.p.). This particular point is reflected through such educational policy trends as outcome based education. How this trend has translated to the case of Kenya is discussed in greater detail in chapter five.
Presently, educational reform throughout the world is deeply informed by the platform of knowledge societies because such an ideation creates an unavoidable
intermingling of the economy and education’s role in ensuring the production of effective economic agents at the local, national and international levels. One of the reasons that the knowledge society is so durable is because of the way in which the concept has been framed and presented. Indeed, “…the idea of a ‘knowledge-based economy’ was promoted to eventually emerge as a powerful master economic narrative” (Robertson, 2008, 42). One of the reasons that this idea has been able to endure is due to the term
‘knowledge’ and the idea that such terminology appeals to both the progressive left and conservative right because, “who can be against knowledge” (Robertson, 2008, 42)? Thanks to the forces of globalization, the platform of the knowledge society has spread to both the developed and developing worlds. In the case of Kenya, the country’s development plan, Vision 2030, explicitly references its desire to become a knowledge economy, “wherein, the creation, adaption and use of knowledge will be among the most critical factors for rapid economic growth” (Kenya Vision 2030, 2007, 20). However, it cannot be ignored that, “…globalization has resulted in unintended and unexpected consequences for educational practice, such as the deterioration of education quality” (Carnoy et al, 2002 as cited in Verger et al, 2012, n.p.). This has led education actors to create and reform educational policy that prioritizes quality education. This notion of quality education, while seemingly straightforward, becomes rapidly complex when placed within education policy throughout the world. This is because contextual elements have different, albeit significant, influences on the concept and its implementation. One of the elements that is encompassed in the scheme of quality education is the idea of what comprises a quality teacher. Education policy not only provides insight into what constitutes a quality teacher, but it also creates a platform from which the notion of the quality teacher is framed within current educational discourse. For the past two decades the role of the teacher and the expectations that accompany the profession have shifted largely due to such introductions as the knowledge society to the educational sphere. As such, the striving to achieve a knowledge society, “registers a different role for teachers, for good and for bad” (Robertson, 2008, 54).
2.4 The Quality Teacher in Education Policy
Education and its policies have experienced shifting throughout the years at both the national and international levels. Perhaps the most notable, at present, is the
repositioning of education to aid states in increasing their global competitiveness (Verger et al, 2012) through the adoption of the ideal of the knowledge society. In this regard, Robertson notes that, “education in the knowledge economy will not be education as we have known it” (2005, 152). Along with such shifts in approaching education there has
also been a reshaping of teachers’ work. There has been a trend throughout the world for nations to ensure their students receive quality education. This point is substantiated in the case of Kenya through Vision 2030 which states that one of the challenges it plans to address is, “to ensure that the education provided meets high quality standards, and that its contents are relevant to the needs of the economy and society” (Kenya Vision 2030, 2007, 93).
The notion of quality education is accompanied by the ideal of the quality teacher. Presently, teachers are positioned within a paradox in that, “As the most significant and costly resource in schools, teachers are central to school improvement efforts” (OECD, 2005, 1). This places emphasis on the role of the quality teacher in the context of school advancement and improvement in today’s world. However, the paradox lies in the reality acknowledged by UNESCO that, “The teaching profession is less and less attractive to young graduates because it does not enjoy sufficient social status and is not well enough paid” (2005, 83). This particular point was reflected throughout the interviews I
conducted with teachers in Laikipia County. Interviewees cited the obstacles that arise as a result of teacher shortages. They also voiced their frustrations concerning insufficient and inconsistent salary rates as well as their perceived deterioration of society’s regard for them. As such, the present paradox of the teaching profession is that while teachers within a knowledge society are viewed as important agents in ensuring quality education, there has been a serious eroding of working conditions as well as an undermining of the profession (Robertson, 2008).
Regardless of the seemingly paradoxical forces at play, the notion of the quality teacher remains present and important within education policy debates (Moreno, 2005; UNESCO, 2005). Some of the most influential agents in framing the conceptualization of the quality teacher are international organizations who, as it has already been
acknowledged, have become entangled in the formation and promotion of education policy. In regard to the quality teacher, for example, the World Bank acknowledges that, “As we change and raise expectations for student learning, we place greater importance on the role of teachers and quality teaching” (Moreno, 2005, 41). This recognition of the importance of the role of the quality teacher provides a point of entry into larger national
and international discussions surrounding what it means to be a quality teacher and their role in promoting and sustaining knowledge societies.
The World Bank is not alone in its pronouncement that quality teachers are important as, “There is now substantial research that the quality of teachers and their teaching are the most important factors in student outcomes” (OECD, 2005, 9). Such research places the notion of the quality teacher at the forefront of educational policy considerations. At the most elementary level the quality teacher is now, “…seen as a guide, a person who accompanies the learning process, rather than an authority imposing codified knowledge that the learner must simply assimilate or absorb” (UNESCO, 2005, 82). However, as one delves deeper into reports published by such international bodies it becomes clear that there is much more to the quality teacher. For example, teachers are expected to construct a platform for their students in which competencies are cultivated that are, “critically indispensible for economic growth and prosperity, social well-being and individual development” (Moreno, 2005, 1). Again, one sees the inextricable link between the notion of the knowledge society and the placement of teachers within it. Additionally, “Teachers need to be capable of preparing students for a society and an economy in which they will be expected to be self-directed learners, able and motivated to keep learning over a lifetime” (OECD, 2005, 2). Such illustrations provide insight into the evolution of the teaching profession and expectations of the quality teacher.
However, there is also the acknowledgement that the criteria that are currently utilized to assess teacher quality may not always serve as a comprehensive reflection (OECD, 2005). For example, “The teacher characteristics that are harder to measure, but which can be vital to student learning include the ability to convey ideas in clear and convincing ways; to create effective learning environments for different types of students; to foster productive teacher-student relationships; to be enthusiastic and creative; and to work effectively with colleagues and parents” (OECD, 2005, 2). This recognizes that current assessments of teacher quality are not always adequate. The re-territorialization of teaching and subsequently, the quality teacher, is molded by global forces, a point that is acknowledged by such international players as the World Bank, “At the macro-level, what teachers should know and be able to do continue
to be country-specific, although it appears to be increasingly shaped by world trends” (Moreno, 2005, iv, italics in original). Here is a reiteration of the influence that
globalization and, at this particular point in history, neoliberal globalization, has had on educational policy on a global scale. However, translating the quality teacher from policy script to the classroom manifests itself in very different ways depending upon the context in which the policy is set. For example, “Although globalization presents common
features around the world, the effects of globalization in education policy are mediated by domestic history and politics, and by the complex interplay of global and local forces, among other contingencies” (Verger et al, 2012, n.p.). This acknowledgement of the importance of context is crucial because it provides insight into the reality that context is key when it comes to the implementation and ultimate success or failure of specific education policy.
One of the ways in which the quality teacher is coming to be defined is in terms of technological advances and innovations. For example, UNESCO (2005) presents one of the main imperatives of education in today’s world as the need to bridge the digital divide among countries, particularly those in the global South. The notion of the digital divide is framed in a particular fashion which highlights the link between knowledge and digital technologies, “…the digital divide helps widening an even more alarming divide - the knowledge divide, which adds up the cumulative effects of the various rifts observed in the main areas that make up knowledge and is the real challenge facing the building of knowledge societies” (UNESCO, 2005, 22, italics in original). While the implications of framing such discourse in this way are far reaching, the pertinent element of this issue is the impact it has on the teaching profession and the role it plays in constructing the idea of the quality teacher. This is because in order to even attempt to lessen such a digital divide what is needed are teachers who are knowledgeable in such topics. Indeed, “The magnitude of these challenges for education calls for trained teaching staff with updated knowledge about the latest technological, scientific and epistemological developments, both in their own subject area and in educational processes themselves” (UNESCO, 2005, 82, italics in original). This is only one of the countless ways in which the teaching profession is being redesigned and re-territorialized around the world.
Even with this redesigning of the profession, ideations of the quality teacher are still present and visible within educational reports and policy. For example, “Teachers are now expected to have much broader roles, taking into account the individual
development of children and young people, the management of learning processes in the classroom, the development of the entire school as a “learning community” and
connections with the local community and the wider world” (OECD, 2005, 3). Even with such shifts in the profession, the characteristics a quality teacher must embody and the objectives they must be able to accomplish are clear and continue to increase in complexity.
2.5 Teacher Agency
As was discussed at the start of this chapter, international organizations have come to play a pivotal role in the framing of educational policy around the world. Additionally, within such policy international organizations not only recognize the importance of quality teachers, they also present an image of what constitutes a quality teacher. In the age of the knowledge society, quality teachers are expected to adequately prepare their students to participate within a globally competitive economy and to equip students with the skills to become active and engaged economic agents. As such
expectations have led to a re-territorialization of the teaching profession, so too, have they impacted teacher agency which calls for the need to continue to explore teacher agency in a context in which change is the only constant.
The notion of agency finds itself entrenched within academia, spanning a host of disciplines. The current state of and clashes within the structure/agency debate have their roots in the Enlightenment (Emirbayer & Mische, 1998). However, despite differing approaches to agency, the conceptualization of the idea and its implications, specifically for teachers, is important to my research. This is because my research, in part, seeks to better understand the embedding of educational strategies set forth by international organizations within Kenya education policy and the subsequent influence this has on teacher agency. It also recognizes that this relationship is reciprocal and, as such, has implications for the potential of change.
My approach to agency throughout this project has stemmed from the work of Emirbayer and Mische who conceptualize agency as being, “analytically situated within the flow of time” (1998, 963). This approach provides a platform from which to explore the influences of educational policy on teacher agency in Laikipia County, Kenya. Perhaps the most appealing component of this presentation of agency is that it is a collection of three different temporal elements: iterational, projective and practical. These, respectively, encompass the past, future and present. This is an important characteristic of this approach because it recognizes the intermingling of time and its contexts which is necessary as, “…social actors are embedded within many such temporalities at once” (Emirbayer & Mische, 1998, 964). This culminates into what Emirbayer and Mische term the, “chordal triad of agency within which all three
dimensions resonate as separate but not always harmonious tones” as one dimension may dominate over the others depending on the circumstances (1998, 972). In this case, the definition of human agency is as follows:
“…the temporally constructed engagement by actors of different structural environments - the temporal-relational contexts of action - which, through the interplay of habit, imagination, and judgment, both reproduces and transforms those structures in
interactive response to the problems posed by changing historical situations” (Emirbayer & Mische, 1998, 970, italics in original).
What makes this approach so alluring is that it does not make the assumption that all three agential dimensions are equal, but acknowledges that one may be more dominate than the others depending on the context (Emirbayer & Mische, 1998). This is key
because it recognizes the vital importance of the context in which one is placed. In regard to this particular project I will focus on the projective dimension of agency because while my research presents the current state of educational policy in Kenya, it seeks to explore how teachers deal with such policies, their influences on teacher agency and the potential for change this creates for the future. The projective, or future, aspect of agency is,“…the imaginative generation by actors of possible future trajectories of action, in which received structures of thought and action may be creatively reconfigured in relation to actors’ hopes, fears, and desires for the future”
(Emirbayer & Mische, 1998, 971). This dimension acknowledges the reciprocal
relationship between structure and agency which translates to my research concerning the relationship between global trends in education policy involving the quality teacher that are reflected within Kenya education policy, and teacher agency.
Within the projective aspect of agency are differing implications for a range of research areas. One which is specifically addressed by Emirbayer and Mische (1998) is “framing processes” which is seen through such forces as social movements and
institutional reform. “In proposing new social ends as well as different means for arriving at them, actors draw upon - and sometimes extend, rearrange, and transform - the master frames extant in the broader political culture” (Emirbayer & Mische, 1998, 993). This can be applied to my research as teachers’ actions and utilization of their agency will most certainly influence the master frame within global education approaches. Whether such influence will result in the reproduction, redesign or transformation of educational policy and strategies cannot be certain. However, the projective dimension of agency aids in the, “focus upon how agentic processes give shape and direction to future possibilities” (Emirbayer & Mische, 1998, 984, italics in original). This is paramount because it recognizes the important influence agents can have on the structures in which they find themselves as well as provide a platform from which to envision the potential for change. Kenya, who gained independence from Britain in 1963, serves as an example of the effects of international organizations’ power over educational policy and strategies. Kenya education policy is a clear reflection of a global educational agenda. This is further examined in chapter four section three with a historical outline of Kenya
education policy beginning in 2003. One of the ways Kenya education policy reflects the educational priorities of international organizations is through its development plan, Vision 2030, which explicitly states that knowledge economies are, “the focal point and the engine of rapid economic growth. That is where Kenya wishes to position itself” (2007, 100). Further examination of the reflection of educational objectives and approaches of international organizations within Kenya education policy will be presented in chapter five.
2.6 Teachers as Transformative Intellectuals
With the conceptualization of the knowledge society establishing its position at the forefront of globalized education policy, the positionality of teachers becomes crucial to inspect and explore. In the knowledge society, teachers are all too often reduced to agents of implementation (Giroux, 2003). Indeed, neoliberal inspired approaches to education policy have led to, “…the de-skilling of teachers, the intensification of their work, and the loss of autonomy and respect” (Burbules & Torres, 2000, 71). Such policies largely ignore the idea that teachers are human beings with agency, which they have the ability to exercise in different ways depending upon the many contexts in which they find themselves. For example, “many recommendations that have emerged in the current debate across the world…ignore the role teachers play in preparing learners to be active and critical citizens” (Giroux, 2003, 46).
This placement of teachers within the knowledge society as specialized technicians is problematic as it largely disregards teacher intellect and experience (Giroux, 2003). Therefore, throughout my research I advocate for the positioning of teachers as “transformative intellectuals” (Giroux, 2003). In this case, teachers as
transformative intellectuals means they are those, “who combine scholarly reflection and practice in the service of educating students to be thoughtful, active citizens” (Giroux, 2003, 47). It is important for my research to position teachers as such because it
recognizes the idea that thinking is involved in human activity, including teaching, and therefore it becomes problematic to reduce teachers to technicians (Giroux, 2003). Indeed, “Recognizing teachers as engaged and public intellectuals means that educators should never be reduced to technicians just as education should never be reduced to training” (Giroux, 2003, 48). Additionally, my interviews with teachers yielded responses and ideas concerning the quality teacher which were in tandem with the positioning of teachers as transformative intellectuals.
Education policy envisions the school as a site for the sustaining of the conditions and ideals set forth by the parameters of the knowledge society. Positioning teachers as transformative intellectuals permits the conditions in which to envision schools as sites for, “maintaining and developing a critical democracy” (Giroux, 2003, 47). It also
recognizes the important aspect that schools serve as a legitimizing force for different forms of social life with teachers being the transmitters of such legitimization (Giroux, 2003). Giroux highlights that, “the teacher’s task is not to mold students, but to
encourage human agency, to provide the conditions for students to be self-determining and to struggle for a society that is both autonomous and democratic” (2003, 49). Teachers around the world are now in a unique position in which they have to reconcile their own experiences with what is expected of them by their administration, national government and international organizations.
2.7 Chapter Conclusion
This chapter has presented my theoretical framework which has served as a platform for my research in Laikipia County, Kenya. These theoretical considerations contribute to a comprehensive stage from which to investigate the relationships and influences of global education policy on the notion of the quality teacher, how this influences teachers as actors positioned within a knowledge society and teacher agency.
Chapter 3: Research Design 3.1 Chapter Introduction
This chapter examines the research design that I utilized both in the field and after. I took a qualitative approach to data collection and analysis in order to answer the following research question and sub-questions:
1. How does Kenya education policy regarding the quality teacher reflect larger
educational strategies promoted by international organizations and how is teacher agency shaped by such policy?
a. How is the notion of the quality teacher reflected in Kenya education policy and what are the implications for teacher agency?
b. How do teachers in Laikipia County envision the quality teacher, how does this compare with the construction of the quality teacher in Kenya education policy and what are the implications for teacher agency?
c. What are the implications of envisioning quality teachers as transformative intellectuals considering their position within a knowledge society and how does this influence teacher agency?
The subsequent sections will present my ontology and epistemology, research methods, data analysis, limitations and biases and finally ethical considerations. 3.2 Ontology and Epistemology
In regard to my ontological and epistemological approach I have chosen the avenue of critical realism (CR). An important cornerstone of CR is that ontology cannot be reduced to epistemology (Fletcher, 2016). In fact, “CR thoroughly de-couples and disambiguates ontology from epistemology, while making epistemology secondary to ontology, since knowledge of the world (in some domain) depends evidently on the nature of the world” (Hedlund-de Witt, 2012, 4).
CR incorporates elements of both constructivist and positivist approaches, however, CR finds it crucial to point out that, “despite the seeming opposition between constructivist and positivist perspectives, each reduces reality to human knowledge…” (Fletcher, 2016, 2). This reduction of reality to what humans “know” limits one in their ability to transform and adapt their understanding of the world around them. Fletcher (2016) outlines a way of practically implementing CR approaches to methodology citing it as a “flexible deductive” approach to research. As such, CR permits one to explore explanation and casual analysis which makes the approach useful for examining, “social problems and suggesting solutions for social change” (Fletcher, 2016, 2).
Another distinguishing characteristic of CR is that it views the world as being comprised of open systems, “in which any number of occurrences and events can overlap and interact and in which people can learn and change. As such, CR looks for tendencies, not laws” (Fletcher, 2016, 5). These tendencies are essentially the patterns that emerge from data. These are termed “demi-regularities” which are discovered through qualitative data coding (Fletcher, 2016). For example, in my research I utilized the program atlas.ti to aid in recognizing the demi-regularities within my own data.
CR’s approach to ontology and epistemology complements my research because it hinges on the emphasis that human knowledge is not objective or final. As such, it provides a platform to explore and examine existing theory and its relation to societal forces which, in turn, allow one to either support, reject or transform such theory in order to create the most accurate explanation of the reality in which one is positioned.
For the purpose of my research it is important to acknowledge that the teacher’s position within schools, communities and societies is in constant flux and has a variety of contexts. Indeed, understanding social phenomena such as teacher agency, “cannot be elicited through a deductive, positivist approach, because the social world is not closed like a laboratory but open to a complex array of influences which change…often in unexpected ways” (O’Mahoney & Vincent, 2014, 4).
Additionally, I chose the platform of CR because, “Critical realists seek to explain and critique social conditions” (Fletcher, 2016, 11). My research seeks to better
understand the intermingling of education policy expectations concerning the quality teacher, how teachers envision the quality teacher and the subsequent influence this has on teacher agency. This research also recognizes that this intermingling is reciprocal and has implications for the potential of change.
3.3 Research Methods
For the duration of my research in the field I utilized qualitative methods to procure answers to my research question and sub-questions. This was done mainly through semi-structured interviews that were comprised of eight open-ended questions. These questions can be found in appendix A.
I kept a daily journal documenting my thoughts and observations while researching. For example, after every interview I would write down my personal
observations and feelings. In one particular instance I witnessed a conversation between my gatekeeper and her husband, who is also a teacher. This was not part of any formal interview process, but they were discussing the best way to get me into schools to interview teachers without getting into trouble with the district education officer (DEO). This seemingly irrelevant conversation was actually quite enlightening as to the
knowledge teachers have concerning corrupt government officials and how they decide to navigate the very distinct “grey” areas in which they find themselves. As such, these field journal writings aided in creating a more complete picture of the context in which I found myself.
I also used the policy documents (1) A Policy Framework for Education and Training (2012) (2) Kenya Vision 2030 (2007) and (3) Vision 2030 Second Medium Term Plan (2013) as secondary sources in order to extract how such policy reflects the notion of the quality teacher.
3.3.1 Unit of Analysis
My unit of analysis is former, current and retired teachers. Of those teachers interviewed, two taught early education, ten taught at the primary level and three taught at the secondary level (refer to appendix B for a full demographic breakdown). Due to
issues of anonymity and safety for my gatekeeper, I am unable to mention the town that my research occurred in, but I am able to mention the county: Laikipia. I will cover this in more detail in the limitations and bias section of this chapter.
3.3.2 Interview Details
I interviewed a total of 15 respondents between the dates of July 1st, 2016 and July 29th, 2016. I was able to conduct a total of ten interviews, seven were one-on-one interviews and three were group interviews. All interviews were able to be conducted in English, as it is one of Kenya’s official languages. It should be acknowledged that there were certain interviews that may have proven to be more efficient had I had a translator, however, one of the best parts about being able to directly converse with a respondent is that it created a more personal connection. This was an important dynamic to the research process. This element outweighed any disadvantage to English not being the respondent’s first language, as all respondents had a decent grasp of English and were able to express themselves sufficiently even if it was not the most efficient approach.
Both interview approaches had their advantages and disadvantages. The individual interviews were advantageous because I was able to hear exactly what the teacher being interviewed wanted to say. However, at the same time, sometimes it took longer for the interviewee to get comfortable when the interview was conducted one-on-one. During the group interviews teachers were much more ready to speak up and were able to bounce ideas and concepts off of one another as they were forming their answers to my questions. My main concern with the group interviews was that teachers may not have portrayed their thoughts and beliefs as accurately as they would have if they were on their own.
Interviews were conducted in a variety of places. For example, all group
interviews and one individual interview took place at schools during the teachers’ break time. Three interviews occurred in local cafes and the remaining three interviews occurred in teachers’ homes. Interviews ranged from approximately nine minutes to approximately 48 minutes. For all but three individual interviews my gatekeeper was present. Her role was to gain permission from the head teacher for me to enter the school
to interview teachers. She rarely participated in the actual questioning unless there was an issue with language in which she would help to clarify what was meant.
3.3.3 Sampling
For this research project I used convenience sampling. Convenience sampling is a form of non-probability sampling in which those of the target population are easily accessible (Etikian, Abubakar Musa & Sunusi Alkassim, 2015). In the instance of my research, respondents were selected based on their connection to my gatekeeper, a former teacher in Laikipia County. Participants were either former colleagues or personal friends of my gatekeeper.
However, while convenience sampling is easy to conduct and commonly used, it does have its disadvantages that are important to acknowledge (Etikian et al, 2015). These disadvantages are namely that such sampling is likely to be biased and also introduces the potential issue of outliers in the data collected (Etikian et al, 2015). The particular biases that emerged in regard to this research will be discussed in greater detail later in this chapter.
3.4 Data Analysis
There were two main areas of analysis that occurred in my research. The first was in regard to my teacher interviews. For my data analysis concerning teacher interviews I recorded all interviews and then transcribed them using Microsoft Word. After
transcriptions were complete I imported them into the program atlas.ti which is designed for qualitative analysis. I created a code list of 53 codes to identify main themes
throughout the data.
As my research interest concerned how global and national policy paints the image of the quality teacher, how teachers envision the quality teacher and how these influence teacher agency I was sure to ask questions relating to what teachers considered the quality teacher to be. For example, a primary theme was that teachers had a very clear belief surrounding what it means to a quality teacher: that teachers should promote the holistic development of their students rather than just academic achievement. This
suggests a disconnect between teachers’ ideas surrounding the quality teacher and the image of the quality teacher which is presented within Kenya education policy. Atlas.ti served as an instrument to make sense of the demi-regularities being transmitted through the data.
The second main aspect of analysis had to do with Kenya education and
development policy documents. I analyzed a total of three documents: (1) Kenya Vision 2030 (2007), (2) A Policy Framework for Education and Training (2012), and (3) Vision 2030’s Second Medium Term Plan (2013). These policy documents served as the
platform from which I was able to place Kenya’s approach to education, curriculum and their reforms within a global context. I imported the documents into atlas.ti and coded them using a total of 28 codes. These codes covered themes pertaining to the quality teacher such as the mention of relevant educational content and technological
competencies. From analyzing these policy texts it became evident that Kenya’s current education system, as well as its proposed reforms, are a reflection of a larger global conversation regarding the quality teacher.
3.5 Limitations and Bias
This research project has three main limitations. The first is in regard to the duration of the research. I was able to spend a total of nine weeks in Kenya, with four of those weeks spent interviewing teachers. This is not enough time to acclimate to a community and gain its members’ complete trust. Had I been able to spend a longer amount of time in the field I believe that it would have altered my research significantly. To begin, had I been in the field longer I would have been able to spend more time in schools to observe the day-to-day workings of each school as well as teacher to teacher dynamics and teacher to student dynamics. I would have also been able to set up additional interviews which may have led to a more comprehensive analysis. For example, I could have included additional secondary level and early education teachers which would have provided a broader scope of the responses I received.
The second limitation is in regard to corruption at the local as well as national level in Kenya. In order to go into Kenya schools one is required to have a letter from the
county’s DEO. My gatekeeper, a former teacher of over ten years, accompanied me to acquire this letter. However, upon our arrival we were informed by the DEO that he would not grant me such a letter once he discovered that I wanted to interview teachers. He said he would only give me the letter if I went back to Nairobi, acquired signatures from two other officials, received a government stamp of approval and paid $300. Upon leaving the office empty handed, my gatekeeper was troubled by the encounter. She called her husband as well as some of her friends who worked in the district education office. Before long we discovered that the DEO was seeking a bribe. However, rather than pay him, my gatekeeper told me that she would be willing to set up visits at schools with head teachers that she knew personally as well as interviews with her teacher friends outside of school.
My gatekeeper had strong beliefs surrounding what education in Kenya should look like versus what it actually does look like. Indeed, she was a firm believer in the idea that the Kenya education system was not being run properly at the national level and that the government as well as the teacher unions were very much to blame. It stands to reason that those teachers who she introduced me to would most likely share similar beliefs because they were friends both inside and outside the school environment. The majority of the teachers I interviewed had negative things to report regarding the government and the Kenya education system.
It should be noted that my gatekeeper did make one request that I not use the name of the town in which this research occurred in my final thesis as she is a prominent community figure and, as such, risks professional and financial safety if the government discovered what she had done. Therefore, rather than refer to the specific town where I conducted my research I will instead refer to the county, Laikipia, which encompasses a range of towns and municipalities.
The third limitation is that I did not interview policy-makers. It is important to acknowledge that I did not do empirical research about the influence of international organizations on Kenya education policy, but rather, analyzed Kenya policy documents to ascertain whether they were reflective of certain trends in international education approaches. This presents limitations to my research because I was not able to hear
directly from the policy-makers. Additionally, the theoretical claim could be made that Kenya influenced international organizations regarding education policy. However, such a stance is beyond the scope of this particular project.
3.6 Ethics
According to Hesse-Biber (2016) ethics are a crucial consideration of the
structure of the research process. My research was conducted in an ethical manner and I ensured that ethics were placed at the forefront of my project. Perhaps my greatest source of help was my gatekeeper who served as the common connection between the
participants and myself. She provided me with the necessary contacts to conduct my interviews and served as my source of local understanding and sense making. During the research process if something unforeseen occurred I consulted with her to make sure that I proceeded with my interviewees’ best interests in mind.
One of my guiding principles was to “do no harm” throughout the duration of my research (Mikkelsen, 2005). One way I ensured this was by always acquiring verbal informed consent from my interviewees as well as making sure they were aware of the purpose and intent of my research project. My research subjects were also able to stop the interview at any time, as it was a voluntary process (Hesse-Biber, 2016). Though it should be noted that given the circumstances (i.e. the interviewees were personal friends of my gatekeeper) respondents may very well have felt obligated to participate. I did make it clear that while my research would be published in the University of Amsterdam database, it would not necessarily create change for those I interviewed in their daily experiences as teachers. I also ensured anonymity for all my participants by randomly assigning them a letter. This means that nowhere in the preliminary or final drafts are their real names used.
One of the most important aspects of ethical considerations is in regard to the position of the researcher. For example, “...when researchers encounter the ‘Other’ (those who are the research ‘participants’ or ‘subjects’) the relationship is affected in part by the researchers’ own economic, social and cultural background” (Sumner & Tribe, 2008, 42). My position as a researcher is imperative to acknowledge and understand prior to, during
and after my fieldwork. The most notable characteristics that influenced my position as a researcher are that I am a light-skinned middle class woman from a developed country. My race is an important factor in this research as the participants were exclusively Kenyan. My light skin set me apart from my research subjects and their communities. I was seen and treated differently due to my skin color. For example, it was assumed that I had a lot of money. These perceptions may very well have influenced how the research subjects thought of me and responded to my interview questions. For example, teachers’ perception that I was wealthy may have caused them to try to please me by telling me what they thought I wanted to hear.
Finally, the fact that I was a woman researching on my own in Kenya was itself a crucial component to consider. This is because women are seen and treated differently than men, especially light-skinned women who are often seen as wealthy. Throughout my research and the writing of this thesis, I have kept these ethical components in mind and made sure that I complied with such guidelines as doing no harm and reflecting upon my position as a researcher in the specific country context.
3.7 Chapter Conclusion
The purpose of this chapter was to provide a comprehensive description of my research design. This chapter presented five main points. First, I established my
ontological and epistemological approach to this project which is that of CR. Second, I presented my research methodology that I utilized throughout the research process. Third, I explained how I analyzed the data that I was able to gather from teacher interviews and Kenya policy documents. Fourth, I outlined the limitations and biases of this project. Finally, I acknowledged the ethical considerations which accompanied this research.
Chapter 4: Context 4.1 Chapter Introduction
The purpose of this contextual chapter is threefold. First, it provides a brief country context of Kenya. Second, it provides foundational knowledge of the history and structure of the East African nation’s education system. Finally, I present the context of Kenya education policy. In this final section I seek to place Kenya education policy, as a reflection of global educational ideations promoted by international organizations, within the larger frame of international development.
4.2 Kenya Country Context
Kenya is located in Eastern Africa where it shares its borders with Tanzania, Uganda, South Sudan, Ethiopia and Somalia. Kenya was a British colony from 1920 until 1963 and it was in 1964 that it finally became what it is today: the Republic of Kenya. Kenya has a population of 46.1 million and it is anticipated to continue to grow by one million a year (World Bank, 2016). As it stands, Kenya is considered to be a primary economic, communication and transportation center in the East African region (Kinuthia, 2009).
Kenya has experienced impressive economic shifts within the last decade. “The 2008 World Bank figures indicate that between 2005 - 2007 the economy grew from 5.5% to 6.5% after years of economic decline in the 1980s and 1990s” (Kenya - Data and Statistics, 2008 as cited in Kinuthia, 2009, n.p.). In 2007, the government introduced a national development plan called Vision 2030 which seeks to achieve the country middle-income status. It was in 2014 that Kenya was able to do so with an increase in size of the economy by 25.3% (Gundan, 2014). This accomplishment served as a national
encouragement in which Anne Waiguru, Minister for Devolution and Planning, remarked, “All that the new GDP estimates tells us is that the economy is worth more than we thought. This gives hope and drive that the policies put in place to realize the Vision 2030, of transforming the country into an industrialized middle income economy have kept us on course” (as cited in Gundan, 2014, n.p.).
As such, this makes Kenya 25th in GDP per capita in Africa (Gundan, 2014). However, according to Waiguru, “...an increase in GDP per capita does not necessarily mean that Kenyans will be better off nor does it imply that the existing social economic challenges have ceased to exist. Kenyans will be just as poor – or just as wealthy – as they were a year ago” (as cited in Gundan, 2014, n.p.). This is a crucial point to consider as the reality is that 46% of the country’s population live below the poverty line
(UNICEF, n.d.).
In the midst of a changing Kenya, education reform is also taking place. The purpose of this reform is to ensure that the education sector is in line with the Kenya constitution which was adopted in 2010 as well as Vision 2030. Details of the reform and a brief history of the Kenya education system will be covered in the following section. 4.3 Kenya Education Context
Prior to British colonial rule, indigenous knowledge was a cornerstone in the organization and transmission of knowledge in Kenya (Kinuthia, 2009). However, “when formal education was introduced in Kenya during the British colonial era, ideological conflicts arose because this was a western-style education, provided mainly by the missionaries with cooperation of the colonial government” (Bunyi, 1999; Ntarangwi, 2003; Strayer, 1973 as cited in Kinuthia, 2009, n.p.). After independence from the British in 1963, one of the first objectives for the new Kenyan government was to reform and adapt the country’s educational system, both structurally and curricularly. An education commission was formed to assess the formal education system with its main focus being to, “build a national identity and to unify the different ethnicities through subjects in school such as history and civics” (Kinuthia, 2009, n.p.). Kenya adopted a 7-4-2-3 educational structure, which echoed the British educational structure at the time (Kinuthia, 2009).
It was not until 1985 that the nation transitioned to an 8-4-4 system, which was reminiscent of the United States’ educational system. The 8-4-4 system is structured with eight years of basic education, four years of secondary education and finally four years of undergraduate study (Clark, 2015). In Kenya, basic education became free to all students
in 2003 with a 40% increase in school enrollment over a four-year period (Clark, 2015). However, issues of access and overcrowded classrooms remain, something which was reflected throughout the interviews I conducted in the field. Also, in 1985 the country adopted two primary examinations which are administered at the conclusion of a student’s primary education term and secondary education term. These are the Kenya Certificate of Primary Education (KCPE) and the Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE). These examinations remain in use today.
During the 1990s, Kenya introduced a host of educational reforms, however, the majority were not able to be effectively executed and consequently there was a
significant deterioration in the quality of education as well as an increase in the number of school aged children who were not enrolled in school (Kinuthia, 2009). However, with the United Nations’ introduction of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) in 2000 and the formation of a new Kenya government in 2003, there was a renewed effort to advance the country’s education system in order to align itself with the objectives outlined by the MDGs.
There are a host of organizations which comprise the organizational structure of the Kenya education management system. The Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (MoEST) is tasked with providing education to all Kenya citizens through such efforts as teacher employment, distribution of learning materials and the
implementation of education policies (Kinuthia, 2009). There is also the Kenya Institute of Education (KIE), who is responsible for research and curriculum development
(Kinuthia, 2009). KIE works closely with the Kenya National Examinations Council (KNEC) which is the, “examining body responsible for developing and assessing national exams at various levels of learning” (Kinuthia, 2009, n.p.). Finally, there is also the Teachers Service Commission (TSC). The duties of this organization are in the fields of teacher recruitment, human resources and the placement of government employed teachers (Kinuthia, 2009).
In 2010, government expenditures on education were 5.51% of the country’s GDP, down from 2006 when it was 7.05% (UNESCO, 2014). It should be acknowledged that, “Education in Kenya is directly influenced by government policies and is therefore
constantly changing according to socioeconomic and political trends” (Kinuthia, 2009, n.p.). This is exemplified through the embedding of the objectives outlined in Vision 2030 within educational policy in Kenya.
4.4 Kenya Education Policy Context
Kenya is in the midst of an education transformation. Since its independence from Britain, Kenya has, “sought to reform the education system inherited from the colonial government and to make it more responsive to the needs of independent Kenya” (Ministry of Education and Ministry of Higher Education, Science and Technology, 2012, 5). This transformation is a result of numerous elements, but perhaps one of the most notable is the country’s development plan: Vision 2030. Vision 2030 recognizes that, “the education and training of all Kenyans is fundamental to the success of the Vision” (Kenya Vision 2030, 2007, 93).
My point of entry into the current context of Kenya’s education policy begins in 2003 with Kenya’s publication of the “Economic Recovery Strategy for Wealth and Employment”. This was a document designed to aid the country in recovering from the previous decade of negative economic growth (Government of Kenya Ministry of
Planning and National Development, 2003). One of the ways in which the plan sought to better the state of the Kenya economy was through a marked improvement in the
country’s education system recognizing that, “education is a key determinant of earnings” (Government of Kenya Ministry of Planning and National Development, 2003, 31). One example of improving the economy through education can be seen through the strategy’s education objective of reforming the curriculum, “to make it relevant to the changing socio-economic environment so that the students can more easily fit into the labor market” (Government of Kenya Ministry of Planning and National Development, 2003, 32). This highlights the link between Kenya’s education system and larger economic objectives, as it states Kenya’s desire to get students into the labor market.
The “Economic Recovery Strategy for Wealth and Employment Creation” (2003) has been considered a success because the economy went from a growth rate of .6% in 2002 to a projected growth rate of 7% in 2007 (Kenya Vision 2030, 2007). Following this
